The natural range of the largest flying bird. The largest birds of prey (10 photos). African Great Bustard

Birds are unique and fun creations of nature. They are beautiful, colorful, weightless. However, there are also some large and giant birds that will amaze you with their size and structure. More than 90% of birds have small parameters and fly easily and quickly, but the remaining 10% are incredibly large. This includes both flying and non-flying bird species. Here are the ten largest birds in the world.

10. Wandering albatross

A fairly large bird that reaches a length of 117 cm. This bird is native to the northern Pacific and Southern Oceans. In total, there are about 24 different albatross species in the world, of which the wandering albatross is the largest. It weighs up to 12 kg and feeds on squid and fish. Also drinks a lot of salt water. Most of its time, this giant glides among the ocean winds and floats on the surface of the water. Thus, it is difficult to find it on land. During the breeding season, these albatrosses form colonies on various outlying islands.

9. Mute swan

This aquatic bird easily grows up to 180 cm and usually weighs from 8 to 13 kg (individual individuals can weigh up to 22.5 kg), therefore it is one of the ten largest birds in the world. The mute swan is very beautiful, delicate and has a long neck that helps birds find food below the surface of the water, as these swans mainly feed on insects, aquatic vegetation, and also small fish. Their wingspan is up to 240 cm. These birds are a little aggressive, but very intelligent. They remember well the people who take care of them or feed them.

8. Curly Pelican

Native to South Asia and Europe, the Dalmatian Pelican is considered one of the oldest as well as the heaviest flying birds on earth. It grows up to 180 cm in length and weighs about 14 kg. Also, this pelican has a huge wingspan, which reaches 3.4 m. In terms of their appearance, they have similar characteristics to large white pelicans. However, they are comparatively larger than their relatives. The curly pelican has the second largest beak in the world, its length is up to 50 cm. These birds feed mainly on fish and other marine inhabitants. They can easily consume about 2 kg of fish per day. They are very fond of eel, carp, catfish, and also perch.

7. Andean Condor

Ranked seventh in the ten largest birds in the world, this member of the vulture family, the large wings of the Andean condor help it fly by balancing its body weight. Wingspan up to 3 meters, weight - up to 15 kg, body length - 1.2 meters and more. Just like other vultures, these condors feed on carrion as well as pets. Feast on dead fish and dead seals along the coastline. They hunt eggs in the nests of other birds. today it has the status of an endangered species. Can live up to 75 years.

6. African Great Bustard

The African Great Bustard is very huge, its weight reaches 18-20 kg. Their huge size does not prevent them from flying, which is why these birds are considered the largest flying birds in the world. These giants eat snakes, insects, seeds, berries, and lizards as their main diet. The African Great Bustard spends most of its time on the ground in search of food.

5. Large, or northern rhea

Large flightless bird that is endemic South America and reaches a length of 140 cm. Great rhea weighs up to 27 kg. The bird has very large wings, which it uses to balance the body as it moves and to change direction while running. They feed on various insects, small birds, and lizards. Large rhea have long and powerful legs, which they use as protection. During the mating season, the male mates with several females, and all eggs are laid in one place. Thus, you can find more than 50 eggs in one nest. The average lifespan of this bird is 10 years.

4. Emperor penguin

The natives of Antarctica weigh about 45 kg and are therefore also in the ten largest birds in the world. These penguins have the ability to travel up to 80 km in search of food. It is also interesting that they can dive to a depth of 450 m. Their main diet includes squid, krill, as well as fish. Males show a lot of attention to females during mating, and also take care of eggs. The average life span of an emperor penguin in the wild is up to 20 years. However, if conditions are ideal, then the penguin can live up to 50 years. The front part of the emperor penguin's body is covered with a waterproof feather.

3. Emu

Emu is a flightless bird native to Australia that weighs up to 60 kg. Emu has a length of 150-190 cm and is mainly considered a resident of woodlands, savannas and other wooded areas. The main diet of these birds consists of seeds, fruits, plants, lizards, as well as some insects. These birds can also swallow pebbles. They have very long legs, and this is the reason why these birds can reach speeds of up to 50 km / h while running. The breeding season is during the winter. An emu egg weighs up to 500 g and is dark green in color.

2. Helmet, or southern cassowary

The ten largest birds in the world are the southern cassowary, which is considered the second largest bird in the world. It can be seen in the rainforests of Australia and Indonesia. It is a wingless bird that reaches a height of up to 1.5 m and weighs up to 80 kg. The legs of the cassowary are very powerful and thick, which allows the bird to run at a speed of 48 km / h. The main diet of these birds consists of grass, insects, and mushrooms. The female southern cassowary lays eggs during the summer season.

1 ostrich

The ostrich ranks first in the ten largest birds in the world. At the same time, the ostrich is also the heaviest bird. An adult representative easily reaches a weight of 150 kg and has a height of up to 270 cm. The ostrich is also the fastest bird, its maximum speed when running is 70 km / h. Native to Africa, today ostriches are mostly found in regions of Australia, feeding on fruits, flowers, seeds, shrubs, and small insects. Another interesting feature of these birds is that they can live without water for several days. They have long and strong legs that help them defend against enemies. Ostriches mostly live in a group of 10 to 50 birds .

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For centuries predator birds were perceived by man as mystical creatures endowed with special powers. In various tribal cultures, there were religious movements dedicated to predatory murderers, they became the patrons of the caste of warriors and shamans. In modern ornithology, the term "bird of prey" refers to any species of bird that has strong claws, keen eyesight and a strong, curved beak. In theory, the largest members of this species could well kill even a human.

The Great Gray Owl is rightfully considered the world's largest bird from the order of owls. In length, a tawny owl can grow up to 84 centimeters. The bird's habitat is quite wide: the great gray owl prefers taiga zones and is found in the territories from Siberia to Transbaikalia.

Andean condor

It is found in the Andes and the Pacific coast of South America. Condors live up to seventy years, but the population of these birds is threatened. The flight of the bird looks especially spectacular: they soar high in the sky, catching the rising currents of warm air. At the same time, the condor's wings are wide open in the horizontal plane, the ends of the primary feathers are spread out - even in a calm flight, such an appearance looks like preparation for a swift dash for prey.

Battle eagle

Only one pair of fighting eagles dominates an area of ​​one thousand square kilometers. These birds are not very sociable: pairs nest at a distance of about 50 kilometers from each other. The only enemy of a fighting eagle is a man - other living creatures are simply not dangerous to a bird.

Philippine eagle

The monkey-eating eagle is considered one of the rarest, largest and most powerful birds in the world. You can meet him only in the rainforests of the Philippines: here he is considered national symbol country. For the murder of an eagle, local law provides for twelve years in prison - for comparison, for the murder of a person faces only nine years.

Snow vulture

One of the largest vultures in the world lives in the high regions of the Himalayas, Pamir and Kazakhstan. A few nesting sites of the snow vulture are found on the Tibetan plateau. Hunting this species is prohibited by local law, but for poachers, catching such a vulture means huge profits, and the bird population is steadily declining.

Lamb

The bird was named so because of a misconception about its diet: it was believed that this representative of the hawk family was hunting sheep. In fact, the lamb feeds mainly on carrion, making an exception only for turtles.

South American harpy

This large hawk is found in the plains and rainforests of South America. The harpy preys on large mammals such as sloths and monkeys. Unfortunately, deforestation in harpy nesting sites leads to a steady decline in the population of these dangerous and beautiful birds: now there are less than 40,000 individuals.

Hawk eagle

The largest bird in South Africa is most commonly found south of the Sahara. The hawk eagle is armed with huge, razor-sharp claws, and the blow of its hind legs is so strong that it could knock even a man down.

Golden eagle

The most famous and most widespread bird of prey in the entire northern hemisphere. The wingspan of the golden eagle reaches an impressive 2.34 meters - a real killer machine. Since ancient times, the bird has been considered the patron saint of hunters and enjoys great mystical influence in many tribal cultures.

Wandering albatross

The wingspan of the wandering albatross is as much as 325 centimeters, the largest of all existing birds. The albatross lives up to thirty years, which makes it a real long-liver record holder.

More than 10.5 thousand species are known in the world. The given number is catastrophically decreasing every year, and most of the birds have already disappeared. The ancient inhabitants are called "relics"; birdwatchers simply did not have time to investigate and describe many individuals.

At the moment, the defenders of flora and fauna have come to grips with the preservation of rare endangered birds... The relics are under state protection and scrupulous quantitative control. There is a strict localization of the habitat of these.

There are several reasons for the disappearance of ancient birds:

1. Natural. Many specimens simply cannot survive in warmer climates.

2. Urbanization. There are few places of natural origin left; megacities have replaced forests and steppes.

3. Poor ecology. Emissions into the atmosphere and the world's oceans provoke a large number of dangerous diseases.

4. Poachers. They catch rare birds and sell them for huge sums of money.

I would like to list names of rare birds, their number on the planet ranges from several tens to several thousand. Statistics show that only protected areas are capable of preserving endangered birds.

Red-footed Asian ibis

The most rare bird in the world- this is Red-footed (Asian). In nature, this amazing creature lives in the Far East of Russia, China and Japan. According to preliminary data, at the beginning of the last century, the number of these birds was 100.

Now it is difficult to calculate accurately, the Ibis prefers to settle on a very tall trees and in mountain gorges. The bird's appearance is beautiful: thick snow-white plumage covers the body; beak, head and legs are colored bright red; the crown is decorated with a magnificent comb. The reason for the disappearance of the species is considered to be hunting and massive deforestation.

Red-footed (Asian) ibis

Eagle screamer

The king of the island's air is the Screamer Eagle. Over the past century, the number of this species has decreased dramatically, to several dozen pairs.

This bird of the hawk family prefers freedom in all forms. At the moment, the habitat is a small island on the western side of the island. The body length reaches 58-65 cm, the wingspan is 1.5-2 m.

The body and wings are black, brown or dark gray. A distinctive feature of eagles is their snow-white head, neck and tail. Loves high mountains, prefers to live near water bodies.

In the photo, the bird is the eagle screamer

Spatelteil

Spatelteil is miniature, reaching a length of only 10-15 cm. It can rightfully be attributed to the rarest birds... The uniqueness of this instance lies in its appearance.

In addition to the fact that the body is covered with bright plumage, the tail is only four feathers. Two of them are short, and the other two are elongated, have a bright blue tassel at the end.

Due to the massive deforestation, the bird is forced to migrate and can only be seen in remote corners of Peru, for example, in Rio Utkumbuba.

In the photo there is a rare Spatelteil bird

Earthen cuckoo

In the humid forests of southern Sumatra, a very rare representative of the family, Zemlyanaya, lives. The bird is too shy, therefore it is problematic to describe it and capture it in the photo.

It was first discovered two hundred years ago. It took a long time to study the behavior and cry of the bird. Only lenses and microphones of modern cameras were able to capture the Earth Cuckoo. The body is covered with dense black or brown feathers. The scallop and tail are colored dark green. Bird watchers have counted only 25 individuals.

In the photo, an earthen cuckoo

Bengal bustard

In the steppe and semi-desert expanses of Indochina, it is very rare to find the Bengal bustard. The main reasons for the decline in the population are incessant hunting and a large amount of pesticides.

Previously, the bird inhabited vast regions of Nepal and Cambodia. runs perfectly, although he can also fly. The body color can be light gray or dark brown. The long neck is white or black. There are now approximately 500 individuals.

In the photo Bengal bustard

Honduran Emerald

Honduran Emerald is the most rare bird of the world, it belongs to the subspecies. It has a miniature size, approximately 9-10 cm. The small compact body is covered with thick feathers, on the head and neck the color resembles emerald overflow.

The elongated beak is one third of the size of the bird. The habitat is dense bushes and forests. The feathered one prefers a dry climate, avoiding humid jungles.

Bird Honduran Emerald

Kakapo

- a relative of parrots, but this bird is so strange and attractive that, having got to know it better, you want to watch it forever. Why? The bird leads only a nocturnal lifestyle and does not know at all what flying is.

Natural habitat - New Zealand... gets along well with reptiles and snakes. It has bright green plumage, short legs, a large beak and a gray tail. It prefers to live in burrows, most of the specimens are perfectly preserved in reserves, in the wild their number reaches 120 individuals.

Pictured is a kakapo bird

Fired

Palila is a fabulous one from the finch family. She is also called the "saffron finch flower girl", an inhabitant of the paradise Hawaiian islands. The beak is small, the body length reaches 18-19 cm, the head and neck are painted golden, the abdomen and wings are white or gray.

Prefers dry forests and highlands, feeds on seeds and buds of Sophora golden-leaved. It was on the verge of extinction due to the massive felling of an endemic tree.

In the photo, a rare bird fired

Philippine eagle

The largest representative of the hawk family is the Philippine eagle, one of the rarest and largest birds on the planet. The bird is considered a natural treasure of the country, and any negative impact on the bird is punishable by law.

Habitat - only the tropics of the Philippines. The people call the bird "", the population in nature is only 300-400 individuals. The reason for the decline in numbers is the human factor and the destruction of the natural living space.

The body length is 80-100 cm, the wingspan is more than two meters. The back and wings are dark brown, the belly is white, a huge beak, strong clawed paws. love to hunt monkeys in pairs.

Philippine Eagle

Owl Nightjar

The Owl Nightjar is a very mysterious and rare bird. Found only on the island of New Caledonia. Bird watchers were lucky enough to see and describe only two individuals. The birds are nocturnal, nesting in deep hollows or remote caves.

Loners, how they behave throughout the day has not been studied. The head is round, the body is 20-30 cm long, the beak is small, surrounded by long bristles. One gets the impression that the bird has no mouth, popularly called the "owl frogmouth".

Bird Owl Nightjar

What are the rare birds in the vastness of our country? It would seem that the state has tightened the program for the conservation of flora and fauna, strict control over poachers is being conducted, natural reserves are being created ... And yet, there are many birds on the verge of extinction in the country.

Only the Far Eastern region remained within the Russian Federation, where birds live in a pristine natural environment. The southern Amur region is exactly the corner where glaciers simply did not reach.

Scientists-ornithologists unanimously claim that the descendants of prehistoric birds have survived only here. This is evidenced by the structural features of their bodies and signs of extinct species. I would like to list the rarest birds found on the territory Of Russia.

White-eye

White-eye - miniature with bright, dense plumage. The upper part of the body and wings are painted light green, the abdomen and goiter are lemon-colored. The beak is small, a distinctive feature - the eye is surrounded by a white border.

Inhabits forest belts, groves and on the outskirts of dense thickets. According to scientific data, the white-eyed is a bird, but for some reason she chose the forests of the Amur. It nests high in thickets, keeping in pairs or flocks, sometimes alone.

In the photo is a white-eyed bird

Paradise Flycatcher

The Paradise Flycatcher is a tropical bird found primarily in Korea, China, India and Afghanistan. For some unknown reason, the bird population moved to the coastal regions of Russia and Central Asia.

The elongated body is covered with orange plumage on top, the head is colored bright blue. - this is a migratory bird, chose our region because of the shoots of bird cherry. It enjoys the buds and seeds of this plant. The body is decorated with a long, stepped tail, and a thick crest opens on the head during flight.

Bird paradise flycatcher

Pink seagull

Rose gull refers to rare bird species due to the fact that the bird's habitat is very limited. A distinctive feature of the gull is its unusual pink plumage, which is actually rare.

The area of ​​natural origin is considered to be the Kolyma, the zone between the rivers Yana, Indigirka and Alazeya. Sometimes it wanders to the reservoirs of America, which happens very rarely. It nests in the tundra zone, where there are many lakes, does not like to coexist with humans. Now the bird is under strict protection and scrupulous counting of the number.

Rose gull bird

Mandarin duck

The most beautiful representative of the duck is, she is from Japan. Habitat - dense forests of the Far East (Amur and Sakhalin regions). A small size wood duck with bright colorful plumage.

Inhabits woodlands of mountain rivers, swims and dives well, feeds on aquatic plants and acorns. The mandarin duck is an excellent flyer, however, it can often be seen sitting on the branches. Introduced into Red Russia. The main reason for the decline in numbers is hunting and forest dogs, which are harmful to bird nests.

Pictured is a mandarin duck

Scaled Merganser

Scaly Merganser belongs to the most ancient and relict inhabitants of our planet. The ancestor of this is considered "ichthyornis", a clear similarity between them is the unusual arrangement of teeth in the beak, reminiscent of a hacksaw.

The body structure is compact, streamlined, the body is medium in size. The bird flies quickly, dives and swims beautifully. The main diet is fry and small fish. The merganser lives along the banks of rivers and lakes. It nests in very inaccessible places, it is difficult to see and find the nest. The upper part of the body is colored chocolate, and there are light specks along the feathers that create the effect of scales.

In the photo Scaly Merganser

Stone thrush

The stone thrush is a rare and shy bird with very beautiful singing. You can hear it more often than see it. The natural habitat is mountain peaks and cedar forests. It nests very high, therefore it is impossible to see the nest and the clutch. There are cases when he placed the masonry right on the ground among the stones. The small size bird has an unusual plumage color.

The thrush adapts to its habitat, it turns blue or silver-gray. The abdomen has a brick or reddish tint. The stone thrush is a great singer, his trills can be heard within a radius of many hundreds of meters. The bird also likes to copy other sounds that are interesting to him: hiss, sneezes, sirens ...

In the photo, the bird is the Stone Thrush

Okhotsk snail

The Okhotsk snail is a rare species found mainly in the Far East. However, many ornithological expeditions found these birds on the shores of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, Kamchatka and Sakhalin.

The length of the body is 30-32 cm. The head is small in size with a long, slightly curved upward beak. The plumage is gray or brown. It feeds on small mollusks, fish, etc. At the moment, this species of waders is under guard and is very rare birds, the number of individuals is about 1000 pieces.

Okhotsk snail bird

Blue magpie

Blue magpie - the rarest representative of the family "Corvids", an inhabitant of East Asia... It is appreciated by ornithologists because of its unusual color - the main part of the body is covered with a light blue color. The head is painted black, a strict line is drawn along the beak. The body length is 35-40 cm, the abdomen becomes beige or light brown.

An interesting fact - the habitat zone is separated by a huge distance. One part is located in Europe (Iberian Peninsula), the other - in Transbaikalia, the Baikal region, China, Korea, Japan and Mongolia.

Blue magpie

Black crane

The black crane is the rarest member of its family. Breeds mainly on the territory of Russia. listed in the Red Book, still little studied, now there are approximately 9-9.5 thousand individuals.

This bird is small in size, reaching only 100 cm in height. The plumage is dark gray or blue, the neck is long white. The beak has a greenish tint, there is a bright red spot on the crown of the head, there are no feathers in this area, only short bristly processes cover the skin. Habitat - hard-to-reach swampy places and swamps, feeds on food of plant and animal origin.

In the photo is a black crane

Dikusha

Dikusha is a poorly studied and rare bird from the family. Her Photo located upon place of honor among rare endangered birds... The ancient inhabitant has a friendly character and is not at all afraid of a person.

It is for this reason that it becomes a trophy for many hunters. The bird is small in size, has a brown, dark gray or black color. There may be white spots on the sides and back. Habitats Amur Territory and Sakhalin. It feeds on needles, insects, berries and seeds. Rarely flies, moves mainly on the ground.

In the photo, the bird is a wild grouse

I want so much rare bird species pleasing to the eye for a long time. It all depends only on the person, because you can organize more protected areas where the birds will feel comfortable and not migrate away from people.

Since childhood, we have been interested in one simple riddle: who is actually the fastest of the birds? These amazing creatures have such a reserve of strength that many can envy them. The result of research on this topic may surprise many.

The fastest bird in the world

The first place in a similar list of the fastest birds is the peregrine falcon. It is this inconspicuous bird that can move at a speed of approximately 389 kilometers per hour, which (for comparison) significantly exceeds the free fall speed of parachutists.

It is this fastest bird in the world that can give odds to many animals, while the peregrine falcon can be found absolutely on all continents, except perhaps Antarctica. Its main feature is that it can develop such a tremendous speed only by diving from a height.

Peregrine falcon size

In appearance, this fastest bird in the world is no larger than a crow, moreover, it has gray plumage, which turns light gray on the abdomen, and the head is always black.

The peregrine falcon survives thanks to a peculiar hunting technique, which consists in the fact that it dives from a height at its prey and knocks it down with a blow of its tucked legs. The speed with which the peregrine falcon does this can easily lead to the fact that it knocks the head of poor prey.

Second fastest

In fact, the bird, which will be discussed later, can calmly take the first place in this kind of speed rating.

The main reason for this is that the peregrine falcon develops tremendous speed when it "falls" from the sky, but the swift's flight speed is enormous in the horizontal plane.

It can reach speeds of over 170 kilometers per hour. You can meet such a miracle only in Northern or Central Asia, as well as in Central Europe. The bird spends its winter quarters in Africa or in India. Now its natural habitat is cities, and much less often it concerns forests.

Swift appearance

A swift is even smaller than a peregrine falcon and weighs only 50-150 grams.

The Black Swift is the fastest. It has a dark brown plumage with a barely noticeable metallic sheen. It can be easily confused with a swallow, because these species of birds are quite similar, especially when viewed from above.

Bird features

The peculiarity of the swift is precisely in the fact that just a few centuries ago it could be eaten, arguing that the meat is quite tasty.

If you do not take into account this gastronomic peculiarity of it, there is another curious fact: the swift spends almost all its time in the air. In the most literal sense of the word. Leaving eight weeks after birth from the nest, it lands only about 3 years later. With the condition that his legs are very short and the fingers are directed only forward, it is quite difficult to take off from the ground on his own, but it is possible. It only takes a few very strong flaps of the wings and at least a little elevation in order to make it easier to take off. The wings themselves are disproportionately large when compared to the size of the body itself.

Long, curved wings and a perfectly streamlined body, flat head and short neck - all these aerodynamic features allow the swift to even sleep in the air. Being at an altitude of up to 3 thousand meters in a flock, he simply flies in a circle and falls asleep, while waking up every 5 seconds in order to once again flap his wings and not fall.

This fastest bird on earth can fly about 500 thousand kilometers in its entire life, while landing only a few times in its life just to breed.

Swallow and swift: differences

Earlier it was said that a swift can be very much like a swallow in its appearance. Still, their most important difference is their flight speed - the swift develops a speed of about 170 kilometers per hour, and the swallow is only 60 kilometers per hour. Nevertheless, a swift cannot be better in flight maneuverability than a swallow. A bird of this species also differs from a swift in the structure of its legs - in a swift, four fingers are turned forward, and in swallows, three forward and one backward. That is why they can sit on telegraph wires and it is easy to hold there, but a swift will definitely not succeed in this.

Swifts have a dark abdomen, while swallows have white. At the same time, in flight, the first species of birds is distinguished by its excessive loudness and never folds its wings. In addition, the swift is larger than the swallow.

Bird speed

The third fastest in this ranking is the gray-headed albatross. It is larger in size than its predecessors, as it has a wingspan of 3.5 meters. Due to the fact that the albatross cannot make such a rapid dive or constantly live in the air, it is distinguished by its endurance.

It is he who can fly at a speed of 130 kilometers per hour for eight hours. Although he is not the fastest bird in the world, he is in the Guinness Book of Records due to his amazing features.

The eider is a duck bird that can reach speeds of about one hundred kilometers per hour. At the same time, it can withstand long flights, although it does not rise high into the sky, because its main food is in the water - mollusks, worms, small fish. That is why the eider is not only a fast bird, but also an excellent diver.

The next in the ranking of the fastest birds in the world will be a carrier pigeon. This type has proven itself perfectly in various conditions - both in peacetime and during military operations. That is why the pigeon needs to be given its due respect.

Its flight speed ranges from 90 to 100 kilometers per hour. Pigeons are much more resilient than albatrosses - some individuals can stay in the air for more than 16 hours.

The starling is an inconspicuous bird with a pleasant singing voice, it has also established itself as an excellent flyer. Starlings can reach speeds of about 70 kilometers per hour, and they are found on every continent of our planet.

Also, the field thrush can develop a speed of 70 kilometers per hour. It is distributed throughout Europe and Asia, and its voice and unusual plumage always attract a lot of attention.

The content of the article

BIRDS(Aves), a class of vertebrates that unites animals that differ from all other animals by the presence of a feather cover. Birds are distributed throughout the world, very diverse, abundant and easily accessible for observation. These highly organized creatures are sensitive, receptive, colorful, elegant and have interesting habits. Because birds are highly visible, they can serve as a convenient indicator of the state of the environment. If they thrive, then the environment is also healthy. If their numbers are dwindling and they cannot reproduce normally, the state of the environment is likely to leave much to be desired.

Like other vertebrates - fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals - the basis of the skeleton of birds is a chain of small bones - vertebrae on the dorsal side of the body. Like mammals, birds are warm-blooded, i.e. their body temperature remains relatively constant despite fluctuations in ambient temperature. They differ from most mammals in that they lay eggs. Traits specific to the class of birds are primarily associated with the ability of these animals to fly, although some of their species, for example ostriches and penguins, have lost it in the course of their later evolution. As a result, all birds are relatively similar in shape to each other, and cannot be confused with other taxa. They stand out even more thanks to their feathers, which are not found in any other animal. So, birds are feathered, warm-blooded, oviparous vertebrates, initially adapted to flight.

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION

Modern birds, according to most scientists, descend from small primitive reptiles, pseudo-aids, which lived in the Triassic period about 200 million years ago. Competing with fellows for food and fleeing predators, some of these creatures in the course of evolution more and more adapted to climbing trees and jumping from branch to branch. Gradually, as the scales lengthened and turned into feathers, they acquired the ability to plan, and then to be active, i.e. flapping, flying.

However, the accumulation of fossil evidence has led to the emergence of an alternative theory. More and more paleontologists believe that modern birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs that lived in the late Triassic and Jurassic, most likely from the group of the so-called. coelurosaurs. These were bipedal forms with long tails and small forelimbs of the grasping type. Thus, the ancestors of birds did not necessarily climb trees, and there was no need for a gliding stage to form an active flight. It could have arisen on the basis of the flapping movements of the forelimbs, which were probably used to knock flying insects, for which, by the way, the predators had to jump high. In parallel, there were transformations of scales into feathers, reduction of the tail, and other profound anatomical changes.

In light of this theory, birds represent a specialized evolutionary lineage of dinosaurs that survived their mass extinction at the end of the Mesozoic era.

Archeopteryx.

The discovery in Europe of the remains of an extinct creature - Archeopteryx ( Archeopteryx litographica), who lived in the second half of the Jurassic period, i.e. 140 million years ago. It was about the size of a dove, had sharp teeth in cells, a long lizard-like tail, and forelimbs with three fingers bearing hooked claws. In most features, Archeopteryx looked more like a reptile than a bird, except for the actual feathers on the forelegs and tail. Its features show that it was capable of flapping flight, but only over very short distances.

Other ancient birds.

For a long time, Archeopteryx remained the only link between birds and reptiles known to science, but in 1986 the remains of another fossil creature were found that lived 75 million years earlier and combined the features of dinosaurs and birds. Although this animal was named Protoavis(pioneer bird), its evolutionary significance is controversial among scientists. After Archeopteryx, there is a gap in the avian fossil record lasting approx. 20 million years. The following finds date back to the Cretaceous period, when adaptive radiation had already led to the emergence of a variety of bird species adapted to different habitats. Among the approximately two dozen Cretaceous taxa known from fossil remains, two are particularly interesting - Ichthyornis and Hesperornis... Both were discovered in North America, in rocks that formed on the site of a vast inland sea.

Ichthyornis was the same size as Archeopteryx, but outwardly resembled a seagull with well-developed wings, indicating the ability to fly powerfully. Like modern birds, it had no teeth, but the vertebrae were fishlike, hence the generic name meaning "fishbird." The Hesperornis (“western bird”) was 1.5–1.8 m long and almost wingless. With the help of huge flipper-like legs, extending to the side at right angles at the very end of the body, he apparently swam and dived no worse than loons. He had teeth of a "reptilian" pattern, but the structure of the vertebrae corresponded to that typical of modern birds.

The appearance of flapping flight.

In the Jurassic period, birds acquired the ability to actively fly. This means that thanks to the flapping of their forelimbs, they were able to overcome the effect of gravity and received many advantages over their ground, climbing and gliding competitors. The flight allowed them to catch insects in the air, effectively avoid predators and choose the most favorable environmental conditions for life. Its development was accompanied by the shortening of the long, burdensome tail, replacing it with a fan of long feathers, well adapted for steering and braking. Most of the anatomical transformations required for active flight were completed by the end of the Early Cretaceous (about 100 million years ago), i.e. long before the extinction of the dinosaurs.

The emergence of modern birds.

With the onset of the Tertiary period (65 million years ago), the number of bird species began to increase rapidly. The oldest fossils of penguins, loons, cormorants, ducks, hawks, cranes, owls and some song taxa date back to this period. In addition to these ancestors of modern species, several huge flightless birds appeared, apparently occupying the ecological niche of large dinosaurs. One of them was Diatryma found in Wyoming, 1.8–2.1 m tall, with massive legs, a powerful beak and very small, underdeveloped wings.

At the end of the Tertiary period (1 million years ago) and during the early Pleistocene, or glacial epoch, the number and diversity of birds reached a maximum. Even then, there were many current species living side by side with those that later became extinct. A great example of the latter is Teratornis incredibilis from Nevada (USA), a huge bird resembling a condor with a wingspan of 4.8–5.1 m; it is probably the largest known flying bird.

Recently extinct and endangered species.

Man in historical times, undoubtedly, contributed to the extinction of a number of birds. The first documented case of this kind was the destruction of a flightless dove-shaped dodo ( Raphus cucullatus) from the island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean. For 174 years after the discovery of the island by Europeans in 1507, the entire population of these birds was exterminated by sailors and animals that they brought on their ships.

The first species of North America extinct at the hands of man was the wingless auk ( Alca impennis) in 1844. She also did not fly and nested in colonies on the Atlantic islands near the continent. Sailors and fishermen easily killed these birds for meat, fat and making cod bait.

Soon after the disappearance of the great auk, two species in the east of the North American continent became human victims. One of them was the Caroline parrot ( Conuropsis carolinensis). Farmers killed these flocking birds in large numbers, as thousands of them regularly raided the gardens. Another extinct species is the wandering pigeon ( Ectopistes migratorius), ruthlessly exterminated for meat.

Since 1600 all over the world, probably approx. 100 species of birds. Most of them were represented by small populations on the sea islands. Often incapable of flying, like a dodo, and almost not afraid of man and the small predators brought by him, they became their easy prey.

Currently, many bird species are also on the verge of extinction or, at best, are threatened by it. In North America, the Californian condor, the yellow-footed plover, the American crane, the Eskimo curlew and the white-billed royal woodpecker (possibly already extinct) are in the most deplorable situation. In other regions, the Bermuda typhoon, the Filipino harpy, the kakapo (owl parrot) from New Zealand - a flightless nocturnal species, and the Australian ground parrot are in great danger.

The birds listed above found themselves in an unenviable position mainly due to the fault of a person who put their populations on the brink of extinction by uncontrolled hunting, ill-considered use of pesticides or radical transformation of natural habitats.

SPREAD

The distribution of any species of birds is limited to a specific geographic area, the so-called. areal, the size of which varies greatly. Some species, such as the barn owl ( Tyto alba), almost cosmopolitan, i.e. are found on several continents. Others, say the Puerto Rican scoop ( Otus nudipes), the area does not go beyond the limits of one island. In migratory species, there are nesting areas in which they reproduce, and sometimes wintering areas that are very remote from them.

Due to their ability to fly, birds are prone to wide distribution and expand their ranges whenever possible. As a result, they are constantly changing, which, of course, does not apply to the inhabitants of small isolated islands. Natural factors can contribute to the expansion of the range. Probably the prevailing winds or typhoons around 1930 brought the Egyptian heron ( Bubulcus ibis) from Africa to the eastern shores of South America. From there, it began to rapidly move northward, in 1941 or 1942 reached Florida, and now it is found even in the southeast of Canada, i.e. its range covered almost the entire east of North America.

Man contributed to the expansion of habitats by introducing species into regions new to them. Two classic examples are the house sparrow and the common starling, which came from Europe to North America in the last century and settled throughout this continent. By changing natural habitats, humans also inadvertently stimulated the dispersal of some species.

Continental areas.

Land birds are distributed across six zoogeographic areas. These areas are as follows: 1) Palaearctic, i.e. non-tropical Eurasia and northern Africa, including the Sahara; 2) Nearctic, i.e. Greenland and North America, excluding the plains of Mexico; 3) Neotropics - the plains of Mexico, Central, South America and the West Indies; 4) Ethiopian region, i.e. Sub-Saharan Africa, southwestern corner of the Arabian Peninsula and Madagascar; 5) Indo-Malay region, covering the tropical part of Asia and the adjacent islands - Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi (Celebes), Taiwan and the Philippines; 6) Australian area - Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and the islands of the Southwest Pacific Ocean, including Hawaiian.

The Palaearctic and Nearctic are inhabited by 750 and 650 bird species, respectively; this is less than any of the other 4 areas. However, the number of individuals of many species there is much higher, since they have more extensive habitats, and there are fewer competitors.

The opposite extreme is the Neotropics, where approx. 2900 bird species, i.e. more than any other area. However, many of them are represented by relatively small populations confined to individual mountain ranges or river valleys of South America, which is called the "Bird Continent" due to the abundance and diversity of birds. Colombia alone has 1,600 species - more than any other country in the world.

The Ethiopian region is home to approximately 1,900 bird species. Notable among them is the African ostrich, the largest modern representative of this class. Of the 13 families endemic to the Ethiopian region (i.e., not beyond its limits), five families are found exclusively in Madagascar.

In the Indo-Malay region, there are also approx. 1900 species. Almost all pheasants live here, including the Indian peacock ( Pavo cristatus) and Banking Jungle Chicken ( Gallus gallus), from which the domestic chicken originated.

The Australian area is inhabited by approximately 1200 bird species. Of the 83 families shown here, 14 are endemic - more than in any other area. This is an indicator of the originality of many local birds. Among the endemic groups are large flightless kiwis (in New Zealand), emus and cassowaries, lyrebirds, birds of paradise (mainly in New Guinea), arbor birds, etc.

Island areas.

As a rule, the farther from the continents oceanic islands, the fewer bird species there. The birds that managed to reach these places and survive there are not necessarily the best flyers, but their ability to adapt to their environment is clearly at their best. Long isolation on the islands lost in the ocean has led to the accumulation of evolutionary changes sufficient for the transformation of the settlers into independent species. Example - Hawaii: Despite the small area of ​​the archipelago, its avifauna includes 38 endemic species.

Marine habitats.

Birds that forage in the sea, and visit land primarily for nesting, are naturally called sea birds. Procellariiformes, such as albatrosses, petrels, fulmars and storm petrels, can fly over the ocean for months and feed on aquatic animals and plants without ever getting close to land. Penguins, gannets, frigates, auk, guillemots, puffins, most cormorants, as well as some gulls and terns feed mainly on fish in the coastal zone and are rarely found far from it.

Seasonal areas.

In each specific territory, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, this bird species can occur only in a certain season, and then migrate to another place. On this basis, 4 categories of birds are distinguished: summer residents nesting in a given area in summer, transit species that stop there on the fly, winter lodgers arriving there for the winter, and permanent residents (sedentary species) who never leave the area.

Ecological niches.

Not a single bird species occupies all parts of its range, but is found only in certain places, or habitats, for example, in a forest, in a swamp or in a field. In addition, species in nature do not exist in isolation - each depends on the vital activity of other organisms occupying the same habitat. Thus, each species is a member of a biological community, a natural system of interdependent plants and animals.

Within each community there are so-called. food chains, including birds: they consume some kind of food and, in turn, serve as food for someone. Only a few species are found in all parts of the habitat. Usually, some organisms inhabit the soil surface, others - low shrubs, others - the upper layer of tree crowns, etc.

In other words, each bird species, like representatives of other living groups, has its own ecological niche, i.e. a special position in the community, like a "profession". An ecological niche is not identical to a habitat, or "address," a taxon. It depends on its anatomical, physiological and behavioral adaptations, i.e., say, on the ability to nest in the upper or lower tier of the forest, endure summer or winter there, feed during the day or night, etc.

Areas with a certain type of vegetation are characterized by a specific set of nesting birds. For example, species such as ptarmigan and snow bunting are confined to the northern tundra. The coniferous forest is characterized by wood grouses and crossbills. Most of the species we know well live in areas where natural communities have been directly or indirectly destroyed by civilization and replaced by anthropogenic (man-made) forms of the environment, such as fields, pastures and green suburbs. Such habitats are more widespread than natural ones, and are inhabited by numerous and diverse birds.

BEHAVIOR

A bird's behavior encompasses all of its actions, from ingesting food to responding to environmental factors, including other animals, including individuals of its own kind. Most of the behavioral acts in birds are congenital, or instinctive, i.e. no prior experience (learning) is needed for their implementation. For example, some species always scratch their head by lifting their leg over the lowered wing, while others simply pull it forward. Such instinctive actions are as characteristic of the species as body shape and coloration.

Many forms of behavior in birds are acquired, i.e. based on learning - life experience. Sometimes what appears to be pure instinct requires a certain amount of practice for its normal manifestation and adaptation to the circumstances. Thus, behavior is very often a combination of instinctual components and learning.

Key incentives (releasers).

Behavioral acts are usually induced by environmental factors called key stimuli, or releasers. They can be form, pattern, movement, sound, etc. Almost all birds respond to social releasers - visual or auditory, with which individuals of the same species transmit information to each other or cause immediate responses. These releasers are called signal stimuli, or demonstrations. An example is the red spot on the mandibles of adult herring gulls, which causes a begging for food in their chicks.

Conflict situations.

A special kind of behavior occurs in a conflict situation. Sometimes it represents the so-called. displaced activity. For example, a herring gull, driven from its nest by a stranger, does not rush into a counterattack, but instead cleans its feathers, which are already in excellent condition. In other cases, she may show redirected activity, say, in a territorial dispute, giving vent to her hostility by pulling out blades of grass instead of engaging in a fight.

Another type of behavior in a conflict situation is the so-called. initial movements, or movements of intention. The bird crouches or throws up its wings, as if trying to take off, or opens its beak and clicks it, as if wishing to pinch an opponent, but remains in place.

Marriage demonstrations.

All of these forms of behavior are of particular interest, since in the course of evolution they can ritualize within the framework of the so-called. marriage demonstrations. Often, the movements associated with them become, as it were, emphasized and, therefore, more noticeable, which is facilitated by the bright color of the corresponding parts of the plumage. For example, offset feather cleaning is common in mating displays of ducks. Many bird species use wing throwing, which originally played a role in courtship. initial movement in a conflict situation.

Addictive.

This word denotes the attenuation of the response to a repetitive stimulus, followed by no "reward" or "punishment." For example, if you knock on the nest, the chicks raise their heads and open their mouths, since for them this sound means the appearance of a parent with food; if food does not appear several times after the impact, such a reaction in the chicks quickly dies out. Domestication is also the result of habituation: the bird stops responding to human actions that initially caused it to be frightened.

Trial and error.

Learning by trial and error is selective (uses the principle of selection) and is based on reinforcement. Fledglings that have left the nest for the first time, in search of food, peck at pebbles, leaves and other small objects that stand out against the surrounding background. In the end, by trial and error, he learns to distinguish incentives that mean reward (food) from those to which the reaction does not provide such reinforcement.

Imprinting.

For a short early life, birds are capable of a special form of learning called imprinting or imprinting. For example, a newly hatched gosling, who saw a person before his own mother, will follow him on his heels, not paying attention to the goose.

Insight.

The ability to solve simple problems without resorting to trial and error is called “relationship grasping,” or insight. For example, a woodpecker tree finch ( Catospiza pallida) from the Galapagos Islands "by eye" picks up a needle from a cactus in order to extract an insect from a cavity in the wood with it. Some birds, in particular the great tit ( Parus major), immediately begin to pull the food suspended on it by the thread.

Individual behavior.

Social behavior.

Many actions of birds are related to social behavior, i.e. the relationship of two or more individuals. Even with a solitary lifestyle, they are in contact with their sexual partners during the breeding season or with other individuals of their own species occupying neighboring territories.

Communication.

Birds use sophisticated communication systems that primarily involve visual and audio signals or demonstrations. Some of them are used to intimidate another individual during a conflict with her. A bird that has taken a threatening pose often turns to meet the enemy, stretches its neck, opens its beak and presses the plumage. Other demonstrations are used to pacify the opponent. At the same time, the bird often retracts its head and fluffs up its feathers, as if emphasizing its passivity and safety for others. Demonstrations are clearly visible in the reproductive behavior of birds.

Defensive behavior.

All birds respond to hazard-related auditory and visual stimuli with special defensive behavior. The sight of a flying hawk prompts small birds to rush to the nearest shelter. Once there, they usually "freeze", pressing down their plumage, bending their legs and following the predator with one eye. Birds with a cryptic (camouflage, or patronizing) coloration simply crouch in place, instinctively trying to blend in with the background.

Warning shouts and shouts.

In almost all birds, the behavioral repertoire includes alarm and warning calls. While these signals were not originally intended to scare others of their species, they nevertheless prompt flock members, mates, or chicks to freeze, crouch, or flee. When faced with a predator or other dangerous animal, birds sometimes use threatening actions that are very similar to intraspecific threat demonstrations, but brighter in their manifestation. A group of small birds reacts to a predator sitting in the field of view, such as a hawk or an owl. shouting, similar to the barking of dogs. It allows you to warn of the potential danger of all birds in the immediate area, and during the breeding season - to distract the attention of the enemy from the hidden chicks.

Packing behavior.

Even outside the breeding season, most bird species tend to form flocks, usually of the same species. Apart from crowding in places of overnight stay, the members of the pack maintain a certain distance between themselves. For example, mountain swallows sit on wires with gaps of about 10 cm between individuals. An individual trying to close this distance immediately encounters a threatening demonstration from a neighbor. Numerous beeps emitted by all members of the pack help keep it from scattering.

Within the pack, there is a so-called. social relief: if one individual starts cleaning, eating, bathing, etc., those nearby will soon begin to do the same. In addition, there is often a social hierarchy in the pack: each individual has its own rank, or "social position", determined by sex, size, strength, color, health and other factors.

REPRODUCTION

Reproduction in birds involves establishing a nesting territory, courtship, copulation, pairing, building a nest, laying eggs, incubating a clutch and caring for growing chicks.

Territory.

At the beginning of the breeding season, individuals of most species establish the boundaries of their territory, which is protected from congeners. Usually only the male does this. There are four types of such territories.

Territory for mating, nesting and feeding.

This type is the most common and characteristic, for example, of the singing zonotrichia. The male arrives at the selected site in the spring and sets its boundaries. Then the female arrives, mating takes place, a nest is built, etc. The couple is looking for food for themselves and their chicks without leaving the territory.

Territory for mating and nesting, but not for feeding.

Many songbirds, including the red-winged corpse, guard a fairly large area around the nest, but go to other places in search of food.

Mating area only.

Males of some species use limited areas for mating demonstrations and attracting females. Those nest in another place without the participation of a sexual partner. Thus, several males of the sagebrush grouse attract females (“go to”), gathering in a small area, which is called a current.

Limited mating and nesting area.

Birds such as gannets, gulls, terns, herons and some species of swallows nest in colonies, within which each individual occupies the area immediately surrounding the nest. They start building it at the same place where the pairing took place.

The area that includes the feeding area must be large enough to provide food for both the nesting couple and their chicks. In a large bird, for example, a bald eagle, it occupies an area of ​​about 2.6 km 2, and in a singing zonotrichia it is no more than 0.4 hectares. In species nesting in dense colonies, the size of the territory should be sufficient so that adjacent pairs cannot reach each other with their beaks.

Singing.

The main sound demonstration of birds is a song, i.e. a stable sequence of sounds that allows the species to be identified. They are published mainly by the male, and usually only during the breeding season. Any sound can be used - from repetition of the same tone to a complex and long melody, sometimes very musical.

Birds sing especially often when the nesting territory is established, less often after hatching of chicks and usually stop singing when the young become independent and territorial behavior fades away. During the peak breeding season, one zonotrichia sang 2305 times a day. Some sedentary birds sing all year round.

Many birds try to catch the eye while singing, getting out to openly located places (perches). Larks, plantains and other inhabitants of treeless landscapes sing in flight.

Singing is most developed among the so-called. songbirds from the order of passerines, but almost all birds use some kind of sound demonstration to announce their presence. They can be reduced to a kind of pheasant clucking or a roar from penguins. Some birds make sounds not with their larynx, but with other parts of the body, making specific movements for this. For example, a woodcock leaping over a forest glade, flying up in a spiral into the sky, “horks” due to the sharp flapping of its wings, and then, during a steep zigzag descent, “clicks” in a voice. Some woodpeckers use drum rolls instead of a song, beaten out with their beak on a hollow stump or other object with good resonance.

During peak breeding season, some birds sing almost continuously throughout the day. However, for most species, it is more common to sing at dawn and in the evening. A mockingbird and a nightingale can sing on moonlit nights.

Pairing.

After the arrival of the female to the nesting site, the male activates his sound and visual demonstrations. He sings louder and louder and periodically pursues the female. At first, she is non-receptive, i.e. is not capable of fertilization, but after a few days its physiological state changes and copulation occurs. In this case, a more or less strong bond is often established between partners - a couple arises.

Songbirds are mostly monogamous. During the entire breeding season, they have only one partner, forming a stable pair with him. In some species, each nesting during one season is accompanied by a change of partner. Geese, swans and large birds of prey mate for life.

For a number of species, including some singers, polygamy is characteristic. If a male mates with two or more females, they speak of polygyny; if a female with two or more males - about polyandry. Polygyny is more common (for example, in rice corpse); polyandry is known for, say, the spotted American carrier. Promiscuous copulation without the formation of persistent couples between partners is called promiscuity. It is typical, for example, for black grouse.

Following the formation of a pair, males take care of its preservation. They bring material for the nest, sometimes help build it, and usually feed the incubating female.

Types of nests.

Being warm-blooded, birds not only protect eggs from adverse weather conditions, but also warm them, promoting the development of the embryo. To do this, they must have a nest, i.e. any place where eggs can be laid and where they will incubate.

There are open ground nests located in shelters, platform nests and bowls. The first two categories do not have a specific structure, but can be lined with small pebbles, plant rags or the bird's own down, although this is not necessary. The sheltered nest is located in a kind of cave, made by the bird itself or in some other way. Wood ducks use ready-made hollows, woodpeckers themselves hollow them out in tree trunks, kingfishers dig holes in river banks.

The platform nest is a bunch of twigs with a hole in the center for eggs. Herons and many birds of prey build such nests. The eagles use the same platform from year to year, adding new material to it every season, so that the mass of the structure can end up reaching over a ton.

Cup-shaped nests, which are built by most songbirds, have a clear structure: they have a dense bottom and walls, and inside a lining of soft material. Such a nest can lie on a support, like in blackbirds, hold onto it with its edges, like in a vireo, or hang in the form of a long wicker bag, like in an ivolog. In some species, it is attached to the wall, for example, in the Phoebus and the Swift, in the hollow, like in the American tree swallow, in the hole, like in the coastal swallow, or on the ground, like in the lark. The most unusual and large ones are the nests of the pheasant-like Australian ocellated hen. These birds dig deep holes, fill them with plant material, bury their eggs in it and leave; incubation provides heat released during decay. The hatched chicks get out on their own and then live on their own, without knowing their parents.

Building a nest.

Songbirds nesting in trees first collect the coarse material for the bowl itself, and then the finer material for its lining. As it is added, they form a nest by rotating their whole body in it. In some species, such as rice corpse, only the female builds the nest; in others, the male supplies her with material for work. In the West American jay, both partners carry out all the construction together.

In some species, the male prepares several "preliminary" nests on his site. For example, brown wrens often carry sticks to various secluded places, from which the partner chooses one for laying eggs. Virgin eagle owls use the abandoned nests of other birds, and sometimes drive the owners out of the newly built ones.

Eggs.

As a rule, the larger the bird, the larger the eggs it lays, but there are exceptions to this rule. The eggs of brood species, from which downy cubs hatch, are immediately able to run and feed independently, are larger in relation to the mother's body than in chick species, whose offspring are born naked and helpless. Thus, wader eggs are relatively larger than those of songbirds of the same size. In addition, the ratio of egg weight to body weight is often higher in small species than in large ones.

Most birds' eggs resemble chicken eggs in shape, but there are many options here. In kingfishers they are almost spherical, in hummingbirds they are elongated and blunt at both ends, and in waders they are strongly pointed at one of them.

The surface of the egg can be rough or smooth, matte or shiny, and almost any color from dark purple and green to pure white. In some species, it is speckled, sometimes forming a corolla around the blunt end. The eggs of many secretly nesting birds are white, and those who lay them on the ground often have the color of the shell merging with the background of the pebbles or vegetation that lined the nest.

The size of the masonry.

After the nest is ready, the female usually lays one egg per day until the clutch is complete. Clutch is the number of eggs laid in one nest. Its size varies from one egg in the black-browed albatross to 14 or 15 in some ducks and quails. It also fluctuates within the species. A wandering thrush can lay five eggs in the first clutch of the season and only 3 or 4 in the second and third. Clutch size sometimes decreases due to bad weather or lack of food. Most species lay a strictly limited number of eggs; some have no such certainty: they replace accidentally lost eggs with new ones, bringing the clutch to a standard volume.

Incubation.

In incubation (incubation) of eggs, both partners or only one of them can participate. Such a bird usually develops one or two brooding spots - areas devoid of feathers on the lower chest. Their heavily blood-supplied skin makes direct contact with the eggs and transfers heat to them. The incubation period, ending with hatching of chicks, lasts from 11–12 days in a sparrow to approximately 82 days in a wandering albatross.

Brightly colored males, as a rule, do not sit on eggs if the nest is open. The exception is the red-breasted oak-nosed cardinal, which not only incubates, but also sings. Many partners, incubating eggs alternately, have such a strong brood instinct that at times one bird pushes another from the nest to take its place. If only one partner incubates, he periodically leaves the nest for feeding and bathing.

Hatching.

The embryo at the end of the beak develops a special growth - an egg tooth, with the help of which, when hatching approaches, it scrapes the shell from the inside, reducing its strength. Then, resting on his feet and wings, he pushes cracks in it, i.e. hatching. After biting, hatching can take from a few hours in small birds to several days in the largest. All this time, the embryo squeaks abruptly, to which the parents respond with increased attention, sometimes pecking at cracks in the shell and tearing off small pieces of it.

Chick.

Songbirds and many other birds are chicks: their chicks hatch naked, blind and helpless. Sandpipers, ducks, chickens and some other birds are called brood birds: their chicks are immediately covered with down, are able to walk and provide themselves with food. There are many intermediate variants between typical chick and brood species.

Immediately after hatching, typical chicks are unable to control their body temperature and need to be kept warm by their parents. They can only raise their heads, open their mouths wide and move in the nest when its shaking indicates the arrival of an adult bird. Bright mouths of chicks serve as signal stimuli for her - "targets for food", stimulating its delivery exactly as intended. The parent either transfers food from the beak to the beak, or regurgitates it directly into the throats of the offspring. Pelicans bring fish to the nest in a throat pouch, open their huge beak wide and allow each chick to stick their head in there to profit on their own. Eagles and hawks deliver prey in their claws and tear it into pieces, which are fed to offspring.

Having fed the chicks, adult birds, as a rule, expect the appearance of their droppings, secreted in a mucous sac, carry it away and throw it away. Some species keep the nest perfectly clean, while others, such as kingfishers, do nothing for this.

Chicks of chick birds sit in the nest for 10 to 17 days, and after leaving it, for at least 10 more days they depend on their parents to protect and feed them. In species with a long period of incubation, the chick stays in the nest longer: in the bald eagle - 10-12 weeks, and in the wandering albatross, the largest flying seabird, approx. 9 months The duration of the nesting life is influenced by the degree of its safety. Chicks are selected from open ground nests relatively early.

Contrary to popular belief, parents do not encourage offspring to live independently. The chick leaves the nest voluntarily, having acquired the necessary coordination of movements. For the first time, the "fledglings" that fluttered out of it still do not know how to fly properly.

The chicks of brood birds spend much more time in the egg than in chicks, and when they hatch, they are usually developed in the same way as those at the time of departure from the nest. As soon as the down is dry, brood chicks begin to accompany their parents in search of food. During the first few days, they may still need heating. These chicks clearly respond to the voice of their parents, “freezing” on alarm and rushing to them in response to an invitation to eat.

However, they quickly learn to find food on their own. Adult bird leads them to the place of feeding and can show edible objects, peck them and release them from their beak. However, more often than not, parents only look after the kids, while those by trial and error comprehend what is good for food. Almost immediately after hatching, the chicks of the loud plover begin to peck up seeds and small insects from the ground, and the ducklings follow their mother in shallow water and begin to dive in search of food.

POPULATIONS

According to the assumptions of bird watchers, there are approx. 100 billion birds of approximately 8600 species. The number of individuals of one species varies from a few dozen, for example, in the endangered American crane, to many millions, like in Wilson's storm petrel, an ocean bird, possibly the champion in numbers among wild birds.

Fertility and mortality.

Population size, i.e. the totality of individuals of a species in a given territory depends on the levels of fertility and mortality. When these parameters are approximately equal (as is usually the case), the population remains stable. If the birth rate exceeds the death rate, the population grows; otherwise, it declines.

Fertility is determined by the number of eggs laid per year and the success of hatching. In birds that lay one egg every two years, like the Californian condor, each pair adds only “half of an individual” to the population per year, and, on the contrary, species with 2-3 large clutches annually can increase it by 20 individuals over the same period ...

Life expectancy.

Under ideal conditions, many species, especially large ones, live very long. For example, some eagles, vultures and parrots in captivity reached the age of 50–70 years. However, in nature, the bird's eyelid is much shorter. According to data obtained by ringing, large birds potentially live longer than small ones. The maximum recorded age for some birds in nature is as follows: gulls and waders - 36 years old, terns - 27 years old, hawks - 26 years old, loons - 24 years old, ducks, geese and swans - 23 years old, swifts - 21 years old and woodpeckers - 12 years old ... Probably predators like condors and eagles, as well as large albatrosses, live longer.

Population density.

Populations tend to retain their characteristic density for a long time, i.e. the number of individuals per unit area. A catastrophe that wipes out a large part of the population is often followed by a significant decrease in mortality, and its size quickly recovers. For example, a harsh winter that many birds have not experienced is usually followed by spring and summer with unusually high chick survival. This is largely due to the fact that the few surviving individuals get plenty of food and convenient nesting places.

Another important factor that regulates the size of the population is the territory available to it. Each pair needs a specific sized area of ​​suitable habitat for nesting. After the couples have occupied all the space suitable for the species, none of their relatives can settle there anymore. "Superfluous" birds have to either nest in unfavorable conditions, or not breed at all.

With a paucity of food resources and a high population density, its size is usually limited by competition for food. It is most powerful, apparently, at the end of winter and between individuals of the same species, since they all need the same diet.

In overcrowded areas, competition for food can lead to emigration (migration), which reduces the population density in a given location. Individuals of some species, for example, snowy owls, in years with their high numbers, lack of food resources, or both at the same time, appear in masses outside their usual range.

Although predator attacks are the most visible cause of bird death, population size is much less affected by adverse environmental conditions. Individuals weakened by old age or diseases usually become victims of predators.

MIGRATION

The flight allowed the birds to adapt better than many animals to changing environmental factors, in particular, periodic fluctuations in meteorological conditions, food availability and other parameters. The birds may have begun seasonal migrations in the Northern Hemisphere during the glacial era, when the glacier moved southward pushed them southward in the colder months, but the melting ice allowed them to return to their parents' nesting sites in the summer. It could also be that some species, under the influence of fierce interspecific competition in tropical regions, with the retreat of the glacier, began to temporarily migrate north to nest in a less densely populated environment. In any case, for many birds today, flights closer to the equator in the fall and back in the spring are an integral feature of the species.

Synchronization.

Migration is synchronized with the season and breeding cycle; it will not happen until the bird is physiologically ready for it and receives an appropriate external stimulus. Before migration, the bird eats a lot, accumulating weight and storing energy in the form of subcutaneous fat. Gradually, she comes into a state of "flight anxiety". In spring, it is stimulated by lengthening daylight hours, which activates the gonads (sex glands), altering the work of the pituitary gland. In autumn, the bird reaches the same state as the length of the day decreases, which causes inhibition of gonadal function. In order for an individual to set off for migration, it needs a special external stimulus, for example, a change in the weather. This stimulus is provided by the movement of the warm atmospheric front in spring and cold in autumn.

During migration, most birds fly at night, when they are less threatened by winged predators, and devote the day to feeding. Both single-species and mixed flocks, family groups and single individuals travel. On the road, birds usually do not rush, spending several days, or even a week in a favorable place.

Flyways.

Many birds have short journeys. Mountain species descend lower until they find enough food, spruce crossbills fly to the nearest area with a good harvest of cones. However, some birds migrate great distances. The polar tern has the longest flight path: it flies annually from the Arctic to the Antarctic and back, covering at least 40,000 km in both directions.

Speed

migration depends on the species. A flock of sandpipers can accelerate to 176 km / h. Turnstone flies 3,700 km south, making an average of 920 km per day. Flight speed measurements using radar have shown that for most small birds on windless days, it ranges from 21 to 46 km / h; Larger birds such as ducks, hawks, falcons, waders and swifts fly faster. The flight is characterized by a constant, but not maximum speed for the species. Since it takes more energy to overcome the headwind, birds tend to wait it out.

In spring, species migrate to the north, as it were, according to a schedule, from year to year reaching certain points at the same time. Extending the segments of the non-stop flight as they approach the target, they cover the last several hundred kilometers at a much higher speed.

Heights.

As shown by radar measurements, the altitude at which the flight is made varies so much that it is impossible to talk about any normal or average values. However, it is known that night migrants fly higher than those who travel during the day. Among the migratory birds recorded over Cape Cod (USA, Massachusetts) and the nearest ocean area, 90% were kept at an altitude of less than 1500 m.

Night migrants tend to fly higher in overcast conditions, as they tend to fly above the clouds, not below or through them. However, if the cloud cover reaches high altitudes at night, birds can fly under it too. In doing so, they are attracted to tall, illuminated buildings and lighthouses, sometimes resulting in fatal collisions.

According to radar measurements, birds rarely rise above 3000 m.However, some migrants reach amazing height... In September, birds were recorded over the southeastern part of England, flying at an elevation of approx. 6300 m. Radar tracking and observation of silhouettes crossing the disk of the moon showed that night migrants, as a rule, do not “stick” to the landscape in any way. Birds flying during the day tend to follow north-south landmarks — mountain ranges, river valleys, and long peninsulas.

Navigation.

Experiments have shown that birds have several instinctive methods to determine the direction of migration. Some species, such as the starling, use the sun as a guide. With the help of the "internal clock", they maintain the given direction, making a correction for the constant displacement of the star above the horizon. Night migrants are guided by the position of bright stars, in particular the Big Dipper and the Pole Star. Keeping them in sight, the birds instinctively fly to the north in the spring, and away from it in the fall. Even when dense clouds reach high heights, many migrants are able to keep in the right direction. They may be using wind direction or familiar terrain cues, if visible. It is unlikely that any species is guided in navigation by a single environmental factor.

MORPHOLOGY

Morphology is usually understood as the external structure of the animal, in contrast to the internal, which is usually called anatomical.

Beak

The bird consists of the upper and lower jaws (upper and lower beaks), covered with horny sheaths. Its shape depends on the method of obtaining food, which is characteristic of the species, therefore, it allows one to judge the feeding habits of the bird. The beak is long or short, bent up or down, spoon-shaped, serrated or with crossed jaws. In almost all birds, it is erased from consumption at the end, and its horny cover must be continuously renewed.

Most species have a black beak. However, there are a variety of options for its color, and in some birds, for example, puffins and toucans, this is the brightest part of the body.

Eyes

in birds, they are very large, because these animals are oriented mainly with the help of sight. The eyeball is mostly hidden under the skin, and only a dark pupil surrounded by a colored iris is visible.

In addition to the upper and lower eyelids, birds also have a "third" eyelid - the blinking membrane. It is a thin, transparent fold of skin that moves over the eye from the side of the beak. The blinking membrane moisturizes, cleanses and protects the eye, instantly closing it in case of danger of contact with an external object.

Ear holes,

located behind and just below the eyes, in most birds they are covered with feathers of a special structure, the so-called. ear coverts. They protect the ear canal from the ingress of foreign objects, while at the same time not interfering with the propagation of sound waves.

Wings

birds are long or short, rounded or sharp. In some species they are very narrow, while in others they are wide. They can also be concave or flat. As a rule, long narrow wings serve as an adaptation for long-distance flights over the sea. Long, wide and rounded wings are well adapted to soaring in upward currents of air heated at the ground. Short, rounded and concave wings are most convenient for slow flight over fields and among forests, as well as for quick ascent into the air, for example, in times of danger. Pointed flat wings facilitate quick flaps and swift flight.

Tail

as a morphological department, it consists of tail feathers that form its posterior margin, and coverts overlying their bases. The tail feathers are paired; they are symmetrically located on both sides of the tail. The tail is longer than the rest of the body, but sometimes it is practically absent. Its shape characteristic for different birds is determined by the relative length of various tail feathers and the peculiarities of their tops. As a result, the tail is rectangular, rounded, pointed, forked, etc.

Legs.

In most birds, the part of the leg (foot) that is free from feathers includes the tarsus, toes and claws. In some species, for example, owls, tarsus and toes are feathered, in a few others, in particular swifts and hummingbirds, they are covered with soft skin, but usually there is a hard horny covering, which, like all skin, is constantly renewed. This cover can be smooth, but more often it consists of scales or small irregular plates. Pheasants and turkeys have a horn spur on the back of the tarsus, while the collar hazel grouse has a fringe of horn spines on the sides of the fingers, which falls off in the spring and grows back in the fall to serve as a ski in winter. Most birds have 4 toes on their feet.

Fingers are arranged differently depending on the habits of the species and their environment. For grasping branches, climbing, catching prey, carrying feed and manipulating with it, they are equipped with sharply curved sharp claws. The running and burrowing species have thick fingers, and the claws on them are strong, but rather blunt. In waterfowl, the fingers are provided with membranes, like in ducks, or leathery lobes on the sides, like in toadstools. In larks and some other singing species of open spaces, the hind toe is armed with a very long claw.

Other signs.

Some birds have head and neck bare or covered with very sparse feathers. The skin here is usually brightly colored and forms outgrowths, for example, a crest on the crown of the head and earrings on the throat. Often, well-visible bumps are located at the base of the upper jaw. Typically, these features are used for demonstrations or simpler communication signals. In carrion-eating vultures, the bare head and neck are likely an adaptation to feed on rotting corpses without soiling feathers on very uncomfortable areas of the body.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

When birds acquired the ability to fly, their internal structure has changed greatly compared to their ancestral, characteristic of reptiles. To reduce the weight of the animal, some organs became more compact, others were lost, and the scales were replaced by feathers. Heavier, vital structures have moved closer to the center of the body in order to improve its balance. In addition, the efficiency, speed and controllability of all physiological processes increased, which provided the power required for flight.

Skeleton

birds are characterized by remarkable lightness and rigidity. Its relief is achieved due to the reduction of a number of elements, especially in the limbs, and the appearance of air cavities inside certain bones. Rigidity is provided by the intergrowth of many structures.

For convenience of description, the axial skeleton and the skeleton of the limbs are distinguished. The first includes the skull, spine, ribs, and sternum. The second is formed by the arcuate shoulder and pelvic girdles and the bones of the free limbs attached to them - front and back.

Scull.

The skulls of birds are characterized by huge eye sockets, corresponding to the very large eyes of these animals. The cerebral box is adjacent to the eye sockets at the back and, as it were, pressed into by them. Strongly protruding bones form the edentulous upper and lower jaws, corresponding to the upper and lower beak. The ear opening is located under the lower edge of the orbit, almost close to it. Unlike the human upper jaw, in birds it is mobile due to a special hinge to the cerebral box.

Spine,

or the vertebral column is made up of many small bones called vertebrae that run in a row from the base of the skull to the tip of the tail. In the cervical region, they are isolated, mobile, and at least twice as numerous as in humans and most mammals. As a result, the bird can bend its neck and turn its head in almost any direction. In the thoracic region, the vertebrae are articulated with the ribs and, as a rule, are firmly adhered to each other, and in the pelvic region they are fused into a single long bone - a complex sacrum. Thus, birds have an unusually stiff back. The rest of the vertebrae - caudal - are mobile, with the exception of the last few, which are fused into a single bone, pygostyle. It resembles a plow share in shape and serves as a skeletal support for the long tail feathers.

Rib cage.

The ribs, together with the thoracic vertebrae and sternum, surround and protect the outside of the heart and lungs. In all flying birds, the sternum is very wide, growing into a keel for the attachment of the main flight muscles. As a rule, the larger it is, the stronger the flight. In completely flightless birds, the keel is absent.

Shoulder girdle,

connecting the forelimb (wing) to the axial skeleton, formed on each side by three bones arranged like a tripod. One of its legs, the coracoid (crow's bone), rests against the sternum, the second, the scapula, lies on the ribs, and the third, the collarbone, is fused with the opposite clavicle in the so-called. fork. The coracoid and the scapula, at the meeting point with each other, form a glenoid cavity in which the head of the humerus rotates.

Wings.

The bones of a bird's wing are basically the same as those in the human hand. The humerus, the only one in the upper part of the limb, in the elbow joint is articulated with two bones of the forearm - the radius and ulna. Below, i.e. in the hand, many elements present in humans are fused or lost in birds, so that only two bones of the wrist remain, one large metacarpal-carpal bone, or buckle, and 4 phalangeal bones corresponding to three fingers.

The wing of a bird is significantly lighter than the forelimb of any terrestrial vertebrate of similar size. And the point is not only that the hand includes fewer elements - the long bones of the shoulder and forearm are hollow, and in the shoulder there is a special air sac related to respiratory system... The wing is further facilitated by the absence of large muscles in it. Instead, his main movements control the tendons of the highly developed musculature of the sternum.

The flying feathers extending from the hand are called large (primary) flight feathers, and the forearm attached in the ulna area are called small (secondary) flight feathers. In addition, there are three more winglet feathers attached to the first toe, and cover feathers, smoothly, like a tile, overlying the bases of the flight feathers.

Pelvic girdle

on each side of the body it consists of three fused bones - ischial, pubic and iliac, and the latter fused with a complex sacrum. All this together protects the outside of the kidney and provides a strong connection between the legs and the axial skeleton. At the point where the three bones of the pelvic girdle meet each other, there is a deep acetabulum, in which the head of the femur rotates.

Legs.

In birds, as in humans, the femur forms the core of the upper section. lower limbs, hips. The shin is attached to this bone in the knee joint. If a person has two long bones in it, the tibia and the tibia, in the bird they grow together and with one or more of the upper bones of the tarsus into an element called tibiotarsus. Only a thin short rudiment adjacent to the tibiotarsus remains visible from the fibula.

Foot.

In the ankle (more precisely, the intra-metatarsal) joint, a foot is attached to the tibiotarsus, consisting of one long bone, the tarsus, and the bones of the fingers. The tarsus is formed by elements of the metatarsus, fused with each other and with several lower tarsal bones.

Most birds have 4 toes, each of which ends in a claw and is attached to the tarsus. The first finger is facing back. In most cases, the rest are directed forward. In some species, the second or fourth toe is turned backward with the first. In swifts, the first finger is directed forward, like the rest, and in the osprey, it is able to turn in both directions. In birds, the tarsus does not rest on the ground, and they walk on toes with the heel off the ground.

Muscles.

The wings, legs, and the rest of the body are driven by approximately 175 different skeletal striated muscles. They are also called arbitrary, i.e. their contractions can be controlled "consciously" - by the brain. In most cases, they are paired, symmetrically located on both sides of the body.

Flight is provided mainly by two large muscles, the pectoralis and the supracoracoid. They both begin on the sternum. The pectoralis muscle, the largest, pulls the wing downward and thus, in the air, causes the bird to move forward and upward. The supracoracoid muscle pulls the wing upward, preparing it for the next swing. In domestic chicken and turkey, these two muscles represent "white meat" and the rest correspond to "dark meat".

In addition to skeletal muscles, birds have smooth muscles that lie in layers in the walls of the respiratory, vascular, digestive and genitourinary systems. Smooth muscles are also found in the skin, where feather movements are caused by them, and in the eyes, where they provide accommodation, i.e. focusing the image on the retina. They are called involuntary, since they work without "volitional control" from the brain.

Nervous system.

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which, in turn, are formed by many nerve cells (neurons).

The most visible part of the bird's brain is the cerebral hemispheres, which are the center of higher nervous activity. Their surface is smooth, without grooves and convolutions characteristic of many mammals, its area is relatively small, which correlates well with the relatively low level of "intelligence" of birds. Centers for coordinating instinctive forms of activity, including feeding and singing, are located inside the cerebral hemispheres.

The cerebellum, of particular interest in birds, is located directly behind the cerebral hemispheres and is covered with grooves and convolutions. Its complex structure and large size correspond to difficult tasks associated with maintaining balance in the air and coordinating the many movements necessary for flight.

The cardiovascular system.

The heart in birds is larger than in mammals of similar body size, and the smaller the species, the relatively larger its heart. For example, in a hummingbird, its mass is up to 2.75% of the mass of the whole organism. All birds that fly frequently have a large heart to ensure rapid blood circulation. The same can be said for species that live in cold areas or at high altitudes. Like mammals, birds have a four-chambered heart.

The frequency of contractions correlates with its size. So, a resting African ostrich heart makes approx. 70 "beats" per minute, and in a hummingbird in flight - up to 615. Extreme fright can increase blood pressure in birds so much that large arteries burst and the individual dies.

Like mammals, birds are warm-blooded, and the range of normal body temperatures is higher than that of humans - from 37.7 to 43.5 ° C.

The blood of birds usually contains more red blood cells than most mammals, and as a result, it can carry more oxygen per unit of time, which is necessary for flight.

Respiratory system.

In most birds, the nostrils lead into the nasal cavities at the base of the beak. However, in cormorants, gannets and some other species, nostrils are absent, and they are forced to breathe through the mouth. Air entering the nostrils or mouth is directed to the larynx, from which the trachea begins. In birds (unlike mammals), the larynx does not produce sounds, but forms only a valve apparatus that protects the lower respiratory tract from food and water entering them.

Near the lungs, the trachea is divided into two bronchi entering them, one for each. At the point of its separation is the lower larynx, which serves as a vocal apparatus. It is formed by enlarged ossified rings of the trachea and bronchi and internal membranes. Pairs of special singing muscles are attached to them. When exhaled air from the lungs passes through the lower larynx, it causes the membranes to vibrate, producing sounds. Birds with a wide range of emitted tones have more singing muscles that strain the vocal membranes than poorly singing species.

Upon entering the lungs, each bronchus divides into thin tubes. Their walls are permeated with blood capillaries that receive oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide into it. The tubes lead to thin-walled air sacs that resemble bubble and are not penetrated by capillaries. These sacs are located outside the lungs - in the neck, shoulders and pelvis, around the lower larynx and digestive organs, and also penetrate the large bones of the limbs.

Inhaled air moves through the tubes and enters the air sacs. When you exhale, it goes out of the bags again through the tubes through the lungs, where gas exchange again takes place. This double breathing increases the supply of oxygen to the body, which is necessary for flight.

Air bags serve other purposes as well. They moisturize the air and regulate body temperature, allowing the surrounding tissues to lose heat through radiation and evaporation. Thus, the birds sweat from the inside, as it were, which compensates for their lack of sweat glands. At the same time, air sacs ensure the removal of excess fluid from the body.

Digestive system,

in principle, it is a hollow tube extending from the beak to the opening of the cloaca. It takes in food, secretes juice with enzymes that break down food, sucks in the resulting substances and removes undigested residues outside. Although the structure of the digestive system and its functions are basically the same for all birds, there are differences in details associated with specific feeding habits and the diet of a particular group of birds.

The digestion process begins when food enters the mouth. Most birds have salivary glands that secrete saliva, which moistens food and begins to digest it. The salivary glands of some swift beetles secrete a sticky fluid that is used to build nests.

The shape and function of the tongue, like the beak, depends on the bird's lifestyle. The tongue can be used to hold food, manipulate it in the mouth, and feel and taste.

Woodpeckers and hummingbirds can protrude their unusually long tongue far beyond their beak. In some woodpeckers, it carries at the end of the backward notches that help pull insects and their larvae out of the holes in the bark. In hummingbirds, the tongue is usually forked at the end and rolled up in a tube to suck nectar out of the flowers.

From the mouth, feed passes into the esophagus. In turkeys, grouses, pheasants, pigeons and some other birds, part of it, called the goiter, is constantly expanded and serves to accumulate food. In many birds, the entire esophagus is sufficiently distensible to temporarily hold a significant amount of food before it enters the stomach.

The latter is subdivided into two parts - glandular and muscular ("navel"). The first secretes gastric juice, which begins to break down food into substances suitable for absorption. The "navel" is characterized by thick walls with hard inner ridges that grind food obtained from the glandular stomach, which compensates for the absence of teeth in birds. In species that eat seeds and other solid food, the muscle walls of this section are especially thick. In many birds of prey, flat, rounded pellets are formed in the gizzard from indigestible parts of food, in particular bones, feathers, hair and hard parts of insects, which periodically regurgitate.

Behind the stomach, the digestive tract continues with the small intestine, where food is finally digested. The large intestine in birds is a short, straight tube that leads to the cloaca, where the ducts of the genitourinary system also open. Thus, fecal matter, urine, eggs and semen enter it. All of these products leave the body through a single opening.

Genitourinary system.

This complex consists of closely related excretory and reproductive systems. The first operates continuously, while the second is activated at certain times of the year.

The excretory system includes two kidneys, which remove waste products from the blood and form urine. Birds do not have a bladder, and it travels through the ureters directly to the cloaca, where most of the water is absorbed back into the body. The white, mushy residue is eventually thrown out along with dark-colored feces from the colon.

The reproductive system consists of the gonads, or sex glands, and the tubes that extend from them. Male gonads are a pair of testes in which male germ cells (gametes) - spermatozoa - are formed. The shape of the testes is oval or elliptical, with the left one usually larger. They lie in a body cavity near the anterior end of each kidney. Before the onset of the breeding season, the stimulating effect of pituitary hormones causes the testes to enlarge hundreds of times. Through a thin, convoluted tube, the vas deferens, spermatozoa enter the seminal vesicle from each testis. There they accumulate until ejaculation occurs at the time of copulation, during which they exit into the cloaca and through its opening to the outside.

The female gonads, ovaries, form female gametes - eggs. Most birds have only one ovary, the left one. Compared to a microscopic sperm, the egg is huge. Its main part by weight is the yolk - a nutritious material for the embryo developing after fertilization. From the ovary, the egg passes into a tube called the oviduct. The muscles of the oviduct push it past the various glandular areas in its walls. They surround the yolk with white, undershell membranes, hard, calcium-containing shells, and finally add shell-coloring pigments. The transformation of an egg into a ready-to-lay egg takes approx. 24 hours

Fertilization in birds is internal. During copulation, spermatozoa enter the female's cloaca and swim up the oviduct. Fertilization, i.e. fusion of male and female gametes occurs at its upper end before the egg cell is covered with protein, soft membranes and shells.

FEATHERS

Feathers protect the skin of the bird, provide thermal insulation for its body, since they keep a layer of air near it, streamline its shape and increase the area of ​​the bearing surfaces - the wings and tail.

Almost all birds appear to be fully feathered; only the beak and feet look partially or completely naked. However, the study of any species capable of flight reveals that feathers grow from rows of depressions - feather bursae, grouped in wide stripes, pterilia, which are separated by bare patches of skin, apteria. The latter are invisible, since they are covered with feathers from adjacent pterilia overlying them. Only a few birds have feathers that grow evenly throughout the body; these are usually flightless species such as penguins.

Pen structure.

The most complex is the primary flight feather of the wing. It consists of an elastic central rod to which two wide flat fans are attached. Internal, i.e. facing the center of the bird, the fan is wider than the outer one. The lower part of the shaft, ochin, is partially immersed in the skin. The holes are hollow and free of fans attached to the upper part of the rod - the trunk. It is filled with a honeycomb core and bears a longitudinal groove on the underside. Each fan is formed by a series of parallel, first-order grooves with branches, the so-called. grooves of the second order. On the latter, there are hooks that catch on adjacent grooves of the second order, connecting all the elements of the fan into a single whole - by the mechanism of zippers. If the grooves of the second order are disengaged, it is enough for the bird to smooth down the feather with its beak to "fasten" it again.

Feather types.

Almost all highly visible feathers are designed as described above. Since it is they who give the bird's body external outlines, they are called contour. In some species, such as grouse and pheasant, a small side feather, similar in structure, departs from the lower part of their shaft. It is very fluffy and improves thermal insulation.

In addition to the contour feathers, on the body of the birds there are feathers that are different in structure. The most common down is a short shaft and long flexible barbs that do not interlock. It protects the body of chicks, and in adult birds it is hidden under the contour feathers and improves thermal insulation. There are also down feathers serving the same purpose as down. They have a long shaft, but unattached barbs, i.e. in structure, they occupy an intermediate position between contour feathers and down.

Scattered among the contour and usually hidden by them threadlike feathers, clearly visible on plucked chicken. They consist of a thin rod with a small rudimentary fan at the top. The filamentous feathers leave at the bases of the contour ones and perceive vibrations. These are thought to be external force sensors that are involved in stimulating the muscles that control the large feathers.

The bristles are very similar to filamentous feathers, but stiffer. They stick out in many birds near the corners of the mouth and probably serve for touch, like the vibrissae of mammals.

The most unusual feathers are the so-called. powder down, located in special zones - powders - under the main plumage of herons and drink or scattered over the body in pigeons, parrots and many other species. These feathers grow continuously and crumble at the top into a fine powder. It has water-repellent properties and, probably, together with the secretion of the coccygeal gland, protects the contour feathers from wetting.

The shape of the contour feathers is very diverse. For example, in flight feathers of owls, the edges are fluffy, which makes the flight almost silent and allows you to approach the prey imperceptibly. Bright and unusually long feathers of birds of paradise in New Guinea serve as a "decoration" for demonstrations.

Molting.

Feathers are dead formations that are not capable of self-healing, so they need to be replaced periodically. The loss of old feathers and the regrowth of new ones in their place is called molting.

Most birds moult with replacement of all feathers at least once a year, usually in late summer before autumn migration. Another moult observed in many species in spring, as a rule, is partial and affects only the feathers of the body, leaving the flight feathers and tail feathers in place. As a result of molting, males acquire a bright mating outfit.

Molting occurs gradually. No pterilia loses all feathers at once. In most flying birds, the flight and tail feathers are replaced in a certain sequence. Thus, some of them are already growing back, while others fall out, therefore, the ability to fly remains throughout the molt. Only in a few groups of flying birds, and exclusively aquatic, all flight feathers are dropped simultaneously.

The entire set of feathers of a bird at a given time is called its plumage, or outfit. During life, the individual changes several types of plumage as a result of molting. The first of these is natal fluff, which is present at the time of hatching. The next type of plumage is juvenile, i.e. corresponding to immature individuals.

In most birds, juvenile plumage is replaced directly by adults, but some species have two or three more intermediate appearance options. For example, a bald eagle only at the age of seven acquires a typical adult appearance with a purely white head and tail.

Plumage care.

All birds clean their plumage (this is called "prining"), and most also bathe. Swallows, swifts and terns plunge into the water several times in a row. Other birds, standing or crouching in shallow water, shake their fluffed feathers, trying to wet them evenly. Some forest species bathe in rainwater or dew that has accumulated on leaves. The birds dry up, fluffing and shaking their feathers, brushing them with their beak and flapping their wings.

Birds lubricate themselves with fat, which is secreted by the coccygeal gland at the base of the tail. They apply it to the feathers with their beak, thereby making them water-repellent and more elastic. To lubricate the plumage of the head, birds use their beak to rub their legs with fat, and then scratch their heads with them.

feathers are determined by both chemicals (pigments) and structural features. Carotenoid pigments are responsible for red, orange and yellow colors. Another group, melanins, gives a black, gray, brown or brownish-yellow color, depending on the concentration. "Structural colors" are due to the absorption and reflection of light waves, independent of pigments.

The structural color is iridescent (iridescent) and monochromatic. In the latter case, it is usually white and blue. A feather is perceived as white if it is almost or completely devoid of pigment, transparent, but due to its complex internal structure, it reflects all light waves of the visible spectrum. It appears blue if it contains densely packed cells with a brown pigment under the transparent membrane. They absorb all light passing through the transparent layer, with the exception of blue rays, which are reflected by them. As such, there is no blue pigment in the pen.

The iridescent color, which changes depending on the angle of view, is mainly due to the mutual superposition of the peculiarly widened, twisted and containing black melanin barbs of the second order. So, American grackle birds look either multi-colored or black. The throat spot in the common ruby-throated hummingbird sometimes flashes bright red, then it seems brownish-black.

Pattern.

For no other group of living creatures, body color does not matter as much as for birds. It can be cryptic, or patronizing, if it mimics the surrounding background, making the individual invisible. This is especially common in females; as a result, sitting motionless on eggs, they do not attract the attention of predators. However, sometimes both sexes are cryptically colored.

Many birds living among the grass have a pattern of longitudinal stripes. In addition, they often have a relatively dark top and a lighter bottom. Since the light falls from above, the lower parts of the body are shaded and approach the upper ones in color, and as a result, the whole bird looks flat and does not stand out from the surrounding background.

In other cases, the color is dismembered, i.e. consisting of irregularly shaped, clearly outlined contrasting spots, which "breaks" the contours of the body into seemingly unconnected parts that do not look like a living being. Sandpipers painted in this way, such as turnstones and screaming plovers, are almost invisible against the backdrop of a pebble beach.

In contrast, some birds have bright markings on the tail, body and wings that "flash" during flight. Examples include the white tail feathers of the junco, the white body of the awl-billed woodpecker, and the white stripes on the wings of the twilight nightjar. Bright markings play a protective role. Suddenly "flashing" in front of the attacking predator, they momentarily frighten him, giving the bird additional time for escape; and can also distract the enemy's attention from critical body parts. In addition, a clearly visible color of an adult is important when the bird pretends to be wounded, leading the predator away from the nest or chick. Probably, bright spots also contribute to intraspecific recognition, acting as signal stimuli that strengthen the connection between members of the flock.

The colored pattern helps to find a mate during the breeding season. Usually brighter and more contrasting colors are characteristic of males who use them during mating demonstrations.

FODDER LEADERS

Most of the birds are either predators that feed on other animals, or phytophages that eat plant material. Only relatively few species are omnivorous, i.e. consume almost any food.

Most birds of prey are strictly carnivorous; they hunt a wide variety of animals, including amphibians, reptiles, birds, and beasts. The same category includes vultures that feed exclusively on carrion. Osprey and many aquatic birds are also predators that feed on fish, and many small birds eat insects, spiders, earthworms, slugs and other invertebrates. Strictly herbivorous species include African ostriches and geese nibbling the grass.

Only a few birds have a specialized diet. For example, the public slug-eating kite eats exclusively the snails of the genus Pomacea... The strongly curved beak of this bird is well adapted to extracting the body of the mollusk from the shell, but is of little use for any other operations.

Many species change their diet depending on the season, climate, location, and also with age. During the winter in the south of the United States, up to 90% of the food of the savannah oatmeal is of vegetable origin, and in the summer, after migration to the north, it contains up to 75% of insects. Immediately after hatching, chicks of almost all species consume animal food. In most songbirds, they feed mainly on insects, although, having matured, they can almost completely switch to seeds or other plant food.

Some species store food, usually in the fall, for use in winter when food is scarce. For example, nuthatches and ant woodpecker hide nuts in cracks in the bark, and European nutcracker ( Nucifraga caryocatactes) buries them in the ground. Studies of the latter species have shown that the bird finds up to 86% of its underground reserves even under a layer of snow 25 cm thick.

African honey guides "lead" a man or a weasel honey badger to the bee's nest, flying from branch to branch, shouting invitingly and waving their tail. When a mammal opens a nest, getting to honey, the bird feasts on wax combs.

The Herring Gull is an omnivorous species that sometimes includes bivalve molluscs in its diet. To break their sturdy shell, the bird lifts its prey high into the air and drops it onto a hard surface such as a rock ledge or highway.

At least two species of birds use tools for foraging. One of them is a woodpecker tree finch ( Cactospiza pallida), already mentioned above, and the second is an ordinary vulture ( Neophron percnopterus) from Africa, which takes a large stone in its beak and drops it on the egg of an African ostrich.

Some species take food from other birds. Notorious pirates are frigates and skuas who attack other seabirds, forcing them to abandon their prey.

The most characteristic way of bird locomotion is flight. However, the birds are adapted to varying degrees for movement on the ground, and some of them are excellent swimmers and divers.

In the air.

The structure of the bird's wing, in principle, ensures the movement of the body in the air. The unfolded wing is thinned from a thick and rounded leading edge with skeletal support inside towards the trailing edge formed by the flight feathers. Its upper side is slightly convex, and the lower side is concave.

During normal flapping flight, the pressure of the oncoming air flow acts on the lower surface of the inner half of the wing, which is inclined downward with the rear edge. By tilting it down, the wing provides lift.

The outer half of the wing in flight describes a semicircle, moving forward and down, and then up and back. The first movement pulls the bird forward, and the second serves as a swing. During the swing, the wing is half-folded, and the flight feathers are spread apart to reduce the air pressure on its upper side. Owners of short and wide wings in flight should flap them often, since their area is small compared to body weight. The long, narrow wing does not require a high flap frequency.

There are three types of flight: gliding, hovering, and flapping. Gliding is simply a smooth downward movement on spread wings. Soaring is essentially gliding too, but without losing height. Soaring flight can be dynamic or static. In the first case, this is planning in ascending air currents, in which the action of gravity is compensated by the pressure of the rising air. As a result, the bird flies without literally moving its wings. Buzzards, eagles, and other large broad-winged species even migrate along the meridian ridges, using the vertical component of the wind that rises obliquely upwind.

Dynamic soaring is a sliding in horizontal air currents differing in speed and height with alternate transition between them up and down. Such a flight is characteristic, for example, of albatrosses, which spend most of their life over a stormy sea.

The flapping flight already described is the main method of locomotion for all birds during takeoff, landing and movement in a straight line. Individuals setting off from a high perch simply throw themselves down in order to gain sufficient speed in the fall. When taking off from land or water, the bird, quickly shifting its legs, accelerates against the wind until it picks up speed sufficient to lift off the surface. However, if there is no wind or it is impossible to accelerate, it gives its body the necessary impulse due to the forced flapping of its wings.

The bird must slow down before landing. To do this, she orients her body vertically and slows down, widely spreading her wings and tail to increase the oncoming air resistance. At the same time, she stretches her legs forward to absorb the impact on the perch or the ground. When landing on water, the bird does not have to slow down too much, since the risk of injury is much less.

The tail complements the wing bearing surface and is used as a brake, but its main function is to serve as a rudder during flight.

Birds can perform specific aerial maneuvers according to their specific adaptations. Some, quickly flapping their wings, hang motionless in one place. Others alternate flapping flight spurts with gliding periods, making the flight wavy.

On the land.

The birds are supposedly descended from arboreal reptiles. They probably inherited from them the habit of jumping from branch to branch, which is characteristic of most birds. At the same time, some birds, such as woodpeckers and pikas, have acquired the ability to climb vertical tree trunks using their tail as a support.

Descending in the course of evolution from trees to the ground, many species gradually learned to walk and run. However, the development in this direction was not the same for different species. For example, a wandering thrush can both jump and walk, while a starling normally only walks. The African ostrich runs at speeds up to 64 km / h. On the other hand, swifts are incapable of jumping or running and only use their weak legs to grasp vertical surfaces.

Birds walking in shallow waters such as herons and stilts have long legs. Birds that walk on carpets of floating leaves and bogs have long fingers and claws to keep them from falling through. Penguins have short and thick legs located far behind the center of gravity. For this reason, they can only walk with their bodies upright in short steps. If it is necessary to move faster, they lie on their belly and slide like on a sleigh, pushing off the snow with flipper-like wings and legs.

In water.

Birds are originally land creatures and always nest on land or, on rare occasions, on rafts. However, many of them have adapted to the aquatic lifestyle. They swim by alternating strokes with their legs, usually equipped with membranes or paddles on the toes, acting like oars. A wide body provides stability to waterfowl, and their dense feather cover contains air that increases buoyancy. The ability to swim is usually required by birds foraging underwater. Swans, geese and some ducks practice incomplete diving in shallow waters: turning their tail up and stretching their necks down, they get food from the bottom.

Boobies, pelicans, terns and other fish-eating species dive into the water from summer, and the height of the fall depends on the size of the bird and the depth that they seek to reach. Thus, heavy gannets, falling like a stone from a height of 30 m, plunge into the water by 3–3.6 m. Light-bodied terns dive from a lower height and plunge only a few centimeters.

Penguins, loons, grebes, diving ducks and many other birds dive from the surface of the water. Lacking the momentum of diving divers, they use the movements of their legs and / or wings to dive. In these species, the legs are usually located at the rear end of the torso, like a propeller under the stern of a ship. When submerged, they can reduce buoyancy by pressing the feathers tightly and squeezing the air sacs. Probably, for most birds, the maximum diving depth from the surface of the water is close to 6 m.However, the dark-billed polar loon can dive to 18 m, and the long-tailed duck - to about 60 m.

SENSES

To see well enough during fast flight, birds have better eyesight than all other animals. Their hearing is also well developed, but the sense of smell and taste are weak in most species.

Vision.

The eyes of birds have a number of structural and functional features that correlate with their lifestyle. Particularly noticeable are their large dimensions, which provide a wide field of view. In some birds of prey, they are much larger than in humans, and in the African ostrich, they are larger than that of an elephant.

Accommodation of the eyes, i.e. their adaptation to a clear vision of objects when the distance to them changes occurs with amazing rapidity in birds. The hawk, chasing prey, continuously keeps it in focus until the very moment of capture. A bird flying through the forest must clearly see the branches of the surrounding trees so as not to collide with them.

There are two unique structures in the bird's eye. One of these is the ridge, a fold of tissue that protrudes into the inner chamber of the eye from the side of the optic nerve. Perhaps this structure helps to capture movement by casting a shadow over the retina when the bird moves its head. Another feature is the bony scleral ring, i.e. a layer of small lamellar bones in the wall of the eye. In some species, especially diurnal predators and owls, the scleral ring is so strongly developed that it gives the eye the shape of a tube. This pushes the lens away from the retina, and as a result, the bird is able to distinguish between prey at a great distance.

In most birds, the eyes are tightly fixed in the sockets and cannot move in them. However, this disadvantage is compensated for by the extreme mobility of the neck, which allows the head to be turned in almost any direction. In addition, the bird has a very wide overall field of view as the eyes are located on the sides of the head. This type of vision, in which any object is visible with only one eye at a time, is called monocular. The total field of monocular vision is up to 340 °. Binocular vision, in which both eyes are turned forward, is characteristic only of owls. Their total field is limited to about 70 °. There are transitions between monocularity and binocularity. In a woodcock, the eyes are so far back that they perceive the back half of the field of view no worse than the front. This allows him to keep track of what is happening overhead, probing the ground with his beak in search of earthworms.

Hearing.

Like mammals, the bird's hearing organ includes three parts: the outer, middle, and inner ear. However, there is no auricle. The "ears" or "horns" of some owls are simply tufts of elongated feathers that have nothing to do with hearing.

In most birds, the outer ear is a short passageway. In some species, such as vultures, the head is bare, and its opening is clearly visible. However, as a rule, it is covered with special feathers - ear coverts. Owls, which, when hunting at night, are guided mainly by hearing, the ear openings are very large, and the feathers covering them form a wide facial disc.

The ear canal leads to the eardrum. Its vibrations, caused by sound waves, are transmitted through the middle ear (the air-filled bony chamber) to the inner ear. There, mechanical vibrations are converted into nerve impulses, which are sent along the auditory nerve to the brain. The inner ear also includes three semicircular canals, the receptors of which maintain the balance of the body.

Although birds hear sounds in a fairly wide frequency range, they are especially sensitive to acoustic signals from their species. Experiments have shown that different species perceive frequencies from 40 Hz (budgerigar) to 29,000 Hz (finch), but usually the upper limit of hearing does not exceed 20,000 Hz in birds.

Several species of birds nesting in dark caves avoid hitting obstacles there thanks to echolocation. This ability, also known in bats, is observed, for example, in the guajaro from Trinidad and northern South America. Flying in absolute darkness, he emits "bursts" of high sounds and, perceiving their reflection from the walls of the cave, easily navigates in it.

Smell and taste.

In general, birds' sense of smell is very poorly developed. This correlates with the small size of the olfactory lobes of their brain and short nasal cavities located between the nostrils and the oral cavity. The exception is the New Zealand kiwi bird, in which the nostrils are at the end of a long beak and the nasal cavities are elongated as a result. These features allow it to sniff out earthworms and other underground food by sticking its beak into the soil. It is also believed that vultures find carrion not only by sight, but also by smell.

The taste is poorly developed, because the lining of the oral cavity and the integument of the tongue are mainly horny and there is little room for taste buds on them. However, hummingbirds clearly prefer nectar and other sugary liquids, and most species reject very sour or bitter foods. However, these animals swallow food without chewing, i.e. seldom keep it in the mouth long enough to subtly discern the taste.

BIRD PROTECTION

Many countries have laws and participate in international agreements for the protection of migratory birds. For example, US federal law, as well as US treaties with Canada and Mexico, provide for the protection of all such species in North America, with the exception of diurnal predators and introduced species, regulate the hunting of migratory game (for example, waterfowl and woodcock), as well as certain resident birds. in particular black grouse, pheasants and partridges.

However, a more serious threat to birds does not come from hunters, but from completely "peaceful" species. human activity... Skyscrapers, TV towers and other tall structures are deadly obstacles for migratory birds. The birds are knocked down and crushed by cars. Oil spills in the sea are killing many water birds.

By his way of life and influence on environment modern man has created advantages for species that prefer anthropogenic habitats - gardens, fields, front gardens, parks, etc. That is why North American birds such as the wandering thrush, blue jay, house wren, cardinals, songbird, corpiaceae and most swallows are now more numerous in the United States than before European settlers arrived in these places. However, many species that require swamps or mature forests are threatened by the destruction of a large number of such habitats. The swamps, which many consider to be only suitable for drainage, are in fact vital for shepherds, drinkers, swamp wren and many other birds. If the swamps disappear, the same fate befalls their inhabitants. Likewise, deforestation means the complete elimination of certain species of black grouse, hawks, woodpeckers, thrush and warblers, which require large trees and natural forest floor.

No less serious threat is posed by environmental pollution. Natural pollutants are substances that are constantly present in nature, such as phosphates and waste products, but normally maintain a constant (equilibrium) level to which birds and other organisms are adapted. If a person greatly increases the concentration of substances, violating the ecological balance, environmental pollution occurs. For example, if sewage water is drained into a lake, its rapid decomposition will deplete the supply of oxygen dissolved in the water. Crustaceans, molluscs and fish that need it will disappear, and with them loons, grebes, herons and other birds that will be left without food will disappear.

Man-made pollutants are chemicals that are virtually absent from virgin nature, such as industrial fumes, exhaust fumes, and most pesticides. Almost no species, including birds, is adapted to them. If the pesticide is sprayed over a swamp to kill mosquitoes or over crops to control crop pests, it will infect not only the target species, but many other organisms as well. Worse, some pesticides persist for years in water or soil, enter food chains, and then accumulate in the bodies of the large birds of prey that make up the top of many of these chains. Although small doses of pesticides do not directly kill birds, their eggs can lose fertility or develop abnormally thin shells that break easily when incubated. As a result, the population will soon begin to decline. For example, the bald eagle and brown pelican were at risk from the insecticide DDT consumed with fish, their main food. Now, thanks to conservation measures, the number of these birds is recovering.

It will hardly be possible to stop the offensive of man on the world of birds; the only hope is to slow it down. One of the measures may be stricter liability for the destruction of natural habitats and pollution of the environment. Another measure is to increase the area of ​​protected areas in order to preserve natural communities on them, which include endangered species.

BIRD CLASSIFICATION

Birds make up the Aves class of the Chordata type, which includes all vertebrates. A class is subdivided into units, and those, in turn, into families. The names of the orders have the ending "-iformes", and for families - "-idae". This list includes all modern orders and families of birds, as well as fossils and relatively recently extinct groups. The number of species is indicated in brackets.

Archeopterygiformes: archeopteryx-like (fossil)
Hesperornithiformes: hesperornis (fossil)
Ichthyornithiformes: ichthyornis (fossil)
Sphenisciformes: penguin
Spheniscidae: penguins (17)
Struthioniformes: ostrich
Struthionidae: ostrich (1)
Rheiformes: rhea
Rheidae: rhea (2)
Casuariiformes: cassowary
Casuariidae: cassowary (3)
Dromiceidae: emu (1)
Aepyornithiformes: epyornis-like (extinct)
Dinornithiformes: monoforms (extinct)
Apterygiformes: kiwiformes (wingless)
Apterygidae: kiwi, wingless (3)
Tinamiformes: tinamous
Tinamidae: tinamu (45)
Gaviiformes: loons
Gaviidae: loons (4)
Podicipediformes: toadstools
Podicipedidae: grebes (20)
Procellariiformes: petrels (tube-nosed)
Diomedeidae: albatross (14)
Procellariidae: petrels (56)
Hydrobatidae: storm petrels (18)
Pelecanoididae: diving (whale) petrels (5)
Pelecaniformes: pelecanoids (copepods)
Phaëthontidae: phaeton (3)
Pelecanidae: pelicans (6)
Sulidae: gannets (9)
Phalacrocoracidae: cormorants (29)
Anhingidae: snake-necked (2)
Fregatidae: frigates (5)
Ciconiiformes: stork (ankle)
Ardeidae: Herons (58)
Cochleariidae: shuttle-billed (1)
Balaenicipitidae: whale-headed (1)
Scopidae: hammerheads (1)
Ciconiidae: stork (17)
Threskiornithidae: ibis (28)
Phoenicopteriformes: flamingo
Phoenicopteridae: flaming (6)
Anseriformes: anseriformes (lamellar-billed)
Anhimidae: palamedeans (3)
Anatidae: duck (145)
Falconiformes: Falconiformes (diurnal predators)
Cathartidae: American vultures, or condors (6)
Sagittariidae: secretary birds (1)
Accipitridae: hawk (205)
Pandionidae: Ossuary (1)
Falconidae: falconry (58)
Galliformes: chickens
Megapodiidae: big-legged, or weed chickens (10)
Cracidae: tree chickens, or gokko (38)
Tetraonidae: grouse (18)
Phasianidae: pheasant or peacock (165)
Numididae: guinea fowl (7)
Meleagrididae: turkey (2)
Opisthocomidae: hoatsins (1)
Gruiformes: crane like
Mesitornithidae: Madagascar shepherdesses, or shepherd partridges (3)
Turnicidae: three-lobed (16)
Gruidae: cranes, or true cranes (14)
Aramidae: Aramaceae (1)
Psophiidae: trumpeters (3)
Rallidae: herding (132)
Heliornithidae: Pointed Legs (3)
Rhynochetidae: kagu (1)
Eurypygidae: sun heron (1)
Cariamidae: karyamovye, or seriema (2)
Otididae: bustard (23)
Diatrymiformes: diatrimiform (fossil)
Charadriiformes: Charadriiformes
Jacanidae: jacan (70)
Rostratulidae: Colored snipe (2)
Haematopodidae: oystercatchers (6)
Charadriidae: Charadriiformes (63)
Scolopacidae: snipe (82)
Recurvirostridae: stylobeak (7)
Phalaropodidae: phalarope (3)
Dromadidae: crustacean plovers (1)
Burhinidae: avdotki (9)
Glareolidae: tirkushki (17)
Stercorariidae: skuas (4)
Laridae: gulls, or terns (82)
Rynchopidae: aquatic (3)
Alcidae: auks (22)
Columbiformes: dove-like
Pteroclidae: sand grouse (16)
Columbidae: pigeon (289)
Psittaciformes: parrots
Psittacidae: parrots (315)
Cuculiformes: cuckoo
Musophagidae: banana eaters (22)
Cuculidae: cuckoo (127)
Strigiformes: owls
Tytonidae: Barn owl (10)
Strigidae: true (normal) owls (123)
Caprimulgiformes: goat-like
Steatornithidae: guajaro, or fatty (1)
Podargidae: froghogs, or owl nightjars, or white-legged (12)
Nyctibiidae: gigantic (forest) nightjars (5)
Aegothelidae: owl nightjars, or owl frogs (8)
Caprimulgidae: true nightjars (67)
Apodiformes: swift
Apodidae: swifts (76)
Hemiprocnidae: crested swifts (3)
Trochilidae: hummingbird (319)
Coliiformes: mouse birds
Coliidae: mouse birds (6)
Trogoniformes: trogonous
Trogonidae: trogons (34)
Coraciiformes: raksha-like
Alcedinidae: kingfisher (87)
Todidae: tody (5)
Momotidae: motas (8)
Meropidae: bee-eaters (24)
Coraciidae: true (arboreal) raksha, or roller-curved (17)
Upupidae: hoopoe (7)
Bucerotidae: Hornbills (45)
Piciformes: woodpeckers
Galbulidae: yakamar or warblers (15)
Capitonidae: warty (72)
Bucconidae: puffs, or lazy (30)
Indicatoridae: honeyguides (11)
Ramphastidae: toucans (37)
Picidae: woodpeckers (210)
Passeriformes: passerine
Eurylamidae: hornbills, or broad-bills (14)
Dendrocolaptidae: tree frogs (48)
Furnariidae: stove-makers, or potter birds (215)
Formicariidae: anttrap (222)
Conopophagidae: caterpillar (10)
Rhinocryptidae: topacolaceae (26)
Cotingidae: listed (90)
Pipridae: manakinaceae (59)
Tyrannidae: tyrant flycatchers (365)
Oxyruncidae: sharp-billed (1)
Phytotomidae: grass cutters (3)
Pittidae: pitta (23)
Acanthisittidae: New Zealand wrens (4)
Philepittidae: Madagascar pitt, or philepit (4)
Menuridae: lyre birds, or lyrebirds (2)
Atrichornithidae: bush birds (2)
Alaudidae: larks (75)
Hirundinidae: swallow (79)
Campephagidae: larva-eaters (70)
Dicruridae: drongoids (20)
Oriolidae: Oriole (28)
Corvidae: corvids, or ravens (102)
Callaeidae: New Zealand starlings, or hueyas (2)
Grallinidae: magpie larks (4)
Cracticidae: flute birds (10)
Ptilonorhynchidae: bowerbirds, or bowerbirds (18)
Paradisaeidae: birds of paradise (43)
Paridae: tits (65)
Aegithalidae: Long-tailed tits
Sittidae: nuthatch (23)
Certhiidae: pikas (17)
Timaliidae: Thymelia (280)
Chamaeidae: Wren tit, or American thymelia (1)
Pycnonotidae: bulbul, or kotoro-toed thrush (109)
Chloropseidae: leafy (14)
Cinclidae: Dipper (5)
Troglodytidae: wrens (63)
Mimidae: Mockingbirds (30)
Turdidae: blackbirds (305)
Prunellidae: Accentorids (12)
Motacillidae: wagtail (48)
Bombycillidae: waxwing (3)
Ptilogonatidae: silk waxwings (4)
Dulidae: palm seed eaters, or dulidae (1)
Artamidae: Swallow Shrike (10)
Vangidae: wang (12)
Laniidae: Shrike (72)
Prionopidae: spectacled shrikes (13)
Sturnidae: starling
Cyrlaridae: parrot vireoes (2)
Vireolaniidae: shrike vireo (3)
Sturnidae: starling (104)
Meliphagidae: honeydew (106)
Nectariniidae: sunflower (104)
Dicaeidae: flower beetles, or flower suckers (54)
Zosteropidae: white-eyed (80)
Vireonidae: vireonic (37)
Coerebidae: flower girls (36)
Drepanididae: Hawaiian flower girls (14)
Parulidae: American warblers or wood songbirds or arboreal (109)
Ploceidae: weaver (263)
Icteridae: corpse (88)
Tersinidae: Swallow Tanagers (1)
Thraupidae: tanager (196)
Catamblyrhynchidae: plush-headed finches (1)
Fringillidae: finches (425)