K category: Plastering works

Architectural orders. building entasis

The architectural complete order (Fig. 1, a) consists of three parts: a pedestal - the lower part, a column - the middle part and an entablature - the upper part. An incomplete order (Fig. 1, b) does not have a pedestal.

The pedestal also consists of three parts: the base, the body of the pedestal, or chair, and the cornice. The base is the lower part of the pedestal in the form of a high shelf or slab, on which shelves, rollers, jibs, etc. are located, depending on the order. The body of the pedestal (chair) is located on the base. At the top, the pedestal is topped with a cornice of simple or complex shape.

The column rests on a pedestal and supports an entablature. The column also consists of three parts: the base, the core (body) of the column itself and the capital. The base is the lower part, usually consisting of a thick slab (shelf), on which architectural pieces of the desired shape are located. The body of the column, ending with a capital, is installed on the base.

The core of a column is usually cylindrical, starting from the base to 1/3 of the height, and at the remaining 2/3 of the height it gradually becomes conical with slight thinning, but not in a straight line, but along a smooth curve called entasis. Sometimes columns become thinner not only at the top, but also at the bottom, i.e. have double thinning. For such columns, the greatest thickness is located 1/3 of the distance from the bottom of the column.

The entablature is located above the column and consists of three parts: the architrave, frieze and cornice (crowning).

The proportions of the complete order are as follows: if the height is divided into 19 equal parts, then the height of the pedestal will be four parts, the columns - 12 parts and the entablature - three parts. An incomplete order is divided into five parts: four parts - a column, one part - an entablature.

Depending on the form, architectural orders are distinguished: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. The scale of all parts of the order is the radius of the column at its lower base. This radius is called a module and is designated by the letter M. In the Tuscan and Doric orders, the module is divided into 12 parts, and in the Ionic and Corinthian orders - into 18. These parts are called desks and are designated by the letter P. The cores of the columns of all orders are round.

The Tuscan order (Fig. 2, a) has massive parts.

Column smooth

Rice. 1. Full (a) and incomplete (b) orders

Rice. 2. Tuscan (a) and Doric (b) orders

Rice. 3. Ionic order

On the smooth frieze there are triglyphs - three even stripes separated by triangular notches. The depressions between triglyphs are called metopes. They can be smooth or with images made from various materials. Decorations in the form of cloves, crackers or modules are made under the cornice. Such orders are either completely executed by plasterers, or triglyphs, crackers and modulons, and sometimes capitals are executed by sculptors.

The Ionic order (Fig. 3) also has a column tapering upward. In height it is equal to 9 diameters, or 18 modules. There are 24 flutes running along the trunk, deeper than those of a Doric column. They are separated by paths or ribbons. At the bottom, the flutes are cut at a right angle, and at the top as a semicircle. The capital is complex with scrolls or volutes and ions. The entablature of the order consists of a smooth architrave with three horizontal ledges. There is a shelf above the upper ledge, and below it there is a relief ornament. The frieze can be smooth or with relief images. The cornice is smooth and only under the shelf there are crackers with beads. The capital and all the ornamentation are done by sculptors, the rest by plasterers.

The Corinthian order (Fig. 4) has a complex capital and pedestal. The column rod is equal to 10 diameters, or 20 modules. There are 24 flutes running along the column, separated by paths that end in semicircles at the top and bottom. The capital consists of 16 volutes supported by two rows of acanthus leaves. The entablature has modules, which are located under the teardrop at some distance from each other. The frieze of the order is a smooth plane above which the ornament is located. The crowning cornice is similar to the Ionic one. All relief parts of the order are made by sculptors, the rest by plasterers.

Instead of round columns, square, even, or tapering columns are often installed. Such columns are made with or without a capital. Pilasters (half a column protruding from the wall) most often have a capital at the top. Pilasters are either smooth or fluted. Sometimes they make rusticated columns, i.e. with imitation stonework.

Depending on the shape and finish, the columns are plastered, leveling the solution with a rule, a trowel or a trowel with entasis, or pulled out, especially if flutes run along the column trunk.

Building entasis. There is a column with a radius (module) of the lower base of 360 mm. The module of the Tuscan and Doric orders is equal to 12 desks (the desk is 30 mm), and the module of the Ionic and Corinthian orders is 18 desks (the desk is 20 mm). The lower diameter for all orders is equal to two modules. The columns of the Tuscan and Doric orders have a height of 14 and 16 modules. The upper diameter is equal to 1 module 8 desks, the thinning for the entire length of the column is 120 mm, for the radius or half of the column - 60 mm.

For a column of the Ionic and Corinthian orders with a height of 18 and 20 modules, the upper diameter is 1 module 12 desks, the thinning on the upper diameter for the entire column is 140 mm, for the radius or half of the column - 70 mm. Knowing this data, we begin to build entasis.

On a wide board, draw a column to scale and draw its axis in the center (Fig. 5, a). On one third of the column, i.e. where thinning begins, arc AB is drawn with the lower radius of the column from the center O. Then, from points B and D, which determine the upper diameter of the column, draw lines until they intersect with arc AB, where they form points marked with the number 7. Dividing A1 and 1B into an arbitrary number of identical parts, in this case four (1, 2, 3, 4), divide the remaining 2/3 of the columns into the same number of parts and draw horizontal lines perpendicular to the axis along the division points.

Rice. 5. Corinthian order

To make the rule-pattern, take a planed board. It should be 50-100 mm wider than the thinning for the entire column. The length of the board is equal to 2/3 of the height of the column. A piece of plywood is nailed to one end of the board, after which the difference between the radii of the lower and upper parts of the column (in the case being disassembled, 60 mm) is measured on the board from the evenly planed edge and a line is drawn parallel to the edge of the board. The point of intersection of the lines is marked with the letter A. The legs of the compass are moved apart to the size of the desired radius (in this case 360 ​​mm), one leg is placed at point A, and the other on the plywood (nailed on the other side of the board) and an arc is drawn.

Rice. 6. Construction of entasis and production of a rule-pattern in two ways (a, b) for a column with a 360 mm module

Rice. 7. Hanging columns even (a) and with entasis (b)

This arc is divided into an arbitrary number of identical parts. Divide the length of the board into the same number of parts, draw all the necessary lines, find the points and connect them with a curved line. Then the plywood is removed, the unnecessary part of the board is selected or cut out, and the edge of the remaining pattern is cleaned. Sometimes the edge is bound with steel.

The rule can be made in another way (Fig. 6, b). Plane a square cross-section of non-knotted wood with a length equal to the height of the column. Then they take a board equal to the height of the column, draw a straight line on it for the entire length and measure point B from above this line at a distance equal to the thinning of the column by its radius. For example, the column is thinned by 120 mm, which means a radius of 60 mm. A straight line on the board is divided into three parts. One lower part is straight, and two thirds are tapered.

The lath is nailed to the bottom straight line with two or three nails, and then the remaining 2/3 of the lath is bent to point B and nailed. The curve formed by the curved lath is entasis. A line is drawn with a pencil along this strip on the board. The lath is removed, a cut is made along a curve, it is cleaned and a rule-pattern is obtained.

- Architectural orders. building entasis

An integral part of the art of city planning or “frozen music”, as architecture is often called, the word comes from the Latin expression “ordo”, which means “order, order”. This is an orderly, perfected post-beam structure based on strict calculations and rules.

The emergence of the Tuscan order as an architectural form

From the times of ancient Mediterranean civilizations to the present day, there are 5 architectural orders. There were later attempts to create the French and American orders, but they failed to become on par with the classical five, whose representatives differ from each other in size and proportions, artistic interpretation of elements, and place of origin. Along with Hellas, Ancient Etruria (modern Tuscany) existed. Hence the name - Tuscan order, but sometimes it is also called Etruscan. It is believed that she gave the world three architectural types - Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, and later two more arose - Tuscan, or simple, and complex, which appeared in Ancient Rome. Other researchers, such as the ancient Roman architect and mechanic Vitruvius, argue that the Tuscan order is an older, or archaic, form of Doric column. In any case, their relationship is evidenced by a certain similarity in the designs and layouts of the temples; both are distinguished by their stability. The second name itself - “simple” - suggests that the Tuscan order stands out from all others for its simplicity and reliability.

Order proportions and ratios

What is an order anyway? This is a complex consisting of a pedestal, a column, load-bearing parts and an entablature - the supporting part. All five orders are characterized by this structure, in each of which all parts are commensurate with each other. In addition, there is a division into complete and incomplete orders, in which the total height of the architectural structure consists of 19 architectural fragments in the first case and five in the second. They are distributed as follows:

The pedestal gets 4 parts of the total length;

The column gets 12 parts;

The entablature, accordingly, has three parts.

As for the incomplete version, in which there is no pedestal, the distribution is four and one part. The components of the entablature itself, which includes three parts: an architrave, a frieze and a cornice, are also interesting. The Tuscan order also differs from its counterparts in that its upper supporting structure lacks a frieze, a middle recessed part.

Construction Features

The apparent external simplicity of the full version is somewhat deceptive. This architectural form from the base to the attic contains 32 details. Such specific concepts as entasis or thinning, module, desk, are used to calculate the Tuscan order, the construction of which is substantiated in the work “On Architecture” by the above-mentioned Vitruvius. Both calculation and construction are comparatively simple, because all quantities used for this are multiples of each other. Thus, the module represents the radius of the base of the column, and its height has (in the Tuscan order) 7 diameters, each of which contains 24 desks. At 1/3 of the height, the cylindrical body of the column takes on a conical shape. This is called entasis.

The significance of ancient orders in the architecture of subsequent times

All ancient Greek and Roman orders were widely used in ancient architecture. They were used to decorate the facades of temples and government buildings, and with their help rotundas and open galleries were erected. Actually, only by them can one judge the architecture and decorative art of antiquity. Then, for a long time, interest in them was lost and began to appear again in the 15th century, during the Renaissance. Baroque and classicism did not remain indifferent to these architectural forms. In a word, interest in them began to fade only towards the end of the 19th century. The Tuscan order occupied a prominent place in Russian Empire architecture. Many Orthodox churches were decorated with columns. A prominent representative of the Empire style in Russia was Carl Rossi. And on the street named after him in St. Petersburg, on the facades of other buildings in Moscow, there are architectural elements from the times of Ancient Greece and Rome. They, according to established tradition, symbolize the greatness of spirit and military glory of the nation.

Of all the Roman orders, Tuscan is the simplest in decoration and the heaviest in proportions. The thickness of the column, or the diameter of its lower base, is x h height. The lower third of the column core is a cylinder, and above it it becomes thinner, and this thinning is more sensitive here than in other orders; the upper diameter is Vs part smaller than the lower one. Drawing the thinning rod of the column is done as indicated above, and the rod of the column ends at the top with an astragalus. The column has a base at the bottom and a capital at the top. The height of the base is 1 module; it consists of two clearly defined and equal in height parts. The lower part consists of plinths that are square in plan, the upper part consists of a shaft that is round in plan; The transition from the column rod to the base shaft is a shelf that plays a secondary role, made of the same material as the column rod, and therefore the transition from this shelf to the column rod is made using a fillet. On the table III, the proportions of the constituent parts of the base and the method of their outline are indicated.

The capital, 1 module high, consists of three parts of the same height (Pl. IV). The first part from below, the neck, is a continuation of the core of the column, the second part is occupied by a quarter shaft with a shelf of secondary importance, and the upper part of the capital?* is an abacus (piece stone), which, as stated above, ends at the top with a small secondary profile, in In this case, only a shelf, with a transition to it through a fillet.

In the tables below, the base and capital are shown not only in the facade, but also in section and plan. On the base plan, the first shaded circle depicts a cross-section of the column rod, the next, concentric circle corresponds to the shelf, then there is a top view of the shaft and, finally, a square plinth; the second square on the plan, the largest, marks the cornice of the pedestal (view from above) on which the column stands.

The plan of the capital is depicted as if the horizontal plane of the section passed through the neck; everything that was below this plane is discarded, and only what is above this plane is left, and it is assumed that the viewer is looking at what remains from the bottom up. Thus, on the plan, in addition to the cut round rod, you can see the shelf, the quarter shaft and the abacus of the capital with a protruding shelf.

The entablature consists of three parts: the architrave, frieze and cornice. Aochitrav is a smooth stone, 1 module high, ending at the top with a rather large shelf, according to the rule stated above about piece stones; this shelf is a secondary part.

Since all architraves always end at the top with some kind of profile, at least a simple shelf, we consider it useful to find out the need for such a device. If the architrave did not have this profile, then its plane would merge with the plane of the frieze. On the other hand, the slightest damage to the edge of stones in contact with each other (architrave and frieze) will be very noticeable, since the seam between these stones will be indicated by a dark line, expanding in places where the edge is damaged. Thanks to the shelf protruding from the architrave, this seam is hidden from the eyes of the viewer from below, and damage inevitable during the work becomes invisible. Even if we assume that the upper edge of the shelf is accidentally chipped somewhere, this will not be particularly noticeable, since this edge is brightly lit. The frieze in this order remains completely smooth, and the cornice is the simplest example of cornices in general. Having divided the height of the cornice into three equal parts, let us turn first of all to the most essential part of the cornices - the teardrop.

This piece stone is decorated at the top with an astragalus, and at the bottom it has a notch, which is an indispensable accessory of every teardropper. But at the same time, it is worth noting that the Tuscan teardrop is processed more difficult than the teardrops of all other orders. This is not noticeable on the facade, and therefore you need to pay attention to the cut. On the lower surface of the teardrop there is a recess outlined by a circle and a vertical line, and immediately next to this recess there is a slightly protruding strip, limited on the outer side by a very small circle, ^ on the inner side - also a vertical line. Considering the meaning of the various elements of the profiles, we indicated that for the supporting part the most suitable profile is the heel; in the Tuscan order, this particular form constitutes the supporting part. We also pointed out that the most elementary and natural form of the crowning part of the gutter is the quarter shaft. In this case, this particular form is used for the crowning part.

The entablature of the Tuscan order is shown in section and in plan, and the plan gives a view of the entablature from bottom to top. In the future, we will not call this type a plan, since for a horizontal section viewed from the bottom up, there is another special term - soffit or ceiling.

The pedestal has a base at the bottom and a cornice at the top. The main form of the pedestal base is a plinth, above which a secondary shelf element is placed, and the main form of the pedestal cornice is a heel, above which a small shelf is also placed. Both the base and the pedestal cornice are 7g modules high.

If the Tuscan order is used in an arcade or portico, then a small protrusion is made at the bottom of the piers or pylons, playing the role of a plinth, which looks like a plinth, identical to the base plinth of the pedestal.

The archivolt and impost have the same width (1 module) and the same profiles, consisting of two straight parts of different widths, of which the main one ends with a shelf with a transition to it by means of a fillet. If, according to known data or according to the dimensions recommended by Vignola, a Tuscan portico is built without a pedestal, it will be impossible, due to lack of space, to frame the arch with an archivolt 1 module wide; in this case, the archivolt is not made at all, and instead of the impost, a simple stone-belt, 1 module wide, barely protruding from the wall, is placed, without any finishing with profiles.

Although when drawing Tuscan details you can limit yourself to dimensions that do not require dividing the module into small parts, it must be said that Vignola divides the Tuscan module into 12 desks and gives in desks the dimensions of all the smallest profiles that make up the order. However, you can build Tuscan details without using desks.

All orders drawn according to the simple and natural dimensions that we present in this book are almost no different from Vignola’s samples: if sometimes there is a difference in the sizes of the main parts, it is only a very insignificant one, expressed in fractional parts of the desks. But in the Tuscan order this difference is expressed somewhat more noticeably in the size of the cornice. According to our data, the three parts of the Tuscan cornice are the same in height, while in Vignola the teardrop is much wider due to the supporting and crowning parts. Therefore, if we want to get closer to Vignola’s samples, we can make a Tuscan order teardrop slightly (by eye) wider than the dimensions obtained in our construction. However, artistic criticism considers that the teardropper is too heavy to be one of the shortcomings of Vignola’s Tuscan order. By departing from Vignola's dimensions, we thereby correct this shortcoming.

Tuscan order, one of the five Roman architectural orders. The name is associated with Etruscan (Tuscan) architecture. It is not present in the Greek system of orders, although it is similar to the Greek Doric order, which is simpler in detail, with which it is similar in shape and proportions.

The frieze of the Tuscan order is devoid of triglyphs and metopes. There are no mutulas under the eaves extension slab.

The column trunks, which are thicker than Doric ones, are smooth and without flutes. Extremely simple bases consist only of a plinth and a torus. The height of the column usually corresponded to its seven lower diameters.

The rules for constructing an order are set out by Vitruvius in his treatise On Architecture, 1st century. BC. Externally, the buildings of the Tuscan order looked durable and impressive, therefore they symbolized physical power and strength and were used mainly in economic and military buildings, usually on the first floors.

4.Forms of temples of Ancient Greece

In Ancient Greece, a strictly ordered plan of the temple developed according to the rules of orders. The most common type of temple is the peripterus, in which columns are located along the entire perimeter of the structure. Most often there are six of them on the main facade. Such temples are called hexastyle peripters.

The cella of the temple is divided into three rooms: the front one, which serves as the vestibule - pronaos; the central, most extensive - naos (or cella, the sanctuary itself) and the opisthodome - for storing gifts - with an entrance from the rear facade.

The most complex type of temple building is the diptera, which includes two rows of columns surrounding the temple.

The order system, justified structurally and architecturally, turned out to be stable and was used without significant changes by builders of subsequent times. It changed only in relation to proportions and in the drawing of details.

The generally understandable figurative division of orders into load-bearing and non-carrying parts, connected by a system of expressive breaks, made the order system by the middle of the 5th century. BC e. flexible artistic language of classical architecture. Instead of the impressive, but somewhat monotonous, harsh power of monumental temples of the Archaic era, the structures acquired greater variety. In practice, architects constantly took advantage of the fact that the slightest change in the relationships between parts of the order made it possible to give it and the structure as a whole a variety of scale and character, an expression of mighty strength or light grace, etc.

4.1 Doric temples

The large temples of the Doric style were characterized by the shape of the peripterus.

The early buildings of the Doric style include the Temple of Hera in Olympia (late 7th - early 6th century BC). It had a cella strongly elongated from west to east, framed on all sides by relatively low columns, which created the impression of a single, squat building. The number of columns was: on the main facade - 6, on the side ones - 16. The columns were at first wooden and gradually, over the centuries, as they deteriorated, they were replaced by stone ones.

Within the cella (naos) there were two rows of columns, the latter being connected through one to the side walls enclosing the cella. This design arose as a result of the desire to further strengthen the load-bearing structure of the building when converting it to a new building material at that time - stone.

First half of the 6th century BC dates back to the temple of Hera (I) at Paestum. An odd number of columns, nine on the main facade of this building, and a tela divided by one row of columns along the axis of the structure are typically archaic features. The shape of the columns is peculiar: their upper diameter is much narrower than the lower one, the bulky capitals have an unusually large projection.

The well-preserved temple of Hera (II) at Paestum (late first quarter of the 5th century BC) is a large hexastyle (six-columned) peripterus built of rough limestone (6x14 columns).

The temple's outline in plan is already close to the monuments of classical times. Its proportions are harmonious, the details are distinguished by the richness and accuracy of the design. At the same time, the structure still contains archaic features (emphasized heaviness of the entire structure).

One of the highest achievements of Greek architecture is the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, built by the architect Libo between 468 and 456. BC e. The Doric peripter with 6X13 columns (their height is 10.5 m, the lower diameter is 2.25 m) is distinguished by extremely harmonious proportions. In the temple, complete aesthetic and visual balance was achieved between supporting and overlapping architectural elements. The details are sharpened with unusual perfection and are characterized by amazing fidelity to the design. The Temple of Zeus at Olympia is the highest achievement in the development of the Doric peripterus. The famous pediment sculptures are of particular interest in this truly classical building. Within the cella was a statue of Zeus by Phidias.

The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athena, is the most significant structure of Ancient Greece. It was the main temple of the ancient Greeks. The Parthenon is one of the most important buildings in the ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis.

The temple was built in 447-438 BC. under the leadership of two talented architects - Iktin and Kallikrates. But according to the testimony of someone who lived in BC. According to the ancient Greek historian Plutarch, during the construction of the Acropolis, the head and leader of all the artists was Phidias.”

The Parthenon is an octastyle (eight-column on short facades) peripterus built from Pentelic marble (dimensions along the upper step are 69.5 m long, 30.9 m wide, column height is 10.5 m).

The Parthenon stands on a three-stage pedestal - a stereobat. The pedestal is surrounded by three feet, each half a meter high. There are seventeen columns along the long side of the temple, and eight along the narrow side. The columns are located at a distance of 3 meters from each other.

The ancient Greeks believed that the temple building represented the house of the deity, and this required an enclosed room with the main cult statue in the center. The Parthenon is the temple of Athena the Virgin, and therefore in its center there was a chrysoelephantine (that is, made of ivory and gold plates on a wooden base) statue of the goddess made by Phidias.

The roof of the temple is equipped with triangle pediments, and in front of the entrance there is a light canopy (portico). Under the cornice of the Parthenon there is a bas-relief - a wide strip of sculptural images.

Tuscan order

Description. The Tuscan order is originally an Etruscan variant of the Greek Doric order. Borrowed later by the architects of ancient Rome, it took shape as an independent order, which differed from the Doric in heavier proportions, a smooth (without flutes) column trunk, a developed base and a higher capital. (Fig. 11, 12, 13)

Corinthian order

Description. Corymnthos Omder is one of the three Greek architectural orders. Represents a variant of the Ionic order, more saturated with decor. A characteristic feature of this order is a bell-shaped capital covered with stylized acanthus leaves. (Fig. 14, 15, 16) Vitruvius reports that this order was invented by the sculptor Callimachus in the 2nd half of the 5th century BC. e.

Composite order

Formed in ancient Roman architecture, which adopted Greek architectural forms. It is a slightly more complicated version of Corinthian. To the usual Corinthian capital, consisting of a bell with rows of acanthus leaves, are added the Ionic echinus and cushion with volutes, characteristic of the Ionic order. (Fig. 17, 18) The height of the composite column is usually equal to ten of its diameters at the base. But if in Ancient Greece the order played a constructive role, then in Rome it was often used for decorative purposes. The columns did not bear the load of multi-story structures, and the supporting functions were performed by the wall. A significant role in the architecture of Ancient Rome was played by the arch, which was supported by massive pillars or columns. Only in the arcades was the constructive role of the column preserved.

Bibliography

· Blavatsky V.D. Architecture of the Ancient World - M.: All-Union Academy of Architecture, 1939.