It is the first and largest cosmodrome in the world. The most famous cosmodrome in Russia: description, history and photos. How many spaceports in the world
The most famous cosmodrome in Russia is Baikonur. The largest number of launches of carrier rockets was made from it. At the moment, Russia is building a new Vostochny cosmodrome.
How many spaceports are there in the world?
Baikonur is the oldest cosmodrome in Russia and the entire planet. Moreover, it is also the largest. It was founded in 1955 on the territory of Kazakhstan. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the cosmodrome is leased by the Russian government from the Kazakh side. At the moment, the lease is concluded until 2050.
In total, there are 14 cosmodromes in the world from which launch vehicles were launched. The territory itself is a complex of structures designed to launch special vehicles into space. As a rule, they occupy huge areas and are located at a great distance from settlements. After all, the steps that separate during the flight can cause damage to residential buildings or neighboring launch sites.
Scientists have long noticed that the most advantageous location of cosmodromes is right at the equator. Thus, a booster rocket saves about 10% of fuel compared to a rocket that is launched from mid-latitudes.
In addition to Russia, spaceports from which launch vehicles have already been launched exist in the United States, French Guiana, China, India, Japan, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and Iran. The international launch platform "Odyssey", located in the Pacific Ocean, also operates.
No. 1 - Baikonur
The construction of the largest cosmodrome in Russia began in 1955. Initially, a special commission was created, which determined the place where this structure will appear. This area had to meet several conditions. They chose a vast, but at the same time sparsely populated area, there was to be a main railway nearby. Also, prerequisites are the availability of drinking and process water in large volumes.
Several options were considered. As a result, the choice was stopped at the Kyzylorda region on the territory of the Kazakh SSR. The cosmodrome began to be built in the desert, not far from the Aral Sea, the Syrdarya rivers and the Moscow-Tashkent railway line. Another advantage is the sunny weather, which lasts about 300 days a year in these places. In addition, the desert is relatively close to the equator.
The construction of the cosmodrome was supervised by Georgy Shubnikov, Major General of the Engineering Service. Interestingly, in order to disorient a potential enemy, in addition to the main cosmodrome, several camouflage structures were built. This is a false cosmodrome in the Karaganda region. It is located near the village of Baikonur. After the successful space flight of the first man, Yuri Gagarin, it was the name Baikonur that stuck in the minds of people. As a result, the real cosmodrome located elsewhere is now called so.
Object history
The first rocket was launched from the territory of Baikonur in 1957. True, unsuccessful. On August 21, for the first time, a rocket successfully delivered a conditional cargo from Baikonur to Kamchatka.
At 22.28 on October 4, 1957, the space age began. The Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite from Baikonur. And at 09.07 the first man went on a space flight from here for the first time.
A large-scale infrastructure has been organized at Baikonur. The cosmodrome has 9 launch complexes and 15 launchers. There are two airfields at once, more than a thousand kilometers of highways, thousands of kilometers of communication lines and power transmission lines.
No. 2 - Vostochny cosmodrome
In 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a decree to start construction of a new facility. The construction of the Vostochny cosmodrome in Russia began in 2012.
It must provide the country with independent access to space. In addition, it must guarantee the fulfillment of all obligations under commercial and international space programs, and will also significantly reduce the cost of maintaining Baikonur. Ultimately, the socio-economic situation in the Amur Region, where construction is underway, will improve.
The territory on which the Vostochny cosmodrome is being built has a number of advantages. Russia will be able to send rockets into space, bypassing densely populated regions of the country and the territories of foreign states. There are highways and railways, airfields nearby. With the emergence of a new cosmodrome, political risks associated with the location of Baikonur in Kazakhstan.
Corruption scandals
The construction of a new cosmodrome is regularly accompanied by scandals. More than 80 billion rubles were allocated for the first stage alone; in total, they plan to spend about 300 billion on construction.
At the same time, corruption scandals constantly occur. They began back in 2012, when workers who were not paid their wages began to strike at Vostochny. To solve this problem, Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin was sent there. In 2014, he became the chief construction coordinator. Since then, he has visited the site of the future cosmodrome more than fifty times.
Despite this, by the spring of 2015, wage arrears amounted to about 150 million rubles. The builders went on an indefinite hunger strike, which became one of the main topics of direct communication with Russian President Vladimir Putin.
At the moment, criminal cases have been initiated into the embezzlement of 7.5 billion rubles.
The fate of Baikonur
After it became known that a cosmodrome would appear on the territory of Russia, many were worried about the fate of Baikonur. President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev has officially acknowledged that the state budget will not be able to maintain the cosmodrome. For this reason, Astana will not insist on its transfer by Russia.
At the same time, it is obvious that, at least for the next few years, the Kazakh cosmodrome will remain the main launch site for heavy rockets. Even after the commissioning of Vostochny. Although it is planned that over time it will be the main cosmodrome of Russia.
For example, the Angara super-heavy rocket at the new cosmodrome is expected to be launched no earlier than 2026. Another disadvantage of the new launch site for space rockets is that it is located about 6 degrees north of Baikonur. But the closer the launch pad is to the equator, the lower the costs and the higher the efficiency.
Therefore, for sure, Russia will not leave Baikonur in the coming years. It will decline, except perhaps politicization in cooperation between Moscow and Astana, which is often based on the fact that the main Russian cosmodrome is located on foreign territory.
No. 3 - Plesetsk cosmodrome
Another famous Russian cosmodrome is located in Plesetsk. This cosmodrome provides support for Russian space programs that are related to defense functions, as well as scientific and commercial tasks.
It is located in the Arkhangelsk region, almost 200 kilometers from the regional center. The Plesetskaya Northern Railway is nearby.
The administrative and residential center of the cosmodrome is located in the city of Mirny. Its population is approximately 30,000.
The first launch of the carrier rocket from Plesetsk took place in 1966. After that, he served as a test site for strategic missile systems of intercontinental range.
Since 1968, international programs have been implemented. Other cosmodromes in Russia are also doing this work. Plesetsk, for example, hosted the French spacecraft.
Tragedies in Plesetsk
Many cosmodromes in Russia, the list of which you will find in this article, fell into the sad chronicle of accidents with human casualties. Plesetsk was no exception.
In 1973, 8 people died in the explosion of the Kosmos rocket. This happened during her refueling. Another 10 people were hospitalized. One of them died as a result of his burns without regaining consciousness.
In 1980, the largest tragedy occurred, which claimed the lives of 48 people. The explosion occurred again during refueling. This time the Vostok missile and its satellite were at the epicenter of the incident.
In 1987, a fire broke out in a nearby military unit. 5 people were killed.
In 2002, a few seconds after the launch, a Soyuz rocket exploded. There was one crew member on board.
The last tragedy happened in 2013. Two were killed and three were hospitalized during routine cleaning of the rocket fuel canister.
Despite this, Plesetsk is the northernmost cosmodrome in Russia, where rocket launches continue.
No. 4 - Kapustin Yar cosmodrome
When listing the cosmodromes in Russia, the list of which is present in this article, one cannot fail to mention Kapustin Yar. It is located in the northwest of the Astrakhan region. It was originally built as a ballistic missile testing ground in 1946.
Kapustin Yar is often called the "Russian Roswell". It is believed that it was here that Soviet scientists investigated alien ships. In support of this legend, there are many TV programs, which, for example, describe in detail the layout of the underground complex under the landfill.
No. 5 - Svobodny cosmodrome
Those who are interested in where the cosmodromes are in Russia know about the existence of a not as popular launch site as the previous ones, Svobodny. It is located in the Amur Region, not far from the city of Tsiolkovsky, formerly Uglegorsk.
In total, five missile launches were made from here. The last one was in 2006. The cosmodrome has not been functioning for 10 years.
In the 2000s, it was planned that the Strela rocket complex would be launched from this cosmodrome. However, he did not pass the state ecological expertise. Primarily due to the highly toxic rocket fuel heptyl. By the way, many Kazakhstani public and environmental organizations are against it.
Ultimately, it was decided to eliminate it as part of a large-scale reduction of the armed forces due to low profitability and liquidity. There were very few launches from the Svobodny cosmodrome, as a result, funding was minimal.
No. 6 - floating cosmodrome "Sea Launch"
Russia also has its own floating cosmodrome - the Sea Launch platform. It is located in the Pacific Ocean. The closest land area to it is Christmas Island.
Since 1995, it has been led by an international consortium. It includes Russia and the United States. The first demonstration satellite was launched already in 1999. At the same time, the first commercial launch of the launch vehicle took place.
At the moment, 36 rockets have been sent from the Sea Launch cosmodrome. Moreover, three of them were failed, one launch was recognized as partially successful.
On March 4, 1997, the first space launch took place from the new Russian Svobodny cosmodrome. It became the twentieth cosmodrome in the world operating at that time. Now, on the site of this launch site, the Vostochny cosmodrome is being built, which is scheduled to be commissioned in 2018. Thus, Russia will already have 5 cosmodromes - more than China, but less than the United States. Today we will tell you about the world's largest space sites.
Baikonur (Russia, Kazakhstan)
The oldest and largest to this day is "Baikonur", opened in the steppes of Kazakhstan in 1957. Its area is 6717 sq. Km. In the best - 60s - it carried out up to 40 launches per year. And there were 11 launch complexes. Over the entire period of the cosmodrome's existence, more than 1,300 launches were made from it.
According to this parameter, Baikonur is still the leader in the world. Every year, an average of two dozen rockets are launched into space here. Legally, the cosmodrome with all its infrastructure and vast territory belongs to Kazakhstan. And Russia leases it for $ 115 million a year. The lease is due to end in 2050.
However, even earlier, most of the Russian launches should be transferred to the Vostochny cosmodrome currently under construction in the Amur Region.
It has existed in Florida since 1949. Initially, military aircraft were tested at the base, and later launches of ballistic missiles. It has been used as a launch site since 1957. Without stopping military tests, in 1957, some of the launch sites were made available to NASA.
The first American satellites were launched here, and the first American astronauts - Alan Shepard and Virgil Grissom (suborbital flights on a ballistic trajectory) and John Glenn (orbital flight) - flew from here. After that, the program of manned flights moved to the newly rebuilt Space Center, which was named after Kennedy in 1963 after the death of the president.
From that moment on, the base began to be used to launch unmanned spacecraft, which delivered the necessary cargo to astronauts into orbit, and also sent automatic research stations to other planets and beyond the solar system.
Also, satellites, both civil and military, have been launched and are being launched from Cape Canaverel. Due to the variety of tasks solved on the basis of the tasks, 28 launch sites were built here. There are currently 4 operational ones. Two more are being maintained pending production of the modern Boeing X-37 shuttles, which should “retire” the Delta, Atlas and Titan missiles.
It was created in Florida in 1962. Area - 557 sq. Km. The number of employees is 14 thousand people. The complex is completely owned by NASA. It is from here that all manned spacecraft started, starting with the flight in May 1962 of the fourth astronaut Scott Carpenter. Here the Apollo program was implemented, culminating in a landing on the moon. All American reusable ships - shuttles - flew from here and returned here.
Now all the launch pads are on standby for new equipment. The last launch took place in 2011. However, the Center continues to work hard on both the ISS flight control and the development of new space programs.
Located in Guiana, an overseas department of France located in the northeast of South America. The area is about 1200 sq. Km. The Kourou Cosmodrome was opened by the French Space Agency in 1968. Due to a small distance from the equator, spacecraft can be launched from here with significant fuel economy, since the rocket is "pushed" by the large linear velocity of the Earth's rotation near the zero parallel.
In 1975, the French invited the European Space Agency (ESA) to use the Kura for their programs. As a result, France is now allocating 1/3 of the necessary funds for the maintenance and development of the cosmodrome, the rest lies with the ESA. At the same time, ESA owns three of the four launchers.
From here, the European nodes of the ISS and satellites go into space. The dominant missile here is the Toulouse-based Ariane Euro-missile missile. More than 60 launches were made in total. At the same time, our Soyuz with commercial satellites launched from the cosmodrome five times.
The PRC owns four cosmodromes. Two of them solve only military tasks, testing ballistic missiles, launching spy satellites, testing technology for intercepting foreign space objects. Two have a dual purpose, ensuring not only the implementation of militaristic programs, but also the peaceful exploration of outer space.
The largest and oldest of them is the Jiuquan Cosmodrome. It has been operating since 1958. Occupies an area of 2,800 sq. Km.
At first, Soviet specialists taught the Chinese "brothers for ever" the intricacies of the military space "craft" there. In 1960, the first short-range missile, a Soviet one, was launched from here. Soon, a Chinese-made rocket was successfully launched, in the creation of which Soviet specialists also participated. After the rupture of friendly relations between the countries, the activities of the cosmodrome stalled.
Only in 1970, the first Chinese satellite was successfully launched from the cosmodrome. The first ICBM was launched 10 years later. And at the end of the century, the first descent spacecraft without a pilot went into space. In 2003, the first taikonaut was in orbit.
Now 4 out of 7 launch sites operate at the cosmodrome. 2 of them are reserved exclusively for the needs of the Ministry of Defense. Every year, 5-6 rockets are launched from the Jiuquan cosmodrome.
Founded in 1969. Operated by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Located on the southeast coast of Tanegashima Island, in the south of Kagoshima Prefecture.
The first primitive satellite was launched into orbit in 1970. Since then, Japan, with a strong technological base in the field of electronics, has made great strides in creating both efficient orbiting satellites and heliocentric research stations.
At the cosmodrome, two launch pads are set aside for launches of suborbital geophysical vehicles, two serve heavy rockets H-IIA and H-IIB. It is these rockets that deliver scientific equipment and necessary equipment to the ISS. Up to 5 launches are carried out annually.
This unique floating spaceport, based on an ocean platform, was commissioned in 1999. Due to the fact that the platform is based on the zero parallel, launches from it are the most energetically advantageous due to the use of the maximum linear velocity of the Earth at the equator. The activities of Odyssey are controlled by a consortium that includes Boeing, RSC Energia, the Ukrainian Yuzhnoye Design Bureau, the Ukrainian PO Yuzhmash, which produces Zenit missiles, and the Norwegian shipbuilding company Aker Kværner.
The Odyssey consists of two sea vessels - a platform with a launcher and a vessel that plays the role of a mission control center.
The launch pad was formerly a Japanese oil platform that has been renovated and refurbished. Its dimensions: length 133 m, width 67 m, height 60 m, displacement 46 thousand tons.
The Zenith rockets used to launch commercial satellites are middle class. They are capable of launching more than 6 tons of payload into orbit.
During the existence of the floating cosmodrome, about 40 launches were made on it.
And all the rest
In addition to the above-mentioned cosmodromes, there are 17 more. All of them are considered to be operational.
Some of them, having survived the "former glory", greatly reduced their activity, or even completely frozen. Some serve only the military space sector. There are also those that are developing intensively and, very likely, will become "trendsetters of space fashion" over time.
Here is a list of countries that have spaceports and their number, including those listed in this article
Russia - 4;
China - 4;
Japan - 2;
Brazil - 1;
Israel - 1;
India - 1;
Republic of Korea - 1;
To launch spacecraft into space, in addition to the launch pad, a complex of structures is needed where pre-launch activities are carried out: final assembly and docking of the launch vehicle and the spacecraft, pre-launch testing and diagnostics, refueling with fuel and an oxidizer.
Usually, spaceports occupy a large area and are located at a considerable distance from densely populated places, in order to avoid damage in case of accidents and falls, separated during the flight of stages.
Cosmodromes of the world
The closer the launch point is to the equator, the less energy is required to launch the payload into space. When launched from the equator, it can save about 10% of fuel compared to a rocket launched from a cosmodrome located in mid-latitudes. Since there are not many states on the equator capable of launching rockets into space, projects of sea-based cosmodromes have appeared.
Russia
The Russian Federation, being a pioneer in space exploration, currently holds the lead in the number of launches. In 2012, our country carried out 24 launches of carrier rockets, unfortunately, not all of them were successful.
The largest "space harbor" in Russia is the Baikonur cosmodrome leased from Kazakhstan. It is located on the territory of Kazakhstan, in the Kyzylorda region between the city of Kazalinsk and the village of Dzhusaly, near the village of Tyuratam. Cosmodrome area: 6717 km². The construction of the cosmodrome began in 1955. On August 21, 1957, the first successful launch of the R-7 rocket took place.
Scheme of the Baikonur cosmodrome
In Soviet times, a huge unparalleled infrastructure was created in the Baikonur area, including, in addition to starting, preparatory and control and measuring complexes, airfields, access roads, office buildings and residential towns. All this after the collapse of the USSR went to independent Kazakhstan.
According to official data, the operation of the cosmodrome in 2012 cost about 5 billion rubles a year (the cost of renting the Baikonur complex is 115 million dollars - about 3.5 billion rubles a year, and Russia spends about 1.5 billion rubles a year on maintenance of the cosmodrome facilities), which amounted to 4.2% of the total budget of Roscosmos for 2012. In addition, from the federal budget of Russia to the budget of the city of Baikonur, a gratuitous receipt of 1.16 billion rubles is annually carried out (as of 2012). In total, the cosmodrome and the city cost the Russian budget 6.16 billion rubles a year.
At the moment "Baikonur", after its transfer by the military in 2005, is under the jurisdiction of Roskosmos. By the end of 2007, most of the military space units left the cosmodrome, and about 500 Russian servicemen remained at the cosmodrome.
Satellite image of Google Earth: launch pad # 250
The cosmodrome has infrastructure and launch facilities that allow launching carrier rockets:
- medium-sized carriers of the Soyuz family, launch weight up to 313,000 kg (based on R-7) - site No. 1 (Gagarinsky launch), No. 31.
- light launch vehicles "Kosmos", launch weight up to 109,000 kg - site number 41.
- medium-sized carriers of the Zenit family, launch weight up to 462200 kg - site number 45.
- heavy carriers "Proton", launch weight up to 705,000 kg - platforms No. 81, No. 200.
- light carriers of the Cyclone family, launch weight up to 193,000 kg (based on R-36 ICBMs) - site number 90.
- light launch vehicles "Dnepr" ", launch weight up to 211000 kg (joint Russian-Ukrainian development based on the R-36M ICBM) - site No. 175
- light launch vehicles "Rokot" and "Strela", launch weight up to 107,500 kg (based on ICBM UR-100N) - site number 175.
- heavy carriers "Energia", launch weight up to 2,400,000 kg (currently not used) - platforms No. 110, No. 250.
Satellite image of Google Earth: "Gagarin's start"
Despite the regularly received payments for the lease of the cosmodrome and interstate agreements, Kazakhstan periodically interferes with the normal operation of the cosmodrome. So, in 2012, the launches of the European meteorological spacecraft MetOp-B (the launch was planned for May 23), the Russian satellites Kanopus-V and MKA-PN1, the Belarusian spacecraft, the Canadian ADS-1B and the German TET-1 (group launch these five devices were scheduled for June 7), the Russian device "Resurs-P" (planned for August).
The reason was the long-term agreement by the Kazakh side of the use of the fall field of the first stage of launch vehicles in the Kustanai and Aktobe regions (used in the launching of satellites into the sun-synchronous orbit by the Soyuz launch vehicle).
Due to the position of the Kazakh side, the project of creating a joint Russian-Kazakh rocket and space complex "Baiterek" (based on the new carrier rocket "Angara") was not implemented. It was not possible to reach a compromise on the financing of the project. Probably, Russia will build a launch complex for Angara at the new Vostochny cosmodrome.
Proton-K launches Zvezda module into orbit for ISS
The northernmost cosmodrome in the world is Plesetsk, also known as the 1st State Testing Cosmodrome. It is located 180 kilometers south of Arkhangelsk, not far from the Plesetskaya railway station of the Northern Railway. The cosmodrome covers an area of 176,200 hectares. The cosmodrome dates back to January 11, 1957, when the Resolution of the USSR Council of Ministers on the creation of a military facility with the code name "Angara" was adopted. The cosmodrome was created as the first military missile formation in the USSR, armed with R-7 and R-7A intercontinental ballistic missiles.
R-7 carrier family
From the 70s to the early 90s, the Plesetsk cosmodrome held the world leadership in the number of rocket launches into space (from 1957 to 1993, 1,372 launches were made from here, while only 917 from Baikonur, which is in second place).
However, since the 1990s, the annual number of launches from Plesetsk has become less than from Baikonur. The cosmodrome is run by the military; in addition to launching an artificial satellite into orbit, it periodically carries out test launches of ICBMs.
The cosmodrome has stationary technical and launch complexes for domestic light and medium-class launch vehicles: Rokot, Cyclone-3, Kosmos-3M and Soyuz.
Satellite image of Google Earth: launch pad of Soyuz carriers
Also at the cosmodrome there is a test complex designed for testing intercontinental ballistic missiles with a silo-type launcher.
The construction of launch and technical complexes for the "Angara" carrier rockets on the basis of the SC "Zenith" is underway.
Launch of the Cyclone-3 rocket from the Plesetsk cosmodrome
The cosmodrome provides a significant part of Russian space programs related to defense, as well as scientific and commercial launches of unmanned spacecraft.
In addition to the main cosmodromes "Baikonur" and "Plesetsk", carrier rockets are periodically launched from other cosmodromes and spacecraft are put into near-earth orbit.
The most famous of them is the Svobodny cosmodrome. The main reason for the creation of this cosmodrome was the fact that as a result of the collapse of the USSR, the Baikonur cosmodrome was outside the territory of Russia and the impossibility of launching heavy "Protons" from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. It was decided to create a new cosmodrome on the basis of the disbanded 27th Red Banner Far Eastern division of the Strategic Missile Forces, which was previously armed with the UR-100 BR. In 1993, its facilities were transferred to the military space forces. On March 1, 1996, by presidential decree, the 2nd State Test Cosmodrome of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation was established here. The total area of this facility is about 700 km2.
The first launch of the Start 1.2 carrier rocket based on the Topol ballistic missile with the Zeya spacecraft took place on March 4, 1997. During the entire existence of the cosmodrome, five rockets have been launched here.
In 1999, a decision was made to build a rocket and launch complex for the Strela launch vehicle at the cosmodrome. However, the "Strela" complex did not pass the state ecological expertise due to the high toxicity of the rocket fuel used in it - heptyl. In June 2005, at a meeting of the Security Council of the Russian Federation, it was decided, within the framework of the reduction of the armed forces, to liquidate the Svobodny cosmodrome due to the low intensity of launches and insufficient funding. However, already in 2007, it was decided to create an infrastructure here for launching medium-class launch vehicles. The future cosmodrome was named Vostochny. It is assumed that commercial and scientific launches will be carried out here, and all military launches are planned to be carried out from Plesetsk.
Light carrier rockets of the Cosmos and Dnepr series were also launched from the Kapustin Yar test site and the Yasny launch pad.
At the Kapustin Yar training ground in the Astrakhan region, promising air defense systems are currently being tested. In addition, the Kosmos series launch vehicles with military satellites are periodically launched.
The Yasny complex is located on the territory of the Dombarovsky positional area of the Strategic Missile Forces in the Yasnensky District of the Orenburg Region of Russia. It is used to launch spacecraft using Dnepr launch vehicles. From July 2006 to August 2013, there were six successful commercial launches.
Also in Russia, spacecraft were launched from strategic submarine missile carriers.
On July 7, 1998, two German commercial micro-satellites Tubsat-N were launched into low-earth orbit from the Novomoskovsk SSBN "Novomoskovsk" project 667BDRM "Dolphin", being submerged in the Barents Sea water area. This is the first in the history of space exploration to launch satellites into near-earth orbit with a rocket launch from under water.
On May 26, 2006, from the Yekaterinburg SSBN of project 667BDRM Dolphin, the Compass 2 satellite was successfully launched.
The most famous US spaceport is by far the John Fitzgerald Kennedy Space Center. Located on Merritt Island in Florida, the center of the spaceport is located near Cape Canaveral, midway between Miami and Jacksonville. The Kennedy Space Center is a complex of spacecraft launch and mission control facilities (cosmodrome) owned by NASA. The dimensions of the cosmodrome are 55 km long and about 10 km wide, with an area of 567 km².
The cosmodrome was originally founded in 1950 as a test site for missiles. The location of the test site was one of the most convenient in the United States, since spent rocket stages fall into the Atlantic Ocean. However, the location of the cosmodrome is associated with significant natural and meteorological risks. The buildings and structures of the space center were repeatedly seriously damaged by hurricanes, and the planned launches had to be postponed. So in September 2004, part of the Kennedy Space Center facilities were damaged by Hurricane Francis. The vertically assembled building has lost a thousand external panels with an approximate size of 1.2 x 3.0 m each. The outer cladding with an area of 3700 m2 was destroyed. The roof was partially torn off and the interior was extensively water damaged.
Top view of the area of the launch complex number 39
All of the space shuttle launches were carried out by the Kennedy Space Center from Launch Complex 39. The center is served by approximately 15,000 civil servants and specialists.
The history of this cosmodrome is inextricably linked with the American manned space exploration program. Until July 2011, the Kennedy Space Center was the launch site for Space Shuttle vehicles using Complex 39 with the Apollo infrastructure. The first launch was the Columbia spacecraft on April 12, 1981. The center is also the landing site for orbital shuttles - there is a 4.6 km long landing strip.
Space shuttle "Atlantis"
The last launch of the space shuttle Atlantis took place on May 16, 2011. Then the American reusable spacecraft delivered a cargo of logistics, as well as a magnetic alpha spectrometer, aboard the International Space Station.
Part of the cosmodrome territory is open to the public, there are several museums and cinemas and exhibition grounds. Bus excursion routes are organized on the territory closed for free visits. The bus tour costs $ 38. It includes: a visit to the launch sites of complex 39 and a trip to the Apollo-Saturn V center, an overview of the tracking stations.
The Apollo-Saturn V Center is a huge museum built around the most valuable piece of the exhibition, the reconstructed Saturn V launch vehicle and other space-related artifacts such as the Apollo capsule.
Unmanned spacecraft are launched from launch sites along the coast, they are operated by the United States Air Force and are part of the United States Air Force Base at Cape Canaveral.This base is part of the United States Air Force Space Command. There are 38 launch sites at Cape Canaveral, of which only 4 are operational today. Currently, Delta II and IV, Falcon 9 and Atlas V rockets are launched from the cosmodrome.
Satellite image of Google Earth: launch pad at Cape Canaveral
From here, on April 22, 2010, the first successful launch of the Boeing X-37 unmanned reusable spacecraft took place. It was launched into low-earth orbit using an Atlas V launch vehicle.
On March 5, 2011, the device was launched into orbit by an Atlas V launch vehicle, launched from Cape Canaveral. According to the US Air Force, the second X-37B will test sensor devices and satellite systems. On June 16, 2012, the aircraft landed at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, having spent 468 days and 13 hours in orbit, circling the Earth more than seven thousand times.
On December 11, 2012, an apparatus of this type was launched into space for the third time, where it is located to this day.
The X-37 is designed to operate at altitudes of 200-750 km, is capable of quickly changing orbits, maneuvering, performing reconnaissance missions, delivering and returning small loads.
The second largest and most important US space infrastructure facility is Vandenberg Air Force Base. The joint space command center is located here. This is the residence of the 14th Aviation Regiment, the 30th Space Wing, the 381st Training Group and the Western Launch and Test Range, where satellite launches for military and commercial organizations are carried out, as well as tests of intercontinental ballistic missiles, including the Minuteman - 3 ".
Control and training firing of combat missiles is carried out mainly in the south-western direction towards the atolls of Kwajalein and Canton. The total length of the equipped route reaches 10 thousand km. Missiles are launched in a southerly direction. Due to the geographical location of the base, the entire route of their flight passes over the uninhabited regions of the Pacific Ocean.
On December 16, 1958, the first Thor ballistic missile was launched from Vandenberg Base. On February 28, 1959, the world's first polar-orbiting satellite Discoverer-1 was launched from Vandenberg on the Tor-Agena carrier rocket. Vandenberg was selected as the launch and landing site for the Space Shuttle on the west coast of the United States.
To launch the shuttles, technical structures, an assembly building were built and launch complex No. 6 was rebuilt. In addition, the base's existing 2,590-meter runway has been lengthened to 4,580 meters to facilitate shuttle landing. Full maintenance and restoration of the orbiter was carried out using the equipment located here. However, the Challenger explosion caused the cancellation of all shuttle flights from the West Coast.
After the shuttle program was frozen at Vandenberg, Launch Complex 6 was once again redesigned to launch Delta IV launch vehicles. The first of the spacecraft of the Delta IV series, launched from pad 6, was a rocket launched on June 27, 2006, it launched the NROL-22 reconnaissance satellite into orbit.
Launch of the Delta IV carrier rocket from the Vandenberg cosmodrome
Currently, the Vandenberg base facilities are used to launch military satellites, some of them, for example, the NROL-28 apparatus, is used to "fight terrorism." NROL-28 launched into highly elliptical orbit to collect intelligence information on terrorist groups in the Middle East; for example, sensors on board such satellites can track the movement of military vehicles on the Earth's surface. The launch of this satellite into space was carried out by the Atlas V launch vehicle, which used Russian RD-180 engines.
For tests within the framework of the missile defense program, the Reagan Proving Grounds are used. Launch sites are located in Kwajelin Atoll and Wake Island. It has existed since 1959. In 1999, the landfill was named after former US President Ronald Reagan.
Since 2004, Omelek Island, part of the test site, has hosted the launch pad for SpaceX's Falcon 1 launch vehicle. In total, 4 orbital launch attempts were made from Omelek Island.
The first three ended unsuccessfully, the fourth rocket launched a mass-dimensional satellite mock-up into orbit. The first commercial launch took place on July 13, 2009. The delay was caused by compatibility issues between the rocket and the Malaysian RazakSat satellite.
The Falcon 1 light-class launch vehicle is partially reusable, the first stage after separation is splashed down and can be reused.
The Wallops Cosmodrome is located on the territory owned by NASA, consists of three separate areas with a total area of 25 km²: the main base, the center on the mainland and Wallops Island, where the launch complex is located. The main base is located on the east coast of Virginia. It was founded in 1945, the first successful launch was made on February 16, 1961, when the research satellite Explorer-9 was launched into low-earth orbit using the Scout X-1 launch vehicle. Has several launch sites.
In 1986, NASA deployed a control and measuring complex on the territory of the test site for tracking and controlling the spacecraft flight. Several radars with antenna diameters of 2.4-26 m provide reception and high-speed transmission of information coming from objects directly to their owners. The technical capabilities of the complex make it possible to carry out trajectory measurements of objects located at a distance of 60 thousand km, with an accuracy of 3 m in range and up to 9 cm / s in speed.
Over the years of its existence, more than 15 thousand launches of various types of rockets have been made from the station's territory; recently, about 30 launches have been made per year.
Since 2006, part of the test site has been leased by a private aerospace corporation and used for commercial launches under the name Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport. In 2013, the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer probe was launched to the Moon from the Wallops Cosmodrome by a Minotaur-V launch vehicle.
It also launches the Antares LV, in their first stage, two AJ-26 oxygen-kerosene rocket engines are installed - a modification of the NK-33 engine developed by Aerojet and licensed in the USA for use on American launch vehicles.
Launch vehicle "Antares"
As of March 31, 2010, Aerodget Rocketdine purchased from SNTK im. Kuznetsov, about 40 NK-33 engines at a price of 1 million US dollars.
Another commercial spaceport is the Kodiak Launch Complex, located on the island of the same name off the coast of Alaska. It is designed to launch light rockets along a suborbital trajectory and launch small spacecraft into polar orbit.
The first experimental rocket launch from the cosmodrome took place on November 5, 1998. The first orbital launch took place on September 29, 2001, when the Athena-1 launch vehicle launched 4 small satellites into orbit.
Launch of the Athena-1 LV from the launch pad on Kadyak Island. September 30, 2001
Despite the "commercial" purpose of the cosmodrome, the Minotaur launch vehicles are regularly launched from it. The Minotaur family of American fully solid-propellant launch vehicles was developed by the Orbital Science Corporation, commissioned by the US Air Force, based on the Minuteman and Piskiper ICBM march stages.
Launch vehicle "Minotaur"
Due to US laws prohibiting the sale of government equipment, the Minotaur launch vehicle can only be used to launch government satellites and is not available for commercial orders. Minotaur V's last successful launch took place on September 6, 2013.
In addition to launching cargo into space using carrier rockets, other programs are being implemented in the United States. In particular, objects were launched into orbit using rockets of the Pegasus series launched from the Stargazer aircraft, a modified Lockheed L-1011.
The system was developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation, which specializes in providing commercial services for the delivery of objects into space.
Another example of a private initiative is the reusable Space Ship One developed by Scaled Composites LLC.
Takeoff is carried out using a special aircraft White Knight (White Knight). Then undocking takes place and Space Ship One rises to an altitude of about 50 km. Space Ship One is in space for about three minutes. Flights are carried out from the private aerospace center "Mojave" in the interests of "space tourism".
In 2012, the United States carried out 13 launches of carrier rockets. Yielding to Russia in this indicator, the United States is actively working on the creation of promising launch vehicles and reusable spacecraft.
Based on materials:
http://geimint.blogspot.ru/2007/07/fire-from-space.html
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmodrom
http://georg071941.ru/kosmodromyi-ssha
http://www.walkinspace.ru/blog/2010-12-22-588
All satellite imagery courtesy of Google Earth
Introduction
It is estimated that in the modern era for every 10-15 years, the amount of scientific information available to mankind approximately doubles. And this is not a simple statistical fact - it is the law of the progressive development of society. To successfully meet the diverse needs of humankind, science and technology must move forward at exactly this speed. But this requires a continuous increase in the amount of useful information about the phenomena of the world around us. To fulfill this condition, it is necessary not only to constantly deepen ordinary "earthly" research, but also to expand in every possible way the area from which this information is drawn.
It took people thousands of years to figure out what our Earth is and what position it occupies in the Universe. They worked for hundreds of years to lay the foundations of mechanics, physics, mathematics, astronomy, and this titanic work was not in vain. He prepared the astounding leap forward that science has made over the past decades, the one that led to space travel.
To find answers to these questions, a person turned to the Cosmos.
At first, the problem was solved with the help of passive observations of space processes from the Earth. When the technical prerequisites for the implementation of space flights appeared, the direct assault on outer space began.
As you know, this assault was launched in 1954 with the beginning of the construction of the world's first Cosmodrome and the launch of the first Soviet artificial Earth satellite and has been successfully developing since then.
The breakthrough into space was the most important stage in the history of civilization, a stage that should and is already exerting a tremendous influence on the development of science and technology. Fascinating prospects, unexplored opportunities have opened up before humanity.
The significance of the outstanding achievements of science is not only in the fact that they make it possible to solve all kinds of practical problems, but above all in the fact that they make it possible to move forward at a faster pace.
1. General information about cosmodromes
.1 Purpose of the cosmodrome
Rocket paths on Earth end at cosmodromes. Here rockets and spacecraft are assembled from separate parts, tested, prepared for launch, and finally sent into space. Cosmodromes usually occupy a fairly large area. The site for the construction of the cosmodrome is chosen taking into account many, often contradictory, conditions. The cosmodrome should be far enough away from large populated areas, because the spent rocket stages fall to the ground shortly after launch.
The missile routes should not interfere with air communications, and at the same time, they should be laid so that they pass over all ground radio communication points. It is taken into account when choosing a place and climate. Strong winds, high humidity, sharp temperature changes can significantly complicate the work of the cosmodrome.
Each country resolves these issues in accordance with its natural and other conditions. Therefore, say, the Soviet Baikonur cosmodrome is located in the semi-desert of Kazakhstan, the first French cosmodrome was built in the Sahara, the American one on the Florida peninsula, and the Italians created a floating cosmodrome off the coast of Kenya.
A cosmodrome is a specially equipped area covering an area from several hundred square meters, as, for example, in the case of a maritime complex, to several hundred square kilometers, with special structures and technological systems placed on it for assembling, testing, preparing and launching rockets. - carriers, spaceships and interorbital stations.
A large modern cosmodrome includes launch, technical, landing, command and measurement complexes, research and test units, bench bases, information and computing centers, command posts and, as a rule, a complex for pre-flight training and post-flight rehabilitation of cosmonauts. In addition, the cosmodrome should have a number of auxiliary facilities - an airfield, factories for the production of fuel components, thermal power plants, industrial and agricultural enterprises, rail and road communications, as well as fall fields of separating stages of launch vehicles and elements of spacecraft and a residential city - an administrative center with medical, cultural, educational, sports, trade and household and other institutions. The maintenance personnel of the cosmodrome may consist of several tens of thousands of people.
1.2 Structure and technology of the cosmodrome
.2.1 Technical complex of the cosmodrome
The technical complex is a part of the specially equipped territory of the cosmodrome with buildings and structures located on it, equipped with special technological equipment and general technical systems. The equipment of the technical complex makes it possible to provide reception, assembly, testing and storage of rocket and space technology, as well as refueling spacecraft and upper stages with propellants and compressed gases, their docking with launch vehicles and transportation of the assembled complex to the start.
In special cars, elements of rocket and space technology from manufacturing plants are delivered to the assembly and test building of the technical complex, where they are unloaded using mobile and stationary unloading and loading facilities.
The assembly and testing building (MIC) is the main element of the technical complex, equipped with two types of equipment: mechanical assembly and control and test equipment. MIK is a multi-span high-rise frame industrial structure with heavy-duty crane equipment. Mechanical assembly equipment is located in the spans of the MIK, as well as de-preservation, assembly and testing of rocket and space systems are carried out. Along the perimeter of the building there are various laboratories with control and testing equipment for autonomous and comprehensive testing of space technology.
The dimensions and equipment of the assembly and test buildings depend on the type of assembled and tested rockets (spacecraft). The modern MIC is impressive in size. For example, the MIC for assembling and testing the Energia launch vehicle is a four-span building 250 m long, 112 m wide and about 50 m high. There are laboratories on four floors along the perimeter of the building, occupying a total area of 48 thousand square meters. m.With vertical missile assembly technology, the MIC height reaches 160 m.
At MIC, the components of launch vehicles and spacecraft undergo external inspection, preliminary element-by-element tests and are sent for assembly. They are assembled, as a rule, on separate, unconnected technological lines. With a high intensity of preparation and conduct of launches for the assembly and testing of launch vehicles and spacecraft, separate assembly and test buildings can be provided.
With the help of assembly tools and crane equipment, space vehicles are assembled and fed for pneumatic vacuum tests. Such tests are carried out in order to identify leaks in all hydro and gas pipelines and pressurized compartments of launch vehicles and spacecraft. Electrical tests are carried out to determine the integrity of all electrical circuits and the correct functioning of control systems and all elements with power supply.
The assembled and tested spacecraft is sent to the gas station to continue the launch preparation cycle. A filling station is an element of a technical complex, which is a complex of structures and technological systems and is intended for filling upper stages and spacecraft with propellant components, compressed gases, and special fluids. There are storage facilities for fuel, oxidizer and compressed gases; systems for thermostating components, evacuation, gas control, measurements, automated filling, neutralization of toxic vapors and liquids, fire extinguishing, communication, ventilation, etc. The filling station is a technological facility of the cosmodrome, the most saturated with explosive, fire hazardous and toxic elements.
The docking of the assembled and tested launch vehicle with the fueled spacecraft is carried out in the same assembly and test building where they were assembled.
1.2.2 Launch complex of the cosmodrome
The launch complex is an integral part and the main technological object of the cosmodrome, which is a specially equipped area equipped with technological and general technical systems. All this numerous and unique set of equipment provides transportation, installation in the launch device of a carrier rocket with a spacecraft, refueling with propellants and compressed gases, pre-launch checks, preparation for launch and launch of the rocket and space complex.
The launch complex, as a rule, includes launch storage facilities for launch vehicles and spacecraft, transport and installation units (or stationary installers), launch facilities with launching devices, systems for filling rocket fuel components, gas supply facilities, emergency rescue of operating personnel and crew members ... In addition, the launch complex is equipped with auxiliary facilities and systems: refrigeration centers, autonomous power plants, communication centers, television and film systems, roads and railways, etc.
The brain center of each launch complex is the command post. It processes all the collected information on the state and readiness of all technological and general technical launch systems, onboard equipment and assemblies of the launch vehicle and the spacecraft, the condition and quantity of components of rocket propellants, gases and special fluids, as well as information on the readiness of all services of the cosmodrome (meteorological and topogeodetic support, rescue and search teams, logistics support groups, evacuation, etc.) for the upcoming work. It also houses the control and testing and testing equipment for the prelaunch preparation of the space complex.
Based on the results of processing the constantly incoming telemetric information (up to several thousand parameters per second during complex tests), decisions are made and commands are issued to continue work on the technological schedule of the complex start-up or to correct it.
The command post is usually a four- or five-story building underground, stuffed with electronics and tens of kilometers of cable. From here, the entire prelaunch preparation for launch is controlled and a command is issued to launch carrier rockets and spacecraft.
It should be emphasized that each of the structures of the technical or launch complex can be equated with a medium-sized industrial enterprise. For example, the liquid oxygen filling system for the Energia launch vehicle includes:
· a system for receiving and storing liquid oxygen with a capacity of several thousand tons;
· a system for supercooling and thermostating of liquid oxygen, which provides cooling of the oxidizer by 6 ... 8 ° C below the boiling point and maintains the set temperature with an accuracy of 0.5 ... 1 ° C;
· liquid oxygen filling system, providing component supply at a speed of 6 ... 8 tons per minute;
· a system for evacuating thermal insulation of cryogenic tanks and pipelines up to 10 "~ 6 mm Hg;
· system of automatic continuous monitoring of the gaseous environment;
· automatic fire and explosion prevention system;
· an automated control system for all technological operations;
· control system for the condition of stored and charged oxygen, etc.
Thus, the launch complex can be compared with a large industrial plant, spread over dozens of square kilometers and includes two to three dozen large factories (workshops). And if we continue this comparison further, the main "product" of such a plant is the trouble-free launch of the space complex at a precisely specified time.
1.2.3 Command-measuring complex of the cosmodrome
In the last period of preparation of the space complex at the start and after the launch, specialists of another important part of the cosmodrome - the command and analysis of data on the operation of on-board systems, the complex as a whole, objective indicators of the state of astronauts.
In connection with the increase in the number of spacecraft constantly operating in orbits, the functions, structure, and technical equipment of the command-measuring complex have changed, which has recently been more and more often correctly called the ground-based automated control complex (NACU). This is a universal complex of ground, sea and air means and equipment for the exchange of command, program, telemetry and trajectory information with any type of spacecraft and control of the entire orbital group currently in space.
KIK of the cosmodrome includes launching measuring points and dozens of measuring points along the flight paths of space complexes; ballistic center, automatic systems for collecting, processing, transmitting and displaying information; information and computing centers; communication and tele-exchange systems with astronauts. The command-measuring complex of the cosmodrome also includes cine-theodolite stations (points) intended for direct visual tracking and recording of the flight of the space complex at the initial stage.
All information received during a normal or emergency flight is processed in a computer center. The results of this processing are the main impartial document characterizing the flight and the starting material for making a decision on a specific space object. In this regard, the information of the measuring complex is of the greatest value during flight design tests, when an "imperceptible" deviation of any parameter can lead to a failure of the whole program.
1.2.4 The landing complex of the cosmodrome
One of the main reasons for the high cost of space is the one-time use of launch vehicles and spacecraft. For example, the American Saturn-5 rocket, which provided the program of flights of the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, costing 280 million dollars. "spent" in a few minutes. In the late 1960s. work began on the creation of reusable space vehicles. The most famous in this direction are the orbital ships of the "Shuttle" and "Buran" types.
The practical transition to reusable space vehicles in the future will undoubtedly provide significant savings. Well, in the beginning, like any new scientific and technical idea, reusable systems require billions of dollars in costs to create their components, launch vehicles and spacecraft, space complexes in general, for the construction and equipping of special landing (or launch and landing) complexes ...
The modern landing complex is a part of a specially equipped territory of the cosmodrome with a complex of buildings and structures located on it, equipped with technological and general technical equipment. The landing complex is designed to receive spacecraft, vehicles, stages and elements of reusable launch vehicles. The landing complex also carries out a set of measures for post-flight preventive maintenance of the descent objects and their preparation for transportation to the technical position.
The cosmodromes also include spacecraft landing sites. They, of course, are not as complex, grandiose and expensive as the landing complexes of reusable spacecraft, but nevertheless they are sufficiently technically equipped and equipped in engineering terms. These are rather large areas intended for the regular landing of space objects or descent capsules with materials. Landing grounds are selected, as a rule, in a flat, sparsely populated area without large water bodies.
The landing range track for several thousand kilometers is equipped with communication, observation, control and target designations about the descent trajectory of the space object to the search and rescue services. The landing site must provide control of the descent, detection of the object and its evacuation by its own means.
The regions of the Karaganda and Dzhezkazgan regions of Kazakhstan, where the first manned spacecraft of the Vostok and Voskhod types, numerous spacecraft of the Kosmos series, and various modifications of the Soyuz transport spacecraft landed can be conventionally called landing complexes.
In the United States, areas of the ocean water area have been selected as landing sites for spacecraft, which imposes its own characteristics on the design of the spacecraft and the means of its search and evacuation.
1.2.5 Ensuring the safety of work at the cosmodrome
The cosmodrome is an area of increased danger. This is due to the toxicity of fuels, and high gas pressures in various containers and systems, and the fire and explosion hazard of cryogenic liquids and gases, and increased noise and vibrations, and high electric voltages, and radiation from antennas, etc.
In this regard, the cosmodrome has a system of measures to ensure the safety of the work being carried out. These activities can be conditionally divided into four groups.
Measures incorporated in the design solutions for the creation of the entire cosmodrome and its individual complexes. Buildings and structures are located at a safe distance from each other, their design provides for protection from the impact of a shock wave of a certain force and full autonomy of life support for several days. If necessary, fire and explosion safety, tightness, sound insulation of premises are provided.
Measures incorporated in the design of technological systems and units. These include the selection of materials that are most durable and resistant to aggressive environments, the introduction of computer systems instead of pumping systems, the use of welded joints, high-speed elevators and special rescue equipment, the equipping of systems and structures with fast and effective means of control, signaling and elimination of emergency processes, the creation of rational and safe technology of work in all areas.
Activities involving the creation and use of collective and individual protective equipment. Special systems for the rescue of astronauts and personnel of launch teams, shelters and shelters, fire extinguishing equipment based on heavy armored vehicles are being designed and built, personal protective equipment for the skin and respiratory organs is used when working with aggressive liquids and gases.
Organizational activities. These include training of service personnel; monitoring compliance with security measures; creation of a system of access to structures and to technological systems, limiting the number of people involved in specific operations; timely notification of hazardous work; organization of evacuation of people from hazardous areas, etc.
Usually, when organizing and carrying out any test work at cosmodromes, three or four safety zones are established, and, depending on the nature and degree of risk, each zone has its own regime of admission to work, and certain measures are taken. For example, the SK-39 launch complex at the US Eastern Test Site for launches of the Saturn-5-Apollo rocket and space system is divided into four zones:
· the zone directly in the area of the launch facility with possible excess pressure in the shock front in the event of an explosion of the launch vehicle at the start of about 10 atm and a noise level of 135 dB;
· safety zone with a noise level of 135 to 120 dB (approximately 2 km from the start);
· general purpose area with noise level less than 120 dB (about 5 km);
· industrial zone with all auxiliary technical structures (from 5 to 10 km).
During the launches of the Energia carrier rocket and the Energia-Buran reusable rocket and space complex (MRKK) from the Baikonur cosmodrome, four security zones were also installed in the area of the launch complex:
· a radius of two kilometers around the launcher. From this, the most dangerous zone, the evacuation of maintenance personnel ended 12 hours before launch. All further technological operations for refueling, preparation for launch and the launch itself were carried out remotely from protected control bunkers;
· a radius of five kilometers around the launcher. The evacuation from here ended 8 hours before launch, simultaneously with the start of filling the launch vehicle with liquid hydrogen;
· radius of 8.5 km, was released 4 hours before the start;
· radius of 15 km, was subject to evacuation 3 hours before the start. Outside of it, the safety of a person in an open area was guaranteed in the event of an explosion of a launch vehicle at the start.
In addition, during the launch of the MRKK of the Energia-Buran complex on November 15, 1988, a set of measures was taken to ensure safety along the launch and flight path of the complex.
These are the general structure, tasks, and the composition of the technical and technological means of cosmodromes intended for launching carrier rockets with spacecraft on board.
Figure 1 - The main technical structures of the cosmodrome
A, B, C - launch positions of the cosmodrome: D - technical position; 1 - cable refueling tower; 2 - service tower; 3 - station for refueling space objects; 4 - assembly and testing building of space objects; 5 - vertical assembly building; 6 - compressor station; 7 - remote command post; 8 - oxidizer storage and filling station; 9 - receiver; 10 - pool with fire extinguishing system water; 11 - command post; 12 - gas reflector; 13 - gas outlet channel; 14 - starting system; 15 - tower for missile guidance devices in azimuth; 16 - tracked conveyor; 17 - radar station; 18 - shelter for calculation;
20 - fuel storage and filling station;
2. Characteristics of the main cosmodromes in the world
.1.1 Baikonur Cosmodrome Kazakhstan
This cosmodrome is leased by Russia from the Republic of Kazakhstan for about US $ 100 million per year. The administrative center is the city of Baikonur (formerly Leninsk), the railway station Tyuratam.
The history of the world's first cosmodrome began with the Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of February 12, 1955. The first SC - for the R-7 intercontinental missile - was commissioned in 1957.
The area of the cosmodrome reaches 6 717 km 2... It includes the center, left and right flanks, as well as fall fields (Diagram 3). Until now, Baikonur was and remains the only base that allows launching Russian manned spacecraft and launching large satellites and interplanetary stations into orbit. Approximately 40% of all spacecraft of the former USSR and Russia were launched from here.
Now Baikonur has nine launch complexes with fifteen launchers, 34 technical complexes, three filling stations for launch vehicles, spacecraft and upper stages (RB), a nitrogen-oxygen plant with a total capacity of up to 300 tons of cryogenic products per day, and a measuring complex with a powerful computing center. ... This equipment makes it possible to launch heavy ("Proton"), medium ("Zenith", "Soyuz" and "Molniya") and light ("Cyclone") classes. Two more types of light-class missiles - "Dnepr" and "Rokot" - are launched from silo launchers.
All missiles are assembled and docked with RB and SC in a horizontal position. The preparation and launch of the Zenit, Cyclone, Dnepr and Rokot ILVs is carried out using a high level of automation, and for Zenit they are implemented using the unmanned launch technology. The type of preparation is mobile, with the exception of the Dnipro launch vehicle, for which a fixed preparation method is used. The Soyuz and Proton launch vehicles are characterized by a significant number of "manual" operations.
Under an agreement between Russia and Kazakhstan in 2004, it is planned to create the Baiterek complex at the Baikonur cosmodrome to launch the Angara-A5 heavy-class LV. The complex will be created through the reconstruction of KS S.
Figure 2 - Scheme of the Baikonur cosmodrome
technical launch complex
Figure 3 shows the location of the main facilities at the Baikonur cosmodrome. Among them:
Airport Extreme;
The city of Leninsk;
Measuring complex "Vega";
Measuring complex "Saturn";
Oxygen-nitrogen plant;
Testing Town;
Launch complex of LV "Proton";
Technical complex of LV "Energia";
9 - technical complex OK "Buran<#"justify">2.1.2 Large spaceports in Russia
.1.2.1 Plesetsk Cosmodrome
The Plesetsk cosmodrome (1st State Test Cosmodrome) is located 180 kilometers south of Arkhangelsk, not far from the Plesetskaya railway station of the Northern Railway. Situated on a plateau-like and slightly hilly plain, it covers an area of 1,762 square kilometers, stretching 46 kilometers from north to south and 82 kilometers from east to west, with a center at geographic coordinates 63 degrees north latitude and 41 degrees east longitude.
It was founded in 1960 as the first domestic missile base for R-7 and R-7A ICBMs (Angara facility). When choosing a location, the following were primarily taken into account:
Reach of the territories of potential enemies; 2.the ability to conduct and control test launches in the area Kamchatka; 3. the need for special secrecy and secrecy.
As a cosmodrome, it has a complex geopolitical position and an extensive structure (Fig. 4).
He has been conducting space activities since the launch of the Kosmos-112 spacecraft on March 17, 1966. It has stationary technical and launch complexes for all types of domestic light and medium-class launch vehicles. The construction of launch and technical complexes for the "Angara" launch vehicle is underway. Provides the bulk of space programs related to defense, national economic, scientific and commercial launches of unmanned spacecraft.
Figure 3 - Scheme of the Plesetsk Cosmodrome
2.1.2.2 Svobodny Cosmodrome (Vostochny)
This cosmodrome is located in the Amur region. (Svobodnensky district), ZATO settlement. Uglegorsk, 50 km north of Svobodny, railway Art. Icy.
At the end of 1992, the Military Space Forces (now the Space Forces of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation) raised the issue of the need to create and select a location for a new Russian cosmodrome before the leadership of the Russian Ministry of Defense, since as a result of the collapse of the USSR, the Baikonur cosmodrome was outside Russian territory.
In accordance with the conclusions of the reconnaissance commission, by the directive of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation of November 30, 1993, the objects of military units and subunits of the Strategic Missile Forces division stationed here were transferred to the Military Space Forces, and on their basis the Main Center for Testing and Using Space Means was formed. On March 1, 1996, by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation, it was transformed into the "Second State Test Cosmodrome of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation (Svobodny)".
The Space Forces were tasked with preparing for launch in 1996-1997. LV of the light class "Rokot" and "Start", development of the preliminary design of the SC of carriers of the heavy class "Angara". The first launch from Svobodny took place on March 4, 1997
However, for financial reasons, the plans were not implemented: only eight launches of the Start-1 light class LV were made from the cosmodrome (created at MIT on the basis of the technological reserve for Topol and Pioneer ballistic missiles). In February 2007, by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation, the Svobodny cosmodrome was closed.
Taking into account a number of geopolitical circumstances, as well as the fact that five silo launchers of PC-18 missiles remained in Svobodny, reconnaissance surveys began in mid-2007 to select the location of a new civilian cosmodrome in the Far East.
As a result, the choice fell on the Uglegorsk region. By the decree of the President of the Russian Federation of November 6, 2007, it was decided to create the Vostochny cosmodrome (Fig. 5).
The area of the cosmodrome without falling fields does not exceed 750 km 2... On the territory of Vostochny, it is planned to create a SC for launches of medium-class LV with increased carrying capacity and reusable rocket and space systems (MRKS) with a carrying capacity of up to 40 tons or more - one complex with two launchers for each. According to some reports, the total number of SC at the cosmodrome may reach seven. In the future, it is possible to launch heavy and super-heavy LV with a payload mass of 60-100 tons. The ground infrastructure will also include:
· Technical complexes of LV and SC, including the complex of interflight maintenance of MRKS.
· Complexes for training cosmonauts, search and rescue services and transport (aviation, automobile and railway) infrastructure.
· Refueling complex, including nitrogen-oxygen and hydrogen plants.
· Measuring complex.
· Launches into orbits with inclination from 51 to 110 degrees are possible from the cosmodrome.
Figure 4 - Scheme of the Vostochny cosmodrome
2.1.2 Kourou Cosmodrome, France
Kourou Cosmodrome (fr.
In 1964
In 1975
Since then, ESA has continued to fund two-thirds of the cosmodrome's annual budget, which goes towards ongoing maintenance of flights and keeping the launch site up to date. ESA is also funding new projects at the launch site, such as launch sites and industrial plants, which are required to launch new carriers such as Vega
Figure 5 - Scheme of the Kuru Cosmodrome
2.1.3 Taiyuan and Tanegashima Spaceports
Taiyuan is located 300 km west of Beijing, northwest of Shanxi province, near Taiyuan. The main Chinese cosmodrome for launching "polar" satellites into orbits with an inclination of up to 99 degrees. It has an IC for launches of carriers CZ-4A, CZ-2C.
The mill is located in the south of China in the Sichuan province, at the foot of the Dalyanshan ridge. The headquarters of the cosmodrome is located in Sichan. The main Chinese spaceport for the launch of "geostationary" satellites. CZ-2E, CZ-3 medium-class carriers are being launched. There are two launch complexes at the cosmodrome.
Figure 6- Scheme of the Tayuan landfill
Tanegashima is located on the island of the same name, 50 km south of about. Kyushu in Kagoshima Prefecture. The first space launch took place in 1975.
At present, spacecraft are launched from the only spacecraft (the second is mothballed) into geo-transfer and polar (inclination from 30 to 99 degrees) orbits using the N-2A and N-2V rockets. The rocket stages are assembled in the MIK in a vertical position, and are also transported to the SC on a mobile conveyor.
Figure 7 - Scheme of the Tanegashima landfill
2.1.4 Woomer's polygon
The Woomera test site is located in the south of the Australian mainland in the desert area near Woomera (South Australia, 500 km north-west of Adelaide, 200 km south of Lake Eyre). Landfill area - 100,000 km2 .
Created in 1946 by the joint efforts of Great Britain and Australia as a center for testing guided aircraft. On November 3, 1961, it was selected as the first European cosmodrome and has been operating since 1967. Used by the UK, the European Launch Developing Organization (ESA), Australia.
It had four SC from which the Black Knite high-altitude rockets and Black Arrow light carriers were launched (the first and only British launch vehicle, in the only successful space launch on October 28, 1971, the first English satellite Prospero was launched into orbit), Redstone (November 29, 1967 into orbit the first Australian satellite WRESAT was launched) and Europa-1 (there were no successful orbital launches).
The test site has flight paths for launching satellites into orbit with an inclination of 82-84 °, but since July 1976, by decision of the Australian government, it has been closed as unprofitable (the equipment was mothballed and partially sold to India).
Figure 8 - Scheme of the Woomera Cosmodrome
3. Calculated part
.1 Calculation of rocket mass and vertical take-off
It is required to launch an artificial Earth satellite with a mass of m into a circular orbit with an altitude of 250 km. The located engine has a specific impulse
First space speed
Calculation for a two-stage rocket.
M / s. This time
for the 2nd stage we get:
the total mass of the 1st stage is t;
the total mass of a two-stage rocket with a payload will be t.
Calculations for bo ?more steps. As a result, we get:
The launch mass of a three-stage rocket will be t.
Four-stage - i.e.
Five-step - i.e.
This example shows how multistage is justified
Conclusion
In this course work, we examined the purpose, structure, technology, as well as the characteristics of the main Cosmodromes in the world.
When considering the structure of the cosmodrome, we analyzed such characteristics of the cosmodrome as the technical complex of the cosmodrome, the launch complex of the cosmodrome, the command and measurement complex of the cosmodrome, the landing complex of the cosmodrome, as well as ensuring the safety of work at the cosmodrome. Each of the objects and services of the cosmodrome was disassembled in detail and the technical characteristics of the cosmodrome were considered.
We examined the characteristics of the main cosmodromes in the world. There are more than two dozen cosmodromes in the world. They all have a similar structure and differ only in the details of the construction of the launching complexes. Several factors influence the placement of spaceports at specific points on the earth's surface. One of the most important is flight ballistics. The fact is that the spacecraft (SC) is launched into orbit with minimal energy consumption, the inclination is
which corresponds to the geographic latitude of the cosmodrome. The most critical is the latitude of the cosmodrome during launching into geostationary orbits lying in the equatorial plane. They are used for communication satellites and TV transmission repeaters, that is, first of all, commercial spacecraft. The cosmodrome for launching geostationary satellites should be located at lower latitudes.
In the design part, we calculated the masses for a two-stage rocket.
Calculation of masses for a two-stage rocket.
Let's halve the characteristic velocity, which will be the characteristic velocity for each of the two-stage rocket stages. m / s. This time , which satisfies the criterion of attainability (4), and, substituting into formulas (3) and (2) the values,
for the 2nd stage we get:
the gross weight of the 2nd stage is m.
For the 1st stage, the total mass of the 2nd stage is added to the payload mass, and after the appropriate substitution we get:
It should be noted that these results were obtained under the assumption that the missile design perfection coefficient remains constant, regardless of the number of stages. Closer examination reveals that this is a gross oversimplification. The steps are interconnected by special sections - adapters - supporting structures, each of which must withstand the total weight of all subsequent steps, multiplied by the maximum overload value
Calculations of this kind are performed not only at the first design stage - when choosing a rocket layout option, but also at subsequent design stages, as the design is detailed, the Tsiolkovsky formula is constantly used in verification calculations, when the characteristic velocities are recalculated, taking into account the relations of the initial and the final mass of the rocket (stage), specific characteristics of the propulsion system, clarification of speed losses after calculating the flight program in the active phase
Bibliography
1. Levantovsky V.I. The mechanics of space flight in an elementary presentation.-M.: Nauka, 1980.
Astronautics news. Monthly magazine.
Elyasberg P.E. Introduction to the theory of satellite flight.- M .: Nauka, 1965.
Bulk M.B. Elements of space flight dynamics), Moscow: Nauka, 1965.
Beletsky V.V. Essays on the Motion of Space Bodies), Moscow: Nauka, 1972.
Fundamentals of spacecraft flight theory / Ed. Narimanova G.S.
Flight of the spacecraft: Examples and tasks: Handbook / Yu.F. Avdeev, A.I. Belyaev, A.V. Brykov et al. - M .: Mechanical Engineering, 1970.
Cosmonautics: encyclopedia / Editor-in-chief V.P. Glushko.-M .: Soviet encyclopedia, 1985.
Avdeev Yu.F. Space, ballistics, people. - M.: Soviet radio, 1978.
Application
Calculation of vertical rocket launch
Let us consider, using the Soyuz rocket as an example, the calculation of the vertical take-off of the rocket by calculating such values as 1- flight time, calculated by adding t 1to the previous value. M 1- the total mass of the rocket at the beginning of the iteration, taken from the data or from M 2previous iteration (row). V 1- rocket speed at the beginning, taken from data or from V 2previous iteration. S 1- flight altitude. taken from the data or calculated by adding to the previous value of S 1speed V 1multiplied by dTime 1... F t1 - thrust at a given height (S 1). It is calculated by subtracting from the thrust in vacuum the difference between the two thrust multiplied by the percentage of surface air density (see density table below). F t1 = F t1v - (F t1v -F t1m ) * Ro. I 1- specific impulse at a given height (S 1). It is calculated by subtracting from a pulse in vacuum the difference between two pulses multiplied by the percentage of the surface air density (see density table below). I 1= I 1v - (I 1v -I 1m ) * Ro. a 1- the acceleration acquired by the rocket at the expense of the engines. It is calculated by dividing the thrust of the engines by the mass of the rocket. a 2- the acceleration acquired by the rocket due to the action of the forces of gravity. Calculated according to the law of universal gravitation.
The gravitational constant is multiplied by the mass of the planet and divided by the square of the distance from the rocket to the center of the planet: a 2= GravPost * M pl / (R pl + S 1)2... a 3- full acceleration, Calculated by adding the accelerations received from the engines and gravity a 3= a 1+ a 2... v 2is the speed at the end of the iteration. It is calculated by adding the speed at the beginning of the iteration and the total acceleration multiplied by the time interval v 2= v 1+ a 3* t 1... M t - fuel consumption. It is calculated by multiplying the engine thrust by the time interval and dividing by the specific impulse: F t1 t 1/ I 1... M 2is the total mass of the rocket at the end of the iteration, Calculated by subtracting the fuel consumption from the mass of the rocket at the beginning of the iteration. M 2= M1 - M t .
Table 2 Initial data:
First stage Empty mass of stage M 1r , kg. Fuel mass in stage M 1t , kg. Specific impulse of the engine at sea level I 1m , m / sec. Specific impulse of the engine in vacuum I 1v , m / sec. Engine thrust at sea level F t1m , kN Vacuum engine thrust F t1v , kN Second stage Total rocket weight M 0, kg. Time of one iteration t 1, sec. Iteration limit (from freezes) ItCnt 1,Mass of the planet (Earth) M pl , kg. Radius of the planet Rpl , km.
Table. Calculation of vertical take-off of a rocket
Dependence of air density on altitude. International stan table atm. (ISA) Height above sea level, km Density, kg / m 3Density,% of sea level 01.250 100% 11.13490.7% 21.02782.2% 30.92774.2% 40.83666.9% 50.75160.1% 60.67353.8% 70.60148.1% 80.53642.8% 90.47538.0% 100.42133.7% 110.37129 .7% 120.31725.4% 130.27121.7% 140.23118.5% 150.19715.8% 160.16913.5% 170.14411.5% 180.1239.8% 190.1058.4% 200.0907.2% 210.0776.1% 220.0655.2% 230.0564.5 % 240.0483.8% 250.0413.3% 300.0181.44% 350.0080.67% 400.0040.32% 450.0020.16% 500.0010.09% 600.00030970.02477% 700.000082850.006628% 800.000018460.0014768% 900.0000034 180.00027344% 1000.00000055500.00004440% 1200.000000024 .000001952%
Figure 10 - Graph of dependence of air density on altitude above sea level
Tutoring
Need help exploring a topic?
Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Send a request with the indication of the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.
The cosmodrome is the territory on which there are structures designed for launching spacecraft into space. These objects occupy a considerable area and they are trying to be located as far as possible from dwellings.
But the most important requirement for spaceports is proximity to the equator. Indeed, thanks to this arrangement, the carrier can use the energy of the Earth's rotation, which helps to save fuel.
However, there are not so many developed states on the equator, which was the reason for the appearance of mobile and sea-based cosmodromes. In total, there are about thirty cosmodromes in the world, but few of them are actively used. The largest cosmodromes of mankind, operating today, will be discussed.
Baikonur, Kazakhstan. This cosmodrome is the largest and most actively used in the world. Despite the fact that the main history of Russian cosmonautics is associated with it, it is located in Kazakhstan. The cosmodrome was officially founded on June 2, 1955. Then the commission was looking for a sparsely populated region, whose land is not used in agriculture. The Soviet authorities decided to create a test site for missiles that could deliver nuclear charges over long distances. The first rocket, the R-7, was launched from Baikonur on May 15, 1957. It was she who from this cosmodrome was able to launch the first artificial satellite into the planet's orbit on October 4, 1957, marking the beginning of the space era. One of the biggest accidents in the history of space launches is also associated with Baikonur - during the test of the R-16 rocket, a fire occurred that killed 76 people. And on April 12, 1961, the first man, Yuri Gagarin, went into space from Baikonur. Since then, more than 1,500 spacecraft launches have been carried out from the cosmodrome, and ballistic missiles have also been tested. In 1994, the facility, together with the adjacent city, was leased to Russia. Kazakhstan will receive $ 115 million annually until 2050. Rocket launches at Baikonur were carried out from 16 different launchers.
Cape Canaveral, USA. This cape was named after Kennedy in 1964-1973. This place is located on the Atlantic coast of Florida. The promontory houses a US Air Force facility that is essentially operated by NASA. Interestingly, the Kennedy Space Center is located on the neighboring island, from which spacecraft are also launched. As a result, Cape Canaveral combines two launch complexes at once. This object received a unique telephone code 321, in honor of its contribution to space exploration. After all, these numbers mark the countdown. Since 1949, the military base has been used to test missiles, allowing them to be launched across the Atlantic. From here, since 1956, the Americans began to carry out early suborbital missile launches. And the launch of an artificial satellite after the USSR in December 1957 failed. In 1958, NASA was founded, for which launches were carried out from Cape Canaveral. Many rocket sites have also been created here. On September 13, 1961, the Americans were able to carry out the first orbital flight from this cosmodrome, and in February 1962, the first US citizen also ascended into space. In 2012, 10 spacecraft launches were made from Cape Canaveral.
Kuru, French Guiana. This cosmodrome is located in the northeast of South America, on the Atlantic coast. In 1964, the French government decided to join the space program and chose Kourou out of 14 competitors. Construction began in 1965, and the first rocket launch from here took place on April 9, 1968. In 1975, with the formation of the European Space Agency, it was decided to make Kuru the main launch site for space programs. Europe has modernized the cosmodrome for its Arian program. And in 2003, Russia also signed an agreement with the French, which made it possible to launch Russian missiles from the Kuru. In October 2011, the first Soyuz took off from the French cosmodrome. The advantage of Kuru is that it is only 500 kilometers from the equator, which saves fuel. The location of the cosmodrome is such that it allows you to carry out all possible missions. The high level of efficiency, reliability and safety attracts clients from other countries to Kuru. And from here in 2012, 10 rocket launches were carried out.
Xichang, China. In the 1970s, China also joined the space race. According to the plans of Mao Zedong, an astronaut from this country was supposed to appear in orbit already in 1973. Especially for the implementation of this project in the province of Sichuan, near the city of Sichang, the construction of a cosmodrome has begun. It was built in the strictest secrecy, and the place was chosen not only because of its proximity to the equator, but also as far as possible from the border with the Soviet Union. But during the Cultural Revolution, leading scholars were repressed and funding curtailed. The project was closed and relaunched only in 1984. Then the first launches took place here, and in 1988 foreign specialists were admitted to Sichan. Since 1990, the cosmodrome has been offering its services to other countries; commercial launches are carried out using the national launch vehicle CZ-3. The cosmodrome has two launch complexes at a distance of a kilometer from each other. The cosmodrome can theoretically produce about 10-12 launches every year. Interestingly, during launches, the population of nearby settlements is evacuated. And in the event of non-standard situations, the carrier rocket is undermined so that its debris fell in sparsely populated areas.
Taiyuan, China. The cosmodrome began launching rockets back in 1966, but then it was about military ballistic carriers. Only in 1988, the first launch of the spacecraft took place here. The cosmodrome was previously called Wuzhai and is located much north of Xichang, near the city of Taiyuan. It was built 2500 years ago and was the birthplace of many Chinese emperors. This is how the past merged with the future, which tourists are certainly told about. The area of the cosmodrome is 375 square kilometers, and its launch sites are at an altitude of 1,500 meters above sea level. At the facility, in addition to the missile launch facilities themselves, there is also a maintenance tower and two storage facilities for liquid fuel. The main satellite launches from here are meteorological, reconnaissance and remote sensing. In 2012, 5 spacecraft launches were carried out from here.
Jiuquan, China. This is the first cosmodrome for China and until 1984 it was the only one. Jiuquan is also called the Chinese Baikonur, also because of its size - 2800 square kilometers. Originally, the Shuanchenzi test site was built in the Gobi Desert. And the first launch into space from here was carried out in 1970 - the Chinese satellite Dongfanhun-1 rose into the sky. And in October 2003, the first Chinese cosmonaut (taikonaut) took off from this cosmodrome. So China became the third country in history with manned space exploration. And in 2005, the second manned flight took place - two taikonauts made 30 orbits around the Earth. In total, from 1970 to 1996, 26 launches were carried out from here. In the 1990s, China began to offer other countries the possibility of commercial use of spaceports, but Jiuquan was not in great demand due to its geographical location. Then it was decided to make this center the main base for the implementation of the national manned spacecraft project. Especially for this, a modern control kit was created, which simply has no equal in the world.
Plesetsk, Russia. The most important cosmodrome in Russia is located 180 kilometers south of Arkhangelsk. This is the northernmost site of its kind with a long history. From the 1970s to the 1990s, it was Plesetsk that was the leader in the number of launches of space rockets, from 1957 to 1993 they were carried out in 1372, which is one and a half times more than Baikonur. The history of the cosmodrome began on January 11, 1957, when the Council of Ministers decided to create the Angara military facility. It was supposed to house the first military unit in the USSR with ballistic missiles. The site was chosen taking into account the reach of the territory of the alleged enemy and so that test launches in the Kamchatka region could be made. But in the summer of 1963, it was decided to convert the military facility into a test facility. The polygon began to develop in two directions: rocket and space. The first launch of the spacecraft took place here in 1966. Since 1968, Plesetsk began to carry out international space programs. Already in 1972, the French vehicle MAC-1 was sent into space from here. With the creation of the military space forces in Russia in 1992, it was Plesetsk that became the First State Cosmodrome. Currently, the cosmodrome has launch sites for all modern domestic carriers of light and medium class, a launch complex is being created for the latest carrier rockets, including heavy ones.
Sea launch. It is quite obvious that if it is not possible to launch rockets from the territory of equatorial states, then a sea floating cosmodrome should be adapted for these purposes. This is exactly what Sea Launch is. This method was used in 1964-1988 on the offshore fixed platform "San Marco" in Kenyan equatorial waters. However, the payload when launched from there was only 200 kilograms. After it became known that a powerful launch vehicle would not start from there, Russia, the United States and Ukraine in 1995 created an international consortium "Sea Launch". The project cost was $ 3.5 billion. However, in 2009 the company filed for bankruptcy. And the first successful commercial launch took place in 1999. In total, by February 1, 2013, 35 launches were carried out, of which three were unsuccessful. The starting point is a place in the Pacific Ocean, not far from Christmas Island and exactly on the equator. And although this place is considered calm and remote from sea routes, launches had to be postponed several times due to bad weather.
Sriharikota, India. This spaceport is part of the Satish Dhwan Space Center. It is located on the island of Sriharikota in the Bay of Bengal. The obvious advantage of this spaceport is its proximity to the equator. The cosmodrome began operating in 1980, although the foundation date is October 1, 1970. Today meteorological satellites are launched from here, and space technology is being tested. On average, India makes two launches from here annually. The cosmodrome has not only launch complexes, but also a tracking station, stands for testing rocket engines. A plant for the production of fuel for carriers was also built here. A lunar mission was launched from the Sriharikot cosmodrome in 2008, and an interplanetary Martian station was launched in 2013.
Vandenberg, USA. Canaveral is considered the main American spaceport. However, this air force base, operated by NASA, is an important place in the history of astronautics. In 1957, the infantry training center was transferred to the Air Force, becoming a center for testing space and ballistic missiles. By 1968, through the acquisition of farmland, the area of the cosmodrome was increased to the present day 400 square kilometers. In 1958, the first ballistic missile was launched from Vandenberg, and the following year, a polar-orbiting satellite was launched. In 1972, the launch site was chosen as the site for the launch and landing of the Space Shuttle on the west coast of the United States. The base was significantly modified, however, after the crash of Challenger in 1986, the shuttle program was frozen. The launch complex was again reoriented to launch polar-orbiting satellites, mainly for military purposes. Also next to the launch site is the Rocket and Space Heritage Center, which shows how the base and its technologies have evolved.
Fujifilm X-T1 - Full Review
Lenses sony sel. Sony lenses rating. Which Sony lens to buy
Canon PowerShot Pro1 - quality that ends quickly Canon PowerShot G5 X highlights