The benefits are material values ​​to receive. Material goods. The division of labor provides for

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Tangible and intangible goods and services.

In all developed countries, the economy consists of two interrelated and complementary spheres of production aimed at obtaining benefits:

material, where a product is created in material form, for example, shoes, machines, cement, coal;

intangible, where spiritual, moral and other values ​​are created - works of culture, art, science, etc.

Benefits- means of satisfying the needs of people.

There are many criteria on the basis of which different types of goods are distinguished (Fig. 2.2). Benefits can be classified into:

1) material, including the natural gifts of nature (land, air, water, climate); manufactured products (food, buildings, structures, machines, tools);

2) intangible, having the form of activities useful to people and affecting the development of human abilities. They are created in the non-production sphere: health care, education, culture, etc. These include internal benefits given to man by nature - the ability to science, voice, ear for music, etc., as well as external benefits - what the outside world gives for satisfaction of needs (reputation, business relations, patronage, etc.).

The vital activity of a person in the process of managing is manifested, on the one hand, in the waste of energy, resources, etc., and on the other, in the corresponding replenishment of the vital expenditure. At the same time, an economic entity (i.e. a person in economic activity) strives to act rationally - by comparing costs and benefits. This behavior is explained as follows.

An essential feature of human life and activity is dependence on the material world. Some of the material goods are in abundance and therefore they are always available to people (air, sun rays, wind energy). Such goods in economic theory are called free or non-economic... As long as these conditions persist, these benefits and needs for them are not the concerns and calculations of a person, therefore, they are not studied in the economy.

Other material goods are available in limited quantities (various kinds of "rarity"). To satisfy the needs in them and to have them in an accessible quantity, human efforts are needed to obtain them, to adapt to the needs.

These benefits are called economic(or household). The well-being of people depends on the possession of these benefits, so they treat them carefully, economically, and prudently.

A specific form of economic good is goods, i.e. products of labor created for exchange (sale).

Until now, it has only been about goods, but the production process includes the provision of services.

Services Is the economic activity of a person, the results of which are expressed in meeting the personal needs of the population and society as a whole.

Distinguish between tangible and intangible services. The first type includes transport, storage, utilities, postal and other services, the second - the services of lawyers, police officers, university teachers, artists, etc.

The latest ideas about the structure of highly developed production are schematically summarized in Fig. 2.3.

A specific form of an economic good is a commodity, i.e. good produced for exchange. A more detailed description of the goods will be given by us in Chapter 5. Now it is important to find out that in the process of human economic activity, goods and services are produced that satisfy certain needs of people. If there is no need for a manufactured product (service), there are no people willing to purchase it, there will be no sales market for it and the manufacturer will not receive any benefit from its production. As a result, such a product will not be produced.

a) an autocratic leader;

b) a democratic leader;

c) liberal leader;

d) advisory leader;

e) instrumental leader.

46. ​​Conflicts, depending on the method of resolution, are divided into:

a) social, national, ethnic, interethnic, organizational, emotional;

b) antagonistic, compromise;

c) vertical, horizontal;

d) open, hidden, potential;

e) intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, intergroup.

47. The costs of health care, education, physical formation, intellectual development, general education, acquisition of a specialty are:

a) investments in the construction of sports complexes;

b) investment in human capital;

c) investment in new technologies;

d) investment in production;

e) investments in educational and recreational complexes.

48. The indicator is characterized by a change in price indices for goods and services that are included in the consumer baskets of the minimum consumer budget:

a) price indices;

b) the index of the cost of living;

c) indices of agricultural products;

d) indices of livestock production;

e) indices of crop production.

49. Intangible personal property: a product of intellectual activity, which manifests itself in the effect of use in various spheres of society:

a) intangible property;

b) intellectual property;

c) radio frequency resource;

d) material property;

e) aerospace development.

50. Regulates the relationship between employers, that is, buyers of products of intellectual work and the subjects of intellectual activity themselves regarding the formation of the price of intellectual work:

a) the infrastructure of the financial market;

b) agricultural exchanges;

c) infrastructure of the intellectual labor market;

d) funds for promoting entrepreneurship;

e) owners of intellectual work.

51. What the infrastructure of the intellectual labor market does not include:

a) labor exchanges;

b) agricultural exchanges;

c) funds and employment centers;

d) centers, institutes for retraining and advanced training of specialists;

e) electronic labor markets (automated data banks);

52. Skills required to properly understand other people and effectively interact with them:

a) semantic;

b) communicative;

c) non-verbal;

d) verbal;

e) professional.

53. What feature is characteristic of a formal group (team) in an organization:

a) association by interests and goals;

b) there is no clear role structure - division of labor and management;

c) a sign of a social community (for example, by nationality, signs of social origin);

d) groups have different social significance in society, at the enterprise - positive or negative;

e) the structure of collectives and groups is determined by the relevant official documents that provide for the range of responsibilities and rights of both the entire collective and the individual employees included in it.

54. A calculated indicator that takes into account logical thinking, the ability to achieve the set goal, the objectivity of self-assessment, the ability to formulate informed judgments:

a) intelligence quotient (IQ);

b) the coefficient of the tariff scale;

c) labor productivity;

d) annual salary;

e) the value of human capital.

55. Which component does not include a person's labor potential:

a) human health;

b) education;

c) professionalism;

d) creativity (ability to work, think in a new way);

e) deposit accounts with banks.

56. What is staff adaptation?

a) improving theoretical knowledge and practical skills in order to improve the professional skills of workers, their assimilation of advanced technology, technology, means of production;

b) activities that are carried out deliberately to improve the capabilities of personnel, which are necessary to perform work or to develop the potential of employees;

c) participation in the recruitment and selection of personnel, taking into account the requirements of specific professions and jobs in order to provide the best career guidance for employees;

d) the relationship between the employee and the organization, which is based on the gradual adaptation of employees to new professional, social, organizational and economic working conditions;

e) participation of personnel in certification.

57. The division of labor provides for:

a) the performance by one employee of all functions and actions for the manufacture of a specific product;

b) division of labor according to systematized labor functions;

c) a careful calculation of the costs of work for the production of products and services.

d) performance by one employee of all functions and actions for the manufacture of a set of products;

e) performance by several employees of one function for the manufacture of a complex product.

58. Standardized working hours include:

a) all expenditures of time that are objectively necessary to complete a specific task;

b) the total duration of the work shift during which the employee performs labor functions;

c) the time of preparatory work for the task;

d) the time of service of the workplace;

e) all expenditures of time that are objectively necessary to complete all tasks.

59. The production rate is based on:

a) on the establishment of norms for the expenditure of time;

b) on determining the amount of products that must be manufactured by one worker;

c) on the establishment of norms of work costs;

d) at the time of service of the workplace;

e) at the required number of workplaces, the size of production areas and other production facilities assigned to service for one employee or team.

60. The method of personnel assessment, which provides for a conversation with an employee in a "question-answer" mode, according to a pre-drawn scheme or without it to obtain additional information about a person, is a method:

a) interviewing;

b) questioning;

c) sociological survey;

d) testing;

e) observation.

61. Conscious motivation of a person to take a certain action is:

b) needs;

c) claims;

d) expectations;

e) incentives.

62. Benefits, material values, to which a person's labor activity is directed, are:

b) needs;

c) claims;

d) expectations;

e) incentives.

63. Methods involving the transfer of information to employees that allow them to independently organize their behavior and their activities are:

a) various methods of incentives;

b) methods of information;

c) methods of persuasion;

d) methods of administrative coercion;

e) economic methods.

64. Among the qualitative indicators of the effectiveness of the management system, single out the quantitative indicator:

a) the level of qualifications of employees of the management apparatus;

b) the validity and timeliness of decision-making by management personnel;

c) the level of use of scientific methods, organizational and computer technology;

d) the level of organizational culture;

e) the amount of expenses for the maintenance of the management apparatus in the general wages fund of personnel.

65. The ratio of the increase in labor productivity to the increase in average wages is:

a) the level of staff turnover;

b) production profitability;

c) payroll fund;

d) the level of labor discipline;

e) the ratio of the rate of increase in labor productivity to wages.

66. The ratio of the number of dismissed employees to the total number of personnel is calculated:

a) the level of labor discipline;

b) the reliability of the personnel;

c) staff turnover;

d) socio-psychological climate in the team;

e) the coefficient of labor contribution.

67. The ratio of the number of cases of violation of labor and executive discipline to the total number of personnel is an indicator:

a) the reliability of the personnel;

b) the level of labor discipline;

c) staff turnover;

d) the socio-psychological climate in the team;

e) the coefficient of labor contribution.

68. What type of unemployment characterizes the best labor force reserve for the economy, capable of fairly quickly making inter-sectoral movements depending on fluctuations in labor demand and supply?

a) structural unemployment;

b) technological unemployment;

c) natural unemployment;

d) economic unemployment;

e) involuntary unemployment.

69. The founders of which school of management believed that using observations, measurements, logic and analysis can improve many manual operations, achieving their more efficient execution?

a) classical school or school of administration;

b) the school of human relations;

c) school of behavioral science;

d) school of scientific management;

70. Scientists of which school of management first defined management as “ensuring that work is done with the help of others”?

a) school of scientific management;

d) school of behavioral science;

e) School of Management Science or Quantitative Methods.

71. Researchers from which school of management recommended the use of human relations management techniques that include more effective actions of immediate supervisors, consultation with employees and giving them more opportunities to communicate at work?

a) school of scientific management;

b) classical school or school of administration;

c) school of behavioral science;

d) the school of human relations;

e) School of Management Science or Quantitative Methods.

72. Researchers of which school of management studied various aspects of social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority, organizational structure, communication in organizations, leadership, changes in the content of work and the quality of working life?

a) school of scientific management;

b) classical school or school of administration;

c) the school of human relations;

d) school of behavioral science;

e) School of Management Science or Quantitative Methods.

73. The key characteristic of which school of management is the replacement of verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with models, symbols and quantitative meanings?

a) school of scientific management;

b) classical school or school of administration;

c) the school of human relations;

d) school of behavioral science;

e) School of Management Science or Quantitative Methods.

74. Which of the 14 principles of governance outlined by Henri Fayol will lead to better results with the same amount of effort:

a) autocracy (one-man rule);

b) division of labor (specialization);

c) unity of direction and a single work plan;

d) scalar control chain;

e) stability of the workplace for staff.

75. According to what principle, highlighted by Henri Fayol, a person should receive orders from only one boss and obey only him?

a) one-man management;

b) scalar control chain;

in order;

d) initiative;

76. Which of the schools in the theory of development of personnel management formulated the functions of management:

a) school of scientific management;

b) classical school or school of administration;

c) the school of human relations;

d) school of behavioral science;

e) School of Management Science or Quantitative Methods.

77. Which approach helps to integrate the contributions of all schools that at different times dominated the theory and practice of management:

a) situational approach;

b) process approach;

c) a systematic approach?

78. Model "Z" contains the basic ideas of American and Japanese management and is regarded by most specialists as ideal. It combines a system of individual values ​​and group forms of interaction. Which of the following ideas is typical for American management:

a) long-term work at the enterprise;

b) making strategic and managerial decisions based on the principle of consensus;

c) individual responsibility;

d) slow job promotion, which allows you to accurately assess the ability of employees;

e) increased attention to the personality of the employee, his family and household concerns.

79. Which of the presented factors of the efficiency of the enterprise is most conducive to stimulating the activities of employees:

a) strategic goal;

b) information;

c) management methods;

d) motivation system;

e) selection of personnel.

a) establish meaningful standards perceived by employees;

b) establish two-way communication;

c) avoid excessive control;

d) set tough but achievable standards;

e) reward for achieving the standard.

81. There are four main types of human behavior, the formation of which occurs on the basis of people's attitude to the norms of behavior and values ​​of the enterprise. What type of behavior is characterized by high reliability:

a) dedicated and disciplined (fully accepts values ​​and norms of behavior, his actions do not conflict with the interests of the organization);

b) "original" (accepts the values ​​of the enterprise, but does not accept the existing norms of behavior, generates many difficulties in relationships with colleagues and management);

c) "opportunist" (does not accept the values ​​of the enterprise, tries to behave, completely following the norms and forms of behavior adopted at the enterprise);

d) "rebel" (does not accept either the norms of behavior or the values ​​of the enterprise, all the time comes into conflict with the environment and creates conflict situations).

82. According to Theory "X", the leader should:

a) coerce subordinates;

b) threaten subordinates;

c) understand them and stimulate work;

d) respect subordinates;

e) do the work for them.

83. From the point of view of the "Y" theory, the manager must believe in the potential of the person and treat the subordinates as responsible people striving for full self-realization. According to this theory:

a) work is not contrary to human nature;

b) work gives people satisfaction;

c) employees are trying to get everything they can from the company;

d) the person does not like to work;

e) a person is ready to work only for a high material remuneration.

84. In order to effectively use money as a motivator and avoid its impact as a demotivator, you should:

a) pay competitive salaries to attract and retain specialists;

b) pay wages that reflect the cost of work for the enterprise on an equitable basis;

c) link pay with the quality of performance or result so that the reward is commensurate with the efforts of the employee;

d) assure the employee that his efforts will be rewarded with an appropriate reward;

e) pay wages not less than the subsistence level.

85. According to what principle outlined by Henri Fayol, in order to ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they should receive payment for their service?

a) one-man management;

b) scalar chain;

in order;

d) staff remuneration;

e) authority and responsibility.

86. What type of power influences people through culturally imparted values:

a) power based on coercion;

b) power based on reward;

c) traditional or legal authority;

d) expert authority;

e) the power of charisma (influence by the power of example).

87. The main socio-psychological factor affecting the effectiveness of the group is:

b) structure (the order of organization of the group - the distribution of the roles of its members);

c) culture (the basic assumptions developed by the group regarding the ways of perceiving thoughts and feelings during the task);

d) process (the way employees interact when performing a specific task, for example, a decision-making procedure in a group).

88. While strengthening the authority, the manager must make sure that he does not suppress, does not hinder the initiative of subordinates. Which of the following types of pseudo-authority (false authority) deprives people of confidence, initiative, gives rise to reassurance and even dishonesty:

89. What type of role in an informal group is assigned to a person developing new approaches to old problems, proposing new ideas and strategies?

a) coordinator;

b) a creative person; c) critic; d) performer; e) administrator.

90. What information does not apply to transmitted through informal communication channels:

a) the forthcoming layoffs of production workers;

b) upcoming movements and promotions;

c) a detailed account of the dispute between the two executives at the last sales meeting;

d) rumors about upcoming changes in the structure of the organization;

e) orders and orders of the general director.

91. Highlight the main type of behavior characteristic of a charismatic leader (charisma - personal charm):

a) focusing on issues of particular importance, concentrating communications on major issues in order to involve others in analysis, problem solving and planning of actions;

b) the ability to take risks, but only based on careful calculations of the chances of success, and in such a way as to create opportunities for others to participate;

c) skillful interaction with understanding and empathy, confidence that such effective two-way interaction is obtained only through active listening and feedback;

d) expression of active concern for people, including about oneself, modeling, self-respect and strengthening of self-esteem in others, involving people in making important decisions;

e) demonstration of consistency and reliability in their behavior, open expression of their views and adherence to them in practical matters.

92. Which of the presented leadership styles should be applied in extreme (emergency) situations:

93. Leadership style that adheres to the principles of hands-off, team members are encouraged to express themselves creatively, is:

b) democratic;

c) anarchic;

d) cooperative;

e) permissive.

94. The management grid, or the grid of R. Blake and D. Mawton, includes five main approaches of leadership and is a 9x9 table of positions. The vertical line (nine values ​​of the matrix code) means caring for a person. Nine values ​​horizontally indicate production care. Which of the styles is optimal for developing a strategy in conflict situations:

b) socio-psychological (increased attention to human needs creates a friendly atmosphere and an appropriate pace of production - code 1.9);

c) liberal (minimum attention to the results of production and the person - code 1.1);

d) cooperative (high results are obtained by interested employees pursuing a common goal - code 9.9);

e) compromise (satisfactory results, average job satisfaction, a tendency to compromise and traditions inhibit the development of an optimistic view - code 5.5).

95. When in the process of production activities the interests of different people or special groups collide, the main cause of the conflict is:

a) resource allocation;

b) unsatisfied communications;

c) differences in goals;

d) differences in perceptions and values;

e) the difference in demeanor and life experience.

Which of the conflict resolution styles is aimed at finding a solution through mutual concessions, at developing an intermediate solution that suits both sides, in which no one particularly gains, but does not lose either.

a) the style of competition;

b) evasion style;

d) the style of the fixture;

e) compromise style.

97. Communication networks show:

a) the degree of division of labor in the enterprise;

b) the level of centralization of powers;

c) a diagram of the structure of the enterprise;

d) the whole set of connections between the elements of the enterprise;

e) horizontal communications.

98. The price of labor is:

a) it is an expedient activity of a person (people) aimed at changing and transforming reality to meet their needs, creating material goods and services (or) spiritual values;

b) wages and benefits actually paid by the employer, taking into account state regulation in this area;

c) a measure of the person's ability to generate income. Includes innate ability and talent, as well as education and acquired qualifications.

d) supply and demand for intellectual labor;

e) the totality of his opportunities for creative work.

99. What is not the task of the personnel management system?

a) social and psychological diagnostics of personnel;

b) planning the need for personnel;

c) analysis and regulation of group and personal relationships between the leader and subordinates;

d) marketing of personnel;

e) all of the above is included in the tasks of the personnel management system.

100. What are not HR functions?

a) forecasting and planning the need and staffing, motivation and staffing;

b) registration and accounting of personnel; creation of optimal working conditions; training and movement of personnel;

c) rationing of labor; analysis and development of ways to stimulate labor;

d) assessment, coordination and control of performance results;

e) all of the above are personnel management functions.

Answers to tests on "Personnel Management":

1. 4, 2. 4, 3. 5, 4. 2, 5. 1, 6. 5, 7. 3, 8. 1 9. 1 10. 1 11. 2 12. 3 13. 5 14. 3 15. 5 16. 3 17. 5 18. 3 19. 2 20. 4 21. 5 22. 2 23. 1 24. 3 25. 2 26. 4 27. 5 28. 2 29. 5 30. 1 31. 1 32. 5 33. 2 34. 5 35. 5 36. 3 37. 3 38. 2 39. 2 40. 1 41. 3 42. 5 43. 4, 44. 1, 45. 1 46. 2 47. 2 48. 2 49. 2, 50. 3, 51. 2, 52. 2, 53. 5, 54. 1, 55. 5 56. 4, 57. 2, 58. 2, 59. 2, 60. 1 61. 1 62. 5 63. 2, 64. 5, 65. 5, 66. 3, 67. 2, 68. 3, 69. 4, 70. 3, 71. 4, 72. 4, 73. 5, 74. 2, 75. 1, 76. 2, 77. 3, 78. 3, 79. 4 80. 5 81. 1 82. 1, 83. 2, 84. 3, 85. 4, 86. 3, 87. 3, 88. 5, 89. 2, 90. 5, 91. 4, 92. 2, 93. 2, 94. 5, 95. 3, 96. 5, 97. 4, 98. 2, 99. 5, 100. 5

Topic: Tangible and intangible economic benefits

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Introduction 3

1. Tangible and intangible economic benefits 5

1.1. Material goods 7

1.2. Intangible goods 7

1.3. Economic and non-economic benefits 8

1.4. Public and private goods 10

1.5. Luxury and Essentials 12

1.6. Specific form of economic good 13

1.6.1. Social services 14

1.7. The role of the market for intangible goods in the structure of the economy 16

2. Economic benefits that directly meet the needs of people and indirectly 18

3. Complementary and Interchangeable Economic Benefits 22

Conclusion 24

Workshop 26

List of used literature 32

Introduction.

Every year human needs are growing, and to satisfy them, mankind develops various services, industry, technologies. Means that satisfy needs are called goods.

Every day a person consumes this or that benefit, loses something, gets something in return. To create goods, resources are required, unfortunately, many of them are not renewable. In the modern world, this is one of the most important problems of humanity.

The process of production of material goods in any socio-economic formation is the interaction of labor, objects and tools of labor. "Whatever the social forms of production," wrote K. Marx, "workers and the means of production always remain its factors."

The relevance of the topic of the course work lies in the fact that meeting the needs of society directly depends on the creation of goods, and goods, in turn, require an increasing amount of resources for their production. Scientists are concerned that in the near future there will be a severe shortage of resources, and they will not be enough to meet the needs.

In my term paper, I used relevant sources of information that are presented in the list of used literature.

The purpose of the course work is economic benefits and their classification. Complementarity and interchangeability of goods.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:

Consider the essence of material and intangible benefits;

Consider economic goods that directly meet the needs of people and indirectly;

Consider complementarity and interchangeability of benefits.

Chapter 1. Material and intangible economic benefits.

Economic benefits are tangible and intangible objects (and their properties), limited by quantity, thanks to which a person satisfies his needs throughout his life. Economic benefits are understood as the results of economic activity obtained in a smaller (limited) amount in comparison with the needs that they can satisfy.

The main properties of an economic good should be considered value and cost. The value of a good can also be consumer and exchange value, depending on direct and indirect consumption (that is, through exchange).

The use value of a good is the utility that a person receives from the use of a good. In this case, the satisfaction of needs is ensured under certain circumstances, in which such a result would not have been achieved without the possession of goods.

The exchange value of a good is other good that is achieved by refusing to consume the "given" good. That is, there is an exchange of one good for another, through the proportionality of one good to another. Most often, the "given" good is money. The value of a good directly depends on its usefulness. All goods are useful.

The value of a good is the price that must be paid in order to obtain a desired good or service.

Marx believes that the value (value) of an economic good is determined by the costs of socially necessary labor, i.e. labor performed under average socially normal conditions of production and average intensity of labor. According to neoclassical views, the value of goods depends on their rarity, primarily on the intensity of the need and the amount of goods that can satisfy this need. It is assumed that any need can be satisfied by several goods, and any economic good can be used to meet different needs.

If q1, q2 ..., qn is a set of definite quantities of each of n goods, and р1, р2 ..., рn are their prices, then the value of the total set of goods can be written as:

Rice. 1 Schematic structure of goods.

1.1. Material goods.

The material includes:

Natural gifts of nature (water, earth, air, sand):
- products made by people (cars, tools, food, houses, etc.):
- debentures.

Material goods are divided into durable goods (house, furniture) and short-term goods (food, matches). Long-term benefits imply multiple use, short-term benefits disappear immediately after use or directly in the process. Short-term are used more often.

Also, material goods are divided into the first kind of useful things (consumer goods: basic necessities, water, air, etc.) and into the second kind of useful things (means of production used to make consumer goods).

1.2. Intangible goods.

Intangible benefits include services, as well as a person's abilities, his business and personal qualities, professional skills.

Services are produced in areas such as: education, health care, arts, culture, welfare, cinema, etc.

Intangible benefits are classified into two groups: benefits that have a biological origin (life, health, appearance), and benefits that have a social origin (honor, dignity, business reputation, name, personal integrity, privacy, etc.).

Intangible goods are economic goods, limited goods - goods that, due to their scarcity or limitedness, should be produced and distributed. Since the demand for these goods significantly exceeds their quantity and since efforts are expended on their production, they have value.

Intangible benefits can act as individual benefits - benefits, the provision of which is possible to each individual due to the fact that such benefits have the properties of exclusivity or competition, both on the part of the producer and on the part of the consumer, and as public benefits - the benefits to which they have access to all individuals (defense, free education, public visits to parks, museums, etc.) Intangible goods have a utility that characterizes the measure of pleasure, benefit or satisfaction that subjects receive from the consumption of goods.

1.3. Economic and non-economic benefits.

Free (non-economic) goods are usually called those goods that exist in abundance and do not require human effort to obtain them. Their price is zero. Examples include: sunlight, air, etc.

But not all free goods are free goods. For example, a company may distribute its products to increase its customer base, but certain resources and human efforts have been invested in the product, which means that such products cannot be considered non-economic.

Economic goods are goods available in limited quantities (goods, resources and services).

Thus, it is precisely the relationship between need (or, in the terminology of K. Menger, a prominent representative of the Austrian school, need) and the amount of goods available for disposal that makes them economic or noneconomic. So if a person lives in the taiga, tree trunks for building a dwelling are not economic benefits for you. After all, their number is a huge number of times higher than your need for this building material. And drinking water, if you live on the shores of the cleanest lake, is not an economic boon. It will become such for you only in the desert, where a person's need for drinking turns out to be higher than the amount of water available to satisfy this need.

An economic good can be produced and used:

a) to meet their needs;

b) as a product for sale, as a source of income;

Economic benefits, which are products of economic activity, are characterized by a cyclical existence. It is divided into two aspects:

In accordance with the phases of economic cycles, the volumes of production of economic goods, their exchange, distribution and consumption increase or decrease;

Economic goods, which are a material asset, have their own period of existence, called a life cycle.

In social production, according to their intended purpose, economic benefits are divided into intermediate and final ones, or into production and consumer goods.

Production goods are products of labor that serve to produce another new good. Production benefits include: machines, raw materials, materials, as well as land, labor, information and much more.

Consumer goods are products of labor for the personal use of the population. These products of labor finally leave the production process. These benefits include: food, clothing, furniture, and more.

Economic benefits are divided according to the place of their creation into external and internal.

External benefits are products of labor created in other countries and imported into our country.

Domestic benefits are products of labor created within the country.

1.4. Public and private goods.

In economics, there is also a distinction between public and private goods.

Most of the goods offered by manufacturers and found in demand by consumers are goods intended for personal consumption, or private goods. A good is considered private if, having been used by one person, it cannot be simultaneously used by another. Clothing or a sandwich is a private good. When you eat your sandwich, another person, for example, your acquaintance cannot eat it, just as your clothes cannot be worn by someone else at the same time.

But there are benefits that are socially necessary and perform important social functions.

A large-scale example of a public good would be goods designed to meet the needs of national defense, and a “local” example would be navigational signs (such as beacons or beacons). These goods are called public goods due to two distinctive characteristics. First, the consumer of public goods, as a rule, does not pay for them himself, which means that the marginal cost of consumption is zero. For example, the costs of building and operating a lighthouse do not depend on the number of ships sailing past it. Secondly, there is no practical possibility to limit the number of consumers or to exclude someone from this number. The lighthouse ensures safe navigation for all ships within the range of its signals. Most public goods require very significant production and distribution costs. Thus, there is a certain special group of goods, the production and distribution of which, based on their very nature, is subject to state control. They could be called "purely public goods." For example, the approval of the rates of "lighthouse dues", which are paid by the owners of the ships for each cubic meter of the conditional volume of the ship at each entrance to the port or transit passage. In theory, “pure economic goods” are those that are collectively consumed by all citizens, regardless of whether people pay for them or not; the point is that the consumption of a public good by some individuals does not reduce its availability for others, that no person can be excommunicated from the use of this good, even if he refuses to pay for it.

Some goods, depending on the circumstances, can be both public and private (mixed goods). For example, a fireworks display is a public benefit if it is launched for the entire city and all residents come out to watch it for free. But if you watch fireworks in a private amusement park, the fireworks are more of a private boon because the visitors paid to enter. In order to define a public good, it is necessary to assess the number of consumers who benefit from the use of the good and the ability to thwart them. The problem of free use arises when the number of users is large, and it is impossible to exclude at least one of them. If a lighthouse benefits the captains of many ships, it is a public good, if the benefit is primarily the owner of the port, it is more of a private benefit.

In a postindustrial society, the market is able to satisfy the demand only for private goods. The satisfaction of public goods rests on the shoulders of the state. Note that public goods are not homogeneous. They can act as purely and partially public goods. Purely public goods are created only by the state, partly public goods can be created both by the state and by a private person. Private schools and public schools are prime examples.

1.5. Luxury goods and essentials.

According to the principle of physical expression, goods are divided into basic necessities and luxury goods.

Luxury goods are exclusive products, usually produced in small quantities. The luxury item is not permanent. Let's take into consideration the musical records, which in the last century were sold at every step, they sounded in every home, the century of their popularity has passed, nowadays there are not many of them and records of especially very popular groups subsequently became antiques, sold for quite large sums for them. ... Another example is cell phones. They appeared not so long ago and at first they were an exclusive product in small quantities, not every citizen could afford to purchase this thing. But with the development of technology and information, cell phones have become an integral part of each of us, a huge variety of them have appeared, different firms, models, configurations from which competition appeared on the market and the price for them began to fall, everyone can now buy a cell phone. So over time, this product from an exclusive became an ordinary product of mass consumption. The same thing happened at one time with cars, fountain pens and other objects.

But they have always remained and will remain luxury items - precious stones. The reason lies in the fact that there is a limited amount of this resource on the ground, and mining carries with it high costs.

In economics, Engel's law applies: with an increase in income, consumers increase their spending on luxury goods to a greater extent, and spending on essential goods less than their income increases.

1.6. A specific form of economic good.

A specific form of economic good is considered to be goods and services intended for sale and purchase or exchange.

A commodity is a specific economic good that is created to meet human needs, which can be bought, sold and exchanged. A normal good is such a good, the amount of demand for which increases with the growth of the buyer's income at each value of the price. The lowest commodity is a commodity, the volume of demand for which decreases with increasing income. The lowest are the goods that can be replaced by goods of greater quality and greater convenience. Let's give an example. Previously, the family, based on income, could afford to buy potatoes, frozen chicken legs and bread, over time, the family's income increased, and she replaced the legs with more expensive products: beef fillet, red caviar.

A service is an economic activity of a person, the results of which are expressed in the satisfaction of personal needs. Services do not accumulate and cannot be maintained for a long time. The process of production and consumption of this service is the same. Example: the service of a hairdresser consists in cutting people, the service of a doctor in treating a patient, the service of a teacher in transferring knowledge to a student.

Services can be:

Communication (transport services);

Distribution (trade and sales);

Business (financial, insurance, leasing, marketing);

Public (services of public authorities);

Social (services of education, health care, art, culture, social security).

1.6.1. Social services.

Social services provide assistance and comprehensive support to citizens who find themselves in difficult life situations. Social services, depending on their purpose, are divided into the following main types:

Social and household, aimed at supporting the vital activity of citizens in everyday life;

Socio-medical, aimed at maintaining and improving the health of citizens;

Socio-pedagogical, aimed at preventing deviations in the behavior of clients, the formation of their positive interests, including in the field of leisure, the organization of their leisure;

Social and legal, aimed at providing legal assistance, protecting the legal rights and interests of citizens.

Socio-psychological, providing for the correction of the psychological state of citizens for their adaptation in the environment of society;

Socio-economic, aimed at maintaining and improving living standards.

Social services. In accordance with paragraph 1 of Article 6.2 of the Federal Law of 17.07.1999 No. 178-FZ "On State Social Assistance", the following social services are included in the set of social services provided to citizens:

1) provision, in accordance with the standards of medical care, with the necessary medicinal products for medical use on prescriptions for medicinal products, medical products on prescriptions for medical products, as well as specialized medical food products for disabled children;

1.1) providing, if there are medical indications, a voucher for sanatorium-resort treatment carried out in order to prevent major diseases, to sanatorium-resort organizations determined in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation on the contract system in the field of procurement of goods, works, services to ensure state and municipal needs;

2) free travel by suburban railway transport, as well as by intercity transport to the place of treatment and back.

When providing social services in accordance with this article, citizens with group I disabilities and disabled children have the right to receive, on the same conditions, a second voucher for sanatorium treatment and free travel on suburban railway transport, as well as on intercity transport to the place of treatment and back for the accompanying person.

1.7. The role of the market for intangible goods in the structure of the economy.

The structure of the market for intangible goods is characterized by the expansion of the polymorphism of intangible goods as an object of market relations. If in the past the leading positions in the structure of this sector in developed countries were occupied by trade, household, recreational and a number of other services, today a group of science-intensive types of business and professional services, telecommunications, and with them education, health care, and culture, has come to the fore. In combination with knowledge-intensive industries, they form, along with modernized traditional industries (trade and transport), an actively developing core of the modern economy and largely determine the dynamics, quality parameters, and competitiveness of both the service sector and the entire economy.

In a post-industrial economy, the market for intangible goods acts as complementary to the labor market and the market of material goods. The market for intangible goods complements and coordinates the activities of traditional economic markets.

Rice. 4. The role of the market for intangible goods in the structure of the economy.

Therefore, we can say that a developed market for intangible services is one of the signs of the formation of a highly developed post-industrial economy in a particular country.

As the economy develops in the future, the structure of the market for intangible services will become more complex due to the inclusion in it of those benefits that were not previously classified as economic (the spheres of fundamental and applied science and institutions).

2. Economic benefits that directly satisfy the needs of people and indirectly.

Benefits are divided into direct and indirect. Direct goods are created goods that are ready for use. Indirect are the resources with the help of which direct are subsequently produced. For example, amethysts and gold are the resources from which earrings will be made - a commodity (direct benefit). Direct goods are intended for direct consumption, therefore they are also called consumer goods. Indirect benefits are used in the production of consumer goods, therefore they are also called production or resources.

Resources as indirect goods.

It is customary to allocate several main types of resources:

- "land" (arable land, forests, mineral deposits, water and climatic resources, etc.)

Natural resources are a collection of natural objects and phenomena that are used by humans to maintain life and satisfy their needs.

Natural resources are divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible.

Exhaustible resources are resources that, after use, either cannot be restored at all, or they will take a long period of time to recover. Example, forest. A deforested forest can be restored in 100-300 years.

Inexhaustible resources are those resources that are constantly and quickly restored. These include solar energy, air, etc.)

Rice. 3 Classification of natural resources.

Labor (physical and mental abilities of people used in the production of goods and services);

The labor force is the able-bodied population with the physical development and mental abilities necessary to carry out production activities. Labor resources are represented by the working-age population.

In Russia, the working age is considered: for men 16-65 years, for women - 16-60 years. The boundaries of the working age differ by country. In some, the lower limit is 14-15 years, while others - 18 years. The upper limit in many countries is 65 for all or 65 for men and 60-62 goals for women. It is obvious that the labor resources of both an individual country and the world economy are also limited.

Today, industrialized countries and states with economies in transition are characterized by demographic aging of the population, when the number of able-bodied people only slightly exceeds the number of pensioners. In 1950, there were 12 people aged 15–64 for every pensioner. Today, the world average is 9, and according to forecasts, it is expected to decrease to 4. If quantitatively the labor force grows with the growth of the population, then qualitatively - with the development of education. In terms of higher education, Russia is in fourth place in the world (after Israel, Norway and the United States).

Capital (a durable resource created for the purpose of producing more goods and services).

Real capital is called capital embodied in the means of production. Real capital is divided into fixed and working capital. Fixed assets usually include property that has been in service for more than one year. In Russia, fixed assets are called fixed assets.

Real working capital should include only material working capital, i.e. production inventories, work in progress, finished goods inventory and goods for resale.

Rice. 2 Real capital structure

Cash capital represents investment resources and is used to purchase equipment, machinery and other means of production. The process of production and the accumulation of means of production is called investment.

Entrepreneurial ability. This ability, which serves for the effective use in economic activities of all other economic resources in order to make a profit.

The concept of entrepreneurship in economics appeared in the 18th century, and the entrepreneur was often identified with the owner. Today, entrepreneurs include the owners of companies; managers who are not their owners; business organizers who are in one person and the owner and manager.

Entrepreneurial ability (entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial potential, entrepreneurial resource) consists in the ability to organize and manage production, in the ability to navigate in the market environment. The entrepreneur is the central figure in the market economy. The importance of entrepreneurial ability for the economy is revealed through the functions that the entrepreneur performs. First, the entrepreneur, having connected all other economic resources (land, capital, labor) and starting the production process, takes responsibility for its successful implementation and makes the main decisions in the course of doing business. Secondly, successful entrepreneurship today is impossible without innovation. The entrepreneur is engaged in the development and implementation of innovations - new products, technologies, new information. And thirdly, any entrepreneur takes risks. Entrepreneurship involves the development of new markets, the conclusion of deals with new suppliers and buyers, the production of new goods and services, and the use of new technologies, the effectiveness of which no one is sure of. Risk is an inevitable component of entrepreneurial activity.

3. Complementary and interchangeable economic benefits.

According to the method of satisfying the needs, the goods are divided into complementary and interchangeable ones.

Complementary or complementary are goods, the demand for which is so interrelated that an increase in the price of one good or service leads to a fall in demand for another. Two goods are complementary or complementary in consumption if an increase in the price of one of them shifts the demand curve for the other to the left. The greater the interchangeability of two goods, the greater the cross-price elasticity of demand. The cross-price elasticity of demand for such goods is negative.

Here are some examples: tape recorder and cassettes, car and gasoline.

Complementary goods or services cannot be used in isolation.

Complementarity is absolute and relative. Absolute complementarity is distinguished by the fact that one of the benefits - complements corresponds to a very specific amount of the other. For example, for a snowboard you need a pair of bindings.

With relative complementarity, there is no specific target amount. For example, sugar and tea, you put 2 tablespoons of sugar or 4, it will still be sweet.

In a modern economy, the market for intangible goods acts as complementary to the labor market and the market for material goods, complementing and coordinating the activities of traditional economic markets.

Interchangeable goods are goods that can satisfy the same human need. For example, Lenovo laptop and Acer laptop

A measure of the interchangeability of two goods is the cross elasticity of demand for them. Goods with a high degree of substitution are characterized by a high cross-elasticity of demand, while products with weak interchangeability have a low cross-elasticity of demand. However, it should be noted that it is rather difficult to calculate the cross-elasticity of demand due to the lack of the necessary statistical information and the use of special calculation skills. Therefore, in applied economic sciences, such calculations, as a rule, are almost never used, and the interchangeability of goods is determined on the basis of expert assessments by qualitative methods of analysis.

By analogy with complementarity, interchangeability can be absolute (perfect) or relative. Perfect interchangeability is characterized by a situation in which one of the substitute goods can completely and completely replace the other. With relative interchangeability, one good can only be partially replaced by another. It is very important for producers (firms) to keep in mind and use the properties of complementarity and interchangeability of goods, because they affect consumer behavior when buying and consuming goods, consumer choice.

Conclusion

In the course work, the concept of economic good was considered, as something due to which a person satisfies his needs throughout life.

An economic benefit means the result of economic activity, obtained in smaller quantities in comparison with the needs that they can satisfy. The following types of benefits are considered: tangible and intangible, economic and non-economic, public and private, internal and external, direct and indirect.

Most of the goods offered by manufacturers and found in demand by consumers are goods intended for personal consumption, or private goods. A good is considered private if, having been used by one person, it cannot be simultaneously used by another.

Direct goods are intended for direct consumption, therefore they are also called consumer goods. Indirect benefits are used in the production of consumer goods, therefore they are also called production or resources.

In addition, the problem of limited goods and resources is considered. Resources are necessary for the production of goods, so the amount of goods is limited by the amount of available resources.

It is necessary to limit the use of resources, because in the future the problem of their limitedness may turn out to be insurmountable and lead to serious consequences.

But modern technologies are improving at a tremendous speed and allow even now to use, for example, waste-free production, that is, they help to save resources.

Workshop

1. An example of economic benefits might be:

1) solar energy;

2) wind energy;

3) products;

4) resources.

Answer: 1, 3, 4.

An example of economic benefits is products and resources, since goods, the quantity of which is limited in comparison with the need for them, are called economic, and products and resources are limited goods.

Depending on external circumstances, the same benefits can act as:

1) economic and non-economic;

2) products and services;

3) items of durable and single use;

4) normal and inferior.

Depending on external circumstances, the same goods can act as economic and non-economic. So, for example, water, due to its relative unlimitedness, is a non-economic good, but since it is used in the manufacture of many products, and it is also an economic boon.

Supplement to question 1.

Intangible goods.

A characteristic feature of this group of objects is that they:

Do not have material (property) content;

Inseparable from the personality of their bearer;

They have the property of individualizing the very personality of the holder of these rights.

The regulation and protection of intangible goods is carried out in a comprehensive manner, by the norms of a number of branches of law. With regard to civil law, in the theory of law, there were at least two points of view on the subject of civil regulation of relations regarding intangible goods and personal non-property rights associated with them. According to one group of scientists, civil law does not regulate, but only protects personal moral rights. In the opinion of others, legal regulation and protection of rights cannot be opposed, since regulation means protection of rights, and their protection is carried out by regulating the corresponding relations. In recent years, the opinion has become almost dominant that civil law both regulates and protects intangible goods.

The benefits of the first level are inextricably linked with the very existence of the individual. They objectively exist independently of their legal regulation, and only in cases of encroachment on these benefits do they need legal protection.

The goods of the second level - the right to a name, the right of authorship and other personal non-property rights - are subjective rights that form the content of a specific legal relationship and thus are already regulated by the rules of law. In case of violation of these rights, they enjoy legal protection.

The legal relationship, an element of which is the subjective right of a person to an intangible good, is absolute, since the entitled subject is opposed by absolutely everyone who is obliged to refrain from violating this right. However, in the event of its violation, it acquires the character of a relative legal relationship.

For both terms of “intangible goods”, at least two indissolubly linked features are characteristic. It:

Lack of material (property) content;

An inextricable connection with the personality of the carrier, which predetermines the non-alienation and non-transferability of this good.

The non-alienation of intangible benefits does not exclude the possibility that their implementation and protection can be entrusted to third parties, for example, claims for the protection of the honor and dignity of minors can be brought by their legal representatives.

Non-marketability, the absence of the economic content of an intangible good, its inextricable connection with the personality of the bearer, are necessary, but not exclusive signs. Being inseparable from the personality of the bearer of this intangible good, the presence of this good individualizes, makes the personality of the carrier unique. Intangible benefits characterize the social state of their owner and are its integral, albeit subject to changes, quality throughout the entire period of its existence.

Supplement to question 2.

Indirect (production) goods - goods used in the production process.

1. Goods for industrial purposes - satisfy needs indirectly, becoming part of production resources (buildings for industrial purposes, equipment, raw materials).

2. Production services - act as information support for production, banking, trade, insurance, transport and other types of services.

To obtain the missing consumer goods, you need indirect economic benefits - resources. If resources were available in unlimited quantities, then all the benefits necessary to meet the needs of society would be produced in sufficient quantities. But the resources are not enough to meet all needs, that is, to produce the necessary goods. The limitedness of benefits depends on the limited resources used to create these benefits. If resources are absolutely limited, then we will not be able to produce benefits from these resources forever.

consumers create conditions in which they do not consume these benefits.

The most significant and well-established causal and functional relationships between needs and resources, consumption and production are reflected by economic laws. The most important are: the law of the rise of needs, the law of saving time, the law of scarcity, the law of increasing imputed costs of production, the laws of diminishing marginal utility and marginal productivity, the laws of supply and demand.

The combination of two situations typical for economic life - unlimited needs and limited resources - forms the basis of the entire economy, economic theory. In essence, it is a science that “studies how a society with limited, scarce resources decides what, how and for whom to produce”, or, in other words, it “examines the problem of efficient use of limited productive resources or their management in order to achieve maximum satisfaction of human material needs ”.

Modern economic theory cannot be reduced to this alone. However, the contradiction between the unlimited needs and the limited resources forms the axis around which economic life revolves, and the core of the economy as a science. A household, a firm, and the entire national economy have to constantly make a choice of whether to spend their resources on the purchase or production of which goods, which are almost always limited.

Resources are intertwined. For example, such an economic resource as knowledge is used when natural resources tend to be consumed more rationally on the basis of new knowledge (scientific advances). Knowledge is an important element of such a resource as labor, when it is assessed from a qualitative point of view and attention is paid to the qualifications of workers, which depends primarily on the education (knowledge) they have received. Knowledge (primarily technological) ensures an increase in the level of equipment utilization, i.e. real capital. Finally, they (especially managerial knowledge) allow entrepreneurs to organize the production of goods and services in the most rational way.

Economic resources are mobile (mobile), as they can move in space (within the country, between countries), although the degree of their mobility is different. The least mobile are natural resources, the mobility of many of which is close to zero (it is difficult to move land from one place to another, although it is possible). The labor force is more mobile, as can be seen from the internal and external migration of the labor force in the world on a noticeable scale. Entrepreneurial abilities are even more mobile, although they often do not move by themselves, but together with labor resources and / and capital (this is due to the fact that either hired managers or owners of capital are carriers of entrepreneurial abilities). The last two resources are the most mobile - capital (especially money) and knowledge.

Consumer goods are goods of the "first order", but goods of the second order, third and even higher orders are used for their production. Consumer goods themselves endow value with those productive resources, or factors that are involved in their production. First-order goods impart value to higher-order goods that are needed in order for those primary goods to be born. This idea is the famous theory of imputation of the Austrian school. The value is imputed by production goods because they are needed for the existence of consumer goods (today economists call the latter items of final consumption).

List of sources used

1. Gerasimenko V. Modern market economy and public goods. // Russian economic journal. 1999, No. 9-10. 120 s.

2. The course of economic theory / Under total. Ed. M.N. Chepurina, E.A. Kiseleva - Kirov, 1995. Kirov: "ASA", 1995. -624 p.

3. Mankiw N. G. Principles of Economics. - SPb .: Peter Kom, 1999.784 p.

4. Nureyev R. M. Course of microeconomics: Textbook for universities. -

N9 02-ed., Revised — M .: Publishing house NORMA, 2002. — 572s.

5. Rumyantseva E.E. New Economic Encyclopedia. - M .: Infra-M, 2000.724s.

6. Salov A. Economy. Lecture notes. 3 out. Publisher: Yurayt, 2014.208s.

7. Samsonov R. Institutional monopoly: the essence and features of regulation // Economic Issues. - 2007,

8. Sorokin TA Development of the market for intangible goods: features and trends in the post-industrial economy. Saratov, 2010.142s.

9. Reference legal system "ConsultantPlus" // Company

"Consultant Plus": [Site]. - URL: http://www.consultant.ru/

onlain. Free access. (Login to the site 05/05/2014.)

10. Economic resources, their types. Limited resources. [Site]. - URL: http://modern-econ.ru/vvedenie/problemy/potrebnosti-i-resursy/resursy.html. Free access. (Login to the site 05/07/2014.)

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1.3 Basics of social production

Production and needs. The law of exaltation of needs

Production is the process of human influence on the substance of nature in order to create material goods and services necessary for the development of society.
Historically, it has come a long way of development from the manufacture of the simplest products to the production of the most complex technical systems, flexible readjustable complexes, computers. In the production process, not only does the method and type of production of goods and services change, but also the moral improvement of the person himself takes place.
In modern economic theory, production is understood to mean any activity of members of society in the use of natural resources. Natural resources also include human resources. The purpose of production activity is to create material and non-material benefits necessary for an individual member of society and society as a whole. Often in everyday life, production activity is understood only as the creation of material wealth. It seems that such an interpretation of this category was inherited from the Marxist-Leninist political economy, where activities in the so-called material production stood out, and all other types of activities were considered second-rate. At the same time, one should take into account the significant differences between the activities of workers in various spheres of production.
Distinguish between material and non-material production.
Material production includes industries for the production of material goods / services (industry, agriculture, construction, utilities, consumer services, public catering, transport).
Intangible production associated with the production (provision) of intangible services and the creation of spiritual values ​​(health care, education).
In any society, production serves to satisfy its needs.
Needs- this is the need for something necessary to support the life of an individual, social group or society as a whole.
A specific feature of needs is their "irreversibility": with varying degrees of intensity in any situation, they change, as a rule, in one direction - in the direction of growth.
Types of needs: material, spiritual, security needs.
The number of types of goods, goods, services that people need is in the millions, nevertheless, their circle is constantly expanding. This is evidenced by the fact that during every ten years the number of types of consumer goods and services more than doubles with a simultaneous increase in the volume of consumption of many types. So the needs are growing quantitatively and even more qualitatively. This regularity, confirmed by the long history of mankind, deserves to be singled out and can be called the law of the rise of needs.
Labor is a purposeful activity of people to create material and spiritual benefits aimed at satisfying needs.
The most important element of labor is goal-setting, that is, before starting an activity, a person mentally imagines the finished result of his labor.
The second part of labor is the relationship between people about production, that is, property relations, relations between social groups and classes.

Resources and factors of production, their classification

Production and economic activity, regardless of its type, has a universal feature, a universal property: it is always the transformation of certain types of resources into an economic product (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Scheme of actions of the production and economic system

Resources- a set of various elements of production that can be used in the process of creating material and spiritual goods and services.
Resource types:
1) Natural resources are part of the entire set of natural conditions for human existence, the most important components of the environment used in the production process;
2) Material resources are represented by all means of production, which are themselves the result of production (means and objects of labor);
3) Labor resources are represented by the labor force, that is, by the population of working age;
4) Financial resources are represented by funds that the company allocates for the production process;
5) Information resources are data necessary for the functioning of automated production and its management using computer technology.
Production factor- a particularly important element or object that has a decisive impact on the importance and effectiveness of production, these include:
1) land;
2) labor is represented in the production process by the labor of workers employed in it;
3) capital represents the means of production involved in production and directly involved in it.
The factors include only those of the above that are currently directly involved in the production process.
Figure 5 shows an example of different volumes of output with a change in the degree of use of production factors.

L

Rice. 5. Production volumes for different values ​​of factors
production

An important factor in relation to resources is resource saving- a set of measures for the lean and efficient use of production factors. It is provided through the use of resource-saving technologies, contributes to the growth of the economy's efficiency, increasing its competitiveness.

Reproduction, its types and phases

Every production process, regardless of its social form, must be continuous. Just as a society cannot stop consuming, so it cannot stop producing. Continuous production of material goods is the objective basic existence of human society.
If production is considered as a continuously renewing process, which includes distribution (as a category of economic science, it is not only the distribution of the results of social production (final goods and services in a market economy), but also the distribution of resources and factors of production), exchange (the act of obtaining what - either desired with the offer of something in return) and the consumption of produced goods and services (a process that involves the use of indirect goods, or means of production to create new utilities), then this is reproduction.
In the analysis of the reproduction process, one cannot proceed from the assumption that a commodity is exchanged for a commodity, and the supply of one commodity is at the same time a demand for another commodity. Therefore, as considered by the bourgeois classical economic theory (D.S.Mill, J. B. Say, D. Riccardo), supposedly there is always an equilibrium between supply and demand, and the overproduction of goods on the scale of society is impossible. In reality, all commodities are exchanged for money, and commodity circulation cannot be reduced to commodity exchange, and even more so to a simple commodity exchange.
Reproduction- continuous renewal of socio-economic processes, in particular the production of material goods and services. Distinguish between simple and extended reproduction.
Simple reproduction- This is a process in which reproduction is resumed from year to year at the same rate. Simple reproduction means that the volumes of the factors of production used, including capital and labor, in this case remain unchanged. With the same productivity of these factors, the size of production and the amount of output also do not change.
Expanded reproduction- This is the resumption of production in an ever-increasing size. Expanded reproduction involves an increase in one or more factors of production, carried out, as a rule, due to new capital investments, which, other things being equal, leads to an increase in the scale and efficiency of production. The result of expanded reproduction is an ever-increasing mass of the social product.
The following phases of reproduction are distinguished: rise, decline, depression and revival.

Contradictions of the system "resources - needs" and the mechanism
their permission

The contradictions of the system "resources - needs" are that resources are limited, and needs are unlimited.
Economic theory distinguishes between absolute and relative resource constraints.
Thus, the principle of limited economic resources is of an all-encompassing nature, in connection with which it is called fundamental in the economic literature, and the problem of limited resources is considered to be one of the defining ones.
For all the importance and significance of the principle of limited resources, it should not be absolutized. In relation to a number of resources, in many situations, the limitation condition is not strict, the resources may be interchangeable. In such situations, the challenge is how to better and more effectively use the available, in principle sufficient, resources. For example, in the Russian economy, many natural resources are becoming scarce not because of their natural limitedness, but because of frustratingly ineffective use.
In economic theory, such a concept is used as "alternative opportunities for the use of resources." An example of an alternative is given in Table 1.

Table 1

Alternative Opportunities to Produce Oil and Cannons

Possibilities	Cannons	Butter

Absolute limitation is understood as the lack of production resources for the simultaneous satisfaction of the needs of all members of society. But if you narrow down the range of needs, then in this case the absolute limitation of resources becomes relative, because for a limited range of needs, resources are relatively unlimited.
The mechanism for solving this problem is to increase the efficiency of production and the efficiency of the distribution of economic resources.

A product or good as a result of production. Classification of goods

Product- the result of the functioning of production, the result of the labor expended.
Regardless of the production conditions, all factors are used to make the product.
Consider the simplest option, when one factor is used to manufacture a product (1):

where A - factors of production, Q-product, f-function.
Good- this is everything that contains a certain positive meaning, namely, an object, phenomenon, product of labor that satisfies a certain human need and meets the interests, goals, aspirations of people.
Classification of goods:
1) material goods include: natural gifts of nature (earth, air, climate); products of production (buildings, products, machines, structures, tools);
2) intangible benefits - these are benefits that affect the development of human abilities, are created in the non-production sphere: health care, education, art, cinema, etc. There are two groups of intangible benefits:
a) internal - given to a person by nature, which he develops in himself of his own free will (voice, singing, ear for music);
b) external - this is what the outside world gives to satisfy needs (reputation, business relations, patronage);
3) economically benefits are those benefits that are the object or result of economic activity, that is, that can be obtained in limited quantities in comparison with the needs that they can satisfy;
4) non-economic benefits are provided by nature without human efforts.

Market organization of the economy

If the product of labor is intended for sale, then it is supplied to the market with the aim of bringing it to the consumer.
Market is a system of economic relationships between business entities, which is based on exchange relations and payment for all goods and services.
The market as an economic category is a set of specific economic relations and connections between buyers and sellers, as well as trade intermediaries regarding the movement of goods and money, reflecting the economic interests of the subjects of market relations and ensuring the exchange of labor products.
Market elements:
1) demand - a need provided by money for a certain time;
2) supply - the number of goods that a manufacturer can offer to the market for a certain time;
3) competition - rivalry between producers of goods and services for the sales market, the conquest of a certain market segment.
Market entity: producer and buyer of material goods and services.
Market object: the result of material production.
Market signs: the presence of demand, supply, exchange, consumption, capital, subject and object of the market.
The market can be associated with both production and spiritual spheres. Accordingly, it has a diverse structure.
According to the functional purpose of the presented goods, they are divided:
1) Markets for consumer goods and services. This group includes markets for: consumer goods - food and non-food products; service markets - household, transport, utilities; housing and non-industrial buildings markets.
2) Markets for factors of production. They include: real estate markets; tools of labor; raw materials and supplies; energy resources; mineral.
3) Financial markets. These are: capital markets, that is, investment markets; credit markets; securities markets; currency and money markets.
According to the objects of exchange, there are markets for goods, services, capital, securities, labor, the foreign exchange market, the market for information and scientific and technical developments. In the context of the increasing involvement of scientific and technical achievements in the production process, the importance of the information market and scientific and technical developments is immeasurably increasing. Its components are the market of innovations, inventions; information product market (sphere of information services); the market for the product of creative labor (books, films, etc.).
In the spatial context, the local (local) market is distinguished, which is limited to one or several regions of the country; a national market covering the entire national territory; world, world, including all countries of the world.
According to the mechanism of functioning, there are:

1. a free market, regulated on the basis of free competition of independent commodity producers;

2) a monopolized market, where the conditions of production and circulation are determined by a group of monopolies, between which monopolistic competition persists;

1. a state-regulated market, where an important role belongs to the state, which uses economic instruments of influence.

According to the mechanism of functioning, markets of perfect and imperfect competition are distinguished. The market of perfect competition is a self-regulating system of market relations. The market of imperfect competition includes monopolized and regulated markets.
In accordance with the current legislation, a legal, or official, market and an illegal, shadow market are distinguished.
According to the degree of saturation, an equilibrium market is distinguished, in which supply and demand approximately coincide; scarce market when supply exceeds demand.
The information market is especially distinguished. A commodity in such a market is a specific product - information, the importance of which in production and social life has increased enormously over the past decades.
Market functions:
1) Regulating function. With the help of it, the main micro and macro proportions in the economy, in production and exchange are established. Ensures proportionality and balance of the economy, assumes the impact of the market on all spheres of the economy, ensures the coordination of production and consumption in the assortment structure, the balance of supply and demand in terms of price, volume and structure;
2) Reproductive function. The market affects all phases of reproduction - production, distribution, exchange and consumption. By connecting producer and consumer, coordinating their activities, the market spontaneously ensures the continuity of the reproduction process. Through the market, huge flows of material resources, goods and services are directed from owners to consumers, and in exchange for them towards them, in monetary form, the funds necessary to continue the production process move;
3) The stimulating function is to induce a person to create new products;
4) The pricing function is to create prices for goods;
5) The controlling function is to control everything that happens in the market.
6) Information function. The consumer receives information about the goods through the market.
7) The function of realizing the interests of market actors.
Market infrastructure is a system of specialized organizations designed to facilitate the functioning of individual markets (wholesale and retail system).
A commodity is a product of labor produced for sale.
The property of a product to satisfy the production, social, personal or other needs of people is called the use value.
As long as there is labor and the needs of people, the products of labor and nature will have this property. Therefore, in its initial manifestation, the use value is a natural property of the good.
It should be noted that the same product of labor can satisfy diverse needs, just as the same need can be satisfied with different use values.

Major economic problems facing society

Society is a probabilistic system, during the development of which not all potential opportunities are realized, and the unpredictability of many events is a general rule.
There are a number of major economic problems facing modern society:
1) What goods and services should be produced and in what quantity? (What to produce?) An individual can provide himself with the necessary goods in various ways: to produce them on his own, exchange them for other goods, receive them as a gift. Society as a whole cannot get everything immediately. By virtue of this, it must determine what it would like to have immediately, what it can wait to receive, and what it can refuse altogether.
2) How should the goods and services be produced? (How to produce?) There are various options for the production of a set of goods, as well as each good separately. By whom, from what resources, with the help of what technology should they be produced? By what organization of production? According to different projects, it is possible to build an industrial and residential building, according to different projects, it is possible to produce cars, use a plot of land. A building can be multi-storey or one-story, a car can be assembled on a conveyor belt or by hand, a plot of land can be sown with corn or wheat.
3) For whom is the product made? (For whom to produce?) Since the number of created goods and services is limited, the problem of their distribution arises. Who should use these products and services, extract value? Should all members of society receive the same share, or should there be poor and rich, what should be the share of both? Should be given priority - intellect or physical strength? The solution to this problem determines the goals of society, the incentives for its development.
4) The growing importance of information in the life of society.
5) Changing the position and role of man in the world, his relationship with nature and technology. Most often this is defined as the emergence of an information society and an information man, a kind of collective intelligence of the inhabitants of the planet;
6) The growth of a new economic consciousness, the emergence and development of an economic person;
7) Limited resources and unlimited needs.

a) improving theoretical knowledge and practical skills in order to improve the professional skills of workers, their assimilation of advanced technology, technology, means of production;

b) activities that are carried out deliberately to improve the capabilities of personnel, which are necessary to perform work or to develop the potential of employees;

c) participation in the recruitment and selection of personnel, taking into account the requirements of specific professions and jobs in order to provide the best career guidance for employees;

d) the relationship between the employee and the organization, which is based on the gradual adaptation of employees to new professional, social, organizational and economic working conditions;

e) participation of personnel in certification.

Task

Determine the main motives prompting the pastry chef of the children's dessert-cafe "ChAO" for successful professional self-realization. Reveal hidden incentives, link them with the inner personal needs of a given person. To propose and substantiate a system of motivation for such an employee in quantitative and qualitative terms, to determine the timing of the implementation of a motivational program.

SEASON 18

1. Corporate climate: concept and features of formation

2. “Welcome! training "as a tool for adaptation of personnel at the enterprise

1. The division of labor provides for:

a) the performance by one employee of all functions and actions for the manufacture of a specific product;

b) division of labor according to systematized labor functions;

c) a careful calculation of the costs of work for the production of products and services.

d) performance by one employee of all functions and actions for the manufacture of a set of products;

e) performance by several employees of one function for the manufacture of a complex product.

2. Standard working hours include:

a) all expenditures of time that are objectively necessary to complete a specific task;

b) the total duration of the work shift during which the employee performs labor functions;

c) the time of preparatory work for the task;

d) the time of service of the workplace;

e) a) all expenditures of time that are objectively necessary to complete all tasks.

3. The production rate is based on:

a) on the establishment of norms for the expenditure of time;

b) on determining the amount of products that must be manufactured by one worker;

c) on the establishment of norms of work costs;

d) at the time of service of the workplace;

e) at the required number of workplaces, the size of production areas and other production facilities assigned to service for one employee or team.

Task

SEASON 19

1. Self-motivation of personnel to work

2. The essence of the concept of "personnel assessment", the stages of its implementation

3. The emotional factor in managing the workforce. M. Weber's theory of formal bureaucracy

1. The method of personnel assessment, which provides for a conversation with an employee in the "question-answer" mode according to a pre-drawn scheme or without it to obtain additional information about a person - this is a method:

a) interviewing;

b) questioning;

c) sociological survey;

d) testing;

e) observation.

2. Conscious motivation of a person to take a certain action is:

b) needs;

c) claims;

d) expectations;

e) incentives.

3. Benefits, material values, to which a person's labor activity is directed, are:

b) needs;

c) claims;

d) expectations;

e) incentives.

Task

SEASON 20

1. Intra-organizational interaction: criteria for evaluating effectiveness

2. Subjects of personnel assessment at the enterprise

3. Development of concepts of psychological assessment of the content of motives of K. Levin

1. Methods involving the transfer of information to employees that allow them to independently organize their behavior and their activities are:

a) various methods of incentives;

b) methods of information;

c) methods of persuasion;

d) methods of administrative coercion;

e) economic methods.

2. Among the qualitative indicators of the effectiveness of the management system, single out the quantitative indicator:

a) the level of qualifications of employees of the management apparatus;

b) the validity and timeliness of decision-making by management personnel;

c) the level of use of scientific methods, organizational and computer technology;

d) the level of organizational culture;

e) the amount of expenses for the maintenance of the management apparatus in the general wages fund of personnel.

3. The ratio of the increase in labor productivity to the increase in average wages is:

a) the level of staff turnover;

b) production profitability;

c) payroll fund;

d) the level of labor discipline;

e) the ratio of the rate of increase in labor productivity to wages.

Task

Determine the main motives prompting the head of the personnel department of the Crimean Federal University named after V.I. IN AND. Vernadsky. Reveal hidden incentives, link them with the inner personal needs of a given person. To propose and substantiate a system of motivation for such an employee in quantitative and qualitative terms, to determine the timing of the implementation of a motivational program.

SEASON 21

1. Career in the human resource management system

2. Criteria for assessing the performance of personnel

3. The role of A. Maslow's concept in the formation of a personnel motivation system

1. The ratio of the number of dismissed employees to the total number of personnel is calculated:

a) the level of labor discipline;

b) the reliability of the personnel;

c) staff turnover;

d) socio-psychological climate in the team;

e) the coefficient of labor contribution.

2. The ratio of the number of cases of violation of labor and executive discipline to the total number of personnel is an indicator:

a) the reliability of the personnel;

b) the level of labor discipline;

c) staff turnover;

d) the socio-psychological climate in the team;

e) the coefficient of labor contribution.

What type of unemployment characterizes the best labor force reserve for the economy, capable of sufficiently quickly making inter-sectoral movements depending on fluctuations in labor demand and supply?

a) structural unemployment;

b) technological unemployment;

c) natural unemployment;

d) economic unemployment;

e) involuntary unemployment.

Task

Determine the main motives that induce successful professional self-realization of a sales manager of a company engaged in the sale of metal-plastic windows and doors. Reveal hidden incentives, link them with the inner personal needs of a given person. To propose and substantiate a system of motivation for such an employee in quantitative and qualitative terms, to determine the timing of the implementation of a motivational program.

SEASON 22

1. The system of effective management of human resources

2. Sources of assessment of the employee's professional activity

3. Research in the field of motivation in the works of K. Alderfer