Dysgraphia concept. Classification. Symptoms and classification of writing disorders according to Lalayeva, for children with intellectual disabilities Dysgraphia classification and symptoms characteristics of the main forms
The psycholinguistic aspect of the study of dysgraphia is underrepresented in speech therapy literature. This aspect considers the mechanisms of writing disorders as a disorder of the operations of generating a written speech utterance (according to A.A. Gopichenko, E.F.Sobotovich).
Dysgraphia classification
Dysgraphia classification it is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account the disturbed analyzers, mental functions, the lack of formation of writing operations.
O. A. Tokareva distinguishes 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.
With acoustic dysgraphia there is an undifferentiated auditory perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Frequent are confusions and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds similar in articulation and sound, as well as the reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing.
Optical dysgraphia due to the instability of visual impressions and representations. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. At different times, the letters are perceived differently. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. The most commonly observed mixtures of the following handwritten letters:
In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, the writing of words is impossible. The child writes only individual letters. In some cases, especially for left-handers, there is a mirror writing, when words, letters, letter elements are written from right to left.
Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection between motor images of sounds and words with visual images.
Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process indicates that it is a complex form of speech activity, including a large number of operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the identification of types of dysgraphia based on violations of the analytical level is currently insufficiently substantiated.
In the literature, the term "dysgraphia" is interpreted in different ways.
RI Lalaeva gives the following definition: "Dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repetitive mistakes caused by the lack of formation of the higher mental functions involved in the writing process."
IN Sadovnikova defines dysgraphia as a partial writing disorder, where the main symptom is the presence of persistent specific errors. it is not associated with impaired hearing, vision, decreased intelligence.
A.N. Kornev calls dysgraphia a persistent inability to master writing skills according to the rules of graphics, despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech development and the absence of gross visual and hearing impairments. At what age and at what stage of schooling it is possible to diagnose dysgraphia in a child, there is no consensus. Therefore, the separation of the concepts of "difficulties in mastering writing" and dysgraphia E.A. Loginova understands the persistent violation of the process of implementing writing at the stage of school education, when mastering the writing technique is considered complete.
Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multilevel process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, visual, speech-motor, general motor.
A close connection is established between them in the writing process. Writing is closely related to the process oral speech and is carried out only when high level its development. For an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the purpose of which is to convey meaning or fix it. The graphic image of a word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced in a single motor act. The writing process is automatic and under control: kinesthetic and visual.
ARLuria in the work of essays on the psychophysiology of writing "defines the operations of writing. The letter begins with a motive, motive, task. The most difficult step in the writing process is analyzing the sound structure of a word. Pronunciation plays an important role in identifying sounds and their sequence. The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter. Comparison and analysis of a letter for a student is not an easy task. The final operation of the writing process is the reproduction of the visual image of the letter with the help of hand movements. Lack of formation of any function can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing, dysgraphia. Dysgraphia is caused by the underdevelopment (disintegration) of the higher mental functions that carry out the process of writing in the norm.
In the historical aspect, there are different approaches to understanding dysgraphia, to its classification (psychophysiological, neuropsychological, psychological, linguistic approaches).
From the standpoint of psychophysiological analysis of the mechanisms of writing disorders, M.E. Khvatsev developed his own classification of dysgraphia. He associated dysgraphia with insufficient language development and identified five types of dysgraphia, two of which are present in the modern classification.
Based on the psychophysiological approach, O.A. Tokareva developed the following classification. It takes into account which analyzers suffer: 1. Optical dysgraphia - caused by the instability of visual impressions and representations. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds.
2. Acoustic dysgraphia - there is an undifferentiated auditory perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis.
3. Motor dysgraphia - difficulties in the movement of the hand during writing are characteristic, a violation of the connection between motor images of sounds and words with visual images.
On the present stage one of the existing classifications is the classification based on the linguistic approach, developed by R.I. Lalaeva and the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after N.I. Herzen (St. Petersburg) in the 70-80s. It is based on taking into account the lack of formation of language operations.
- 1. Articulatory - acoustic dysgraphia. The leading link is defective pronunciation of sounds (substitutions, mixing, omissions).
- 2. Dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition. The main core of the disorder is the lack of formation of phonemic differentiations (replacement and mixing of sounds that are similar in acoustic parameters).
- 3. Dysgraphia on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis: 1) violation of sound-letter analysis and synthesis (omissions, permutations, addition of letters in a word); 2) violation of syllabic analysis and synthesis (omissions, permutations, insertions of syllables); 3) violation of syllabic analysis and synthesis at the level of sentences (omissions, permutations, insertions of words, continuous spelling of words in a sentence).
- 4. Agrammatic dysgraphia. It is associated with the underdevelopment of the lexical and grammatical structure of speech, with the lack of formation of morphological and syntactic generalizations. Errors at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts. This is a violation of semantic and grammatical connections, a distortion of the morphological structure of words, a violation of the agreement of words, a distortion of prepositional-case constructions, omissions of members of a sentence.
- 5. Optical dysgraphia. It is associated with the underdevelopment of visual gnosis, mnezis, visual analysis and synthesis of spatial representations. The main manifestations are: mirror replacements - vertical (uppercase c, d) and horizontal (s, e) reversions, literal (at the letter level) and mirror (at the word level) reversions; kinetic errors - adding unnecessary elements or, conversely, not describing the elements of a letter.
Pure types of dysgraphia are rare, mostly mixed types. dysgraphia dyslexia reading disorder
I.N.Sadovnikova also defines evolutionary or false dysgraphia, which is a manifestation of natural difficulties in the course of primary education.
In the course of the analysis of scientific literature on the problem of dysgraphia, it turned out that there are many definitions of dysgraphia, but its essence consists in repeated specific writing errors. We also found out that on this moment several classifications of dysgraphia have been developed, the leading one is the classification developed by R.I. Lalaeva and the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after N.I. Herzen (St. Petersburg). Dysgraphia should be distinguished from false dysgraphia, which is a manifestation of the natural difficulties of children in the course of initial learning to write, which is associated with the complexity of this type of speech activity.
It is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account the disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed writing operations.
O. A. Tokareva identifies 3 types of dysgraphia:
· Acoustic in which, there is an undifferentiated auditory perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Mixing, substitutions, omissions of letters denoting sounds similar in articulation and sound, as well as the reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing are frequent;
· Optical, which is due to the instability of visual impressions. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing;
· Motor, which is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection between motor images of sounds and words with visual images.
Highlighted M.E. Khvatsev types of dysgraphia as well as types of Tokareva do not satisfy the current understanding of violations of writing.
1. Dysgraphia based on acoustic agnosia and phonemic hearing defects. With this type, the write-off is saved.
The physiological mechanism of the defect is a violation of associative connections between vision and hearing, there are omissions of letters, rearrangements, replacement of letters, merging of two words into one, omission of words.
2. Dysgraphia due to speech disorders (graphic tongue-tied). According to Khvatsev, it arises on the basis of incorrect sound pronunciation. Replacements of some letters with others, the absence of sounds in pronunciation cause corresponding replacements and omissions of letters in the letter. M.E. Khvatsev also singles out a specific form due to the "experienced" tongue-tied language when the violation of sound pronunciation disappeared before the beginning of literacy training or after the start of mastering writing. The more severe the violation of pronunciation, the rougher and more varied the writing errors.
3. Dysgraphia due to pronunciation rhythm disorder. The author believes that as a result of a disorder of the pronunciation rhythm, missing vowels and syllable endings appear in writing. Errors can be caused either by the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions of the sound-syllable structure of the word.
4. Optical dysgraphia. It is caused by a violation of the optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of the visual image of the letter of the word is impaired. With literal dysgraphia, the visual image of the letter is disturbed in a child, distortions and replacements of isolated letters are observed. In verbal dysgraphia, the spelling of isolated letters is preserved, however, the visual image of the word is formed with difficulty, the child writes words with gross errors, does not distinguish between graphically similar handwritten letters: п-н, п- and, с- o, is- sh, l-m ...
5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions, distortions of the structure of a word, sentence and is caused by the decay of oral speech due to organic damage to the brain
The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process (developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the AI Herzen State Pedagogical Institute). The following types of dysgraphia are distinguished:
1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is in many respects similar to the dysgraphia highlighted by M.E. Khvatsev on the basis of disorders of oral speech.
The child writes as he pronounces. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in substitutions, missing letters and sounds in oral speech. Most often observed with dysarthria, rhinolalia, polymorphic dyslalia.
2. Dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition ( acoustic dysgraphia). It manifests itself in substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often, the letters denoting the following sounds are replaced: sibilant and hissing, voiced and voiceless, affricates and their components (ch-t, ch-sch, c-t, c-s). This type of dysgraphia also manifests itself in the incorrect designation of the softness of consonants in writing due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants.
3. Disgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis... It is based on the violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: division of sentences into words, syllabic phonemic analysis and synthesis. The following mistakes are most typical: omissions of consonants in their combination (dictation - "dikat"), omissions of vowels (dog - "sbaka"), permutations of letters (window - "kono"), adding letters (dragging - "tasakali"), omissions of addition permutations of syllables (room - "cat"), continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, in other words, separate spelling of the prefix and the root of the word. Writing disorders due to the lack of formation of phonemic analysis and synthesis are widely represented in the works of R.E. Levina, N.A. Nikashena, D.I. Orlova, G.V. Chirkina.
4. Agrammatic dysgraphia (characterized in the works of R.E. Levina, I.K.Kolpovskaya, R.I. Lalaeva, S.B. Yakovlev). It is associated with the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech: morphological, syntactic generalizations. This type of dysgraphia can manifest itself at the level of a word, phrase, sentence and text and is an integral part of a broader symptom complex - lexical and grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and mentally retarded. Difficulties in establishing logical linguistic connections between sentences are noted. At the level of a sentence, grammatisms in writing are manifested in the distortion of the morphological structure of the word, the replacement of prefixes, suffixes, the change in case endings, the violation of prepositional structures, the change in the case of pronouns, the number of nouns, the violation of agreement; a violation of the syntactic structure of speech is also noted, which manifests itself in the difficulties of constructing complex sentences, omitting members of a sentence, violating the sequence of words in a sentence.
5. Optical dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of visual gnosis, spatial representations and manifests itself in substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.
In literary dysgraphia, there is a violation of recognition and reproduction of even isolated letters. In verbal dysgraphia, isolated letters are reproduced correctly, however, when the word is written, distortions, substitutions of letters of an optical nature are observed. Mirror writing also belongs to optical dysgraphia, which is sometimes noted in left-handers, as well as in organic brain lesions.
Phonemic dyslexia occurs when phonemic perception is underdeveloped (difficulties in assimilating letters; replacing letters that are similar acoustically and articulationally (B-P, D-T, S-Sh, Zh-Sh) or underdevelopment of the functions of phonemic analysis (letter-by-letter reading, distortion of the sound-syllable structure of a word, missing consonants in confluences, insertion of vowels between consonants in confluences, permutations, omissions and permutations of syllables).
Semantic (mechanical reading) violation of reading comprehension (words, sentences, text) with technically correct reading (they cannot correlate the read word and the object in the picture, they cannot answer questions about the text) or the lack of formation of ideas about the syntactic connections of words in a sentence (each word is perceived in isolation)
Agrammatic due to the underdevelopment of the gram. the structure of speech, morphological and syntactic generalizations (change in case endings of noun, incorrect agreement in gender, number, case, change in the number of pronouns; incorrect use of generic endings of pronouns, change in the form of verbs.
Mnestic manifests itself in a violation of the assimilation of letters, in the difficulty of establishing connections between a word and a letter, undifferentiated substitutions of letters when reading, cannot reproduce a series of 3-5 letters or words, violate the order of their sequence
Optical manifests itself: replacement and mixing of graphically similar letters, undifferentiated visual representations, disturbances in optical-spatial perception ; difficulties in perceiving letters written one under the other do not dismember letters into their constituent elements, mirror reading.
Tactile observed in blind children. It is based on the difficulty of tactile differentiation between the letters of the Braille alphabet.
29. Dysgraphia: Aspect Analysis.
Disgraphia(Lalaeva, Venediktova) - this is a partial specific violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent repetitive errors,caused by the lack of formation of the HMF, carrying out the process of writing in the norm.
To master the writing became possible, the language and cognitive abilities of reb. must reach a certain minimum required level of maturity (school maturity).
Psychophysological structure of the act of writing - the totality of the psychophysiological level, psychological level, linguistic level.
Psychophysiological basis- complex work of analyzer systems.
Writing process operations: motive, design, general meaning of writing, sound analysis. a complex of words, establishing a sequence in the spelling of letters in a word, transcribing phonemes into graphemes, motor subject actions for writing a section. letters, regulation of activities, control over the actions performed.
Historical aspect: For the first time for violation of Thu. letters as an independent pathology of speech activity was indicated by Kussmaul in 1877. In the literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. it was widely believed that the violation. NS. and writing is one of the manifestations of general dementia and is observed only in UO children. But at the end of the 19th century. in 1886 Morgan described a case of violation. NS. and letters from a 14-year-old boy with norms. intelligence. He defined this disorder as an inability to spell correctly and read coherently without errors. At the end of the 19th beginning. 20c. there are 2 opposites. points of view:
1). These disorders are symptoms of mental retardation.
2). These violations are isolated.
Gradually, the understanding of the nature of reading and writing changed, it was no longer defined as a homogeneous optical disturbance.
Etiology (polyetiology) : The question of the etiology of dyslexia is still controversial. Some authors have noted a hereditary predisposition for reading disorders. Many people note the presence of pathological factors affecting the prenatal, natal and postnatal periods. Reading disorders can be caused by causes of an organic (due to organic damage to the areas of the brain, taking part in the reading process) and functional (the impact of internal factors: long-term somatic diseases, external: incorrect speech of others, insufficient attention to the development of the child's speech on the part of adults , bilingualism, lack of speech contacts) D.'s etiology involves both genetic and exogenous factors (pathology of pregnant women, asphyxia, childhood infections, TBI).
Dysgraphia symptoms manifests itself in persistent and repetitive mistakes in the writing process, which can be grouped as follows: distortion and replacement of letters; distortion of the sound-syllable structure of the word; violations of the spelling of individual words in a sentence; agrammatisms in writing.
Dysgraphia can also be accompanied by non-speech symptoms (neurological disorders, impaired cognitive activity, perception, memory, attention, mental disorders). Dysgraphia (like dyslexia) in children with normal intelligence can cause various deviations in the formation of the personality, certain mental layers.
Dysgraphic error groups:
1. errors at the letter and word level : skipping letters and syllables - does not highlight all of its components in the word; substitutions of letters - unclearly correlates a phoneme with a grapheme; mixing of letters - by acoustic-articulatory similarity; permutations - finds it difficult to analyze sounds in a word; inserts - are observed with a confluence of acc.; perseveration - due to the weakness of the diff. braking.
2. word-level errors : separate spelling of parts of a word; continuous spelling of the preposition and noun; contamination - the beginning from one, the end from the other (squirrel); distortion of the structure of the sentence, when the boundaries of the sentence are not indicated, the inconsistency of the members of the sentence (agrammatisms)
Dysgraphia classification: The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process (developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the AI Herzen State Pedagogical Institute). The following types of dysgraphia are distinguished: articulatory-acoustic, based on violations of phonemic recognition (differentiation of phonemes), on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.
See ICD-10 Combination of different forms - complex dysgraphia.
30. Technique of speech therapy for dyslexia and dysgraphia. The main directions. speech therapist. work:
1. Development of phonemic perception. (when eliminating phonemes. dyslexia, articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia and dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition). Differentiation of opposition sounds and syllables is carried out based on various analyzers (speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, etc.) Improvement of hearing. differentiation in close connection with the development of phonemic. analysis and synthesis (in the work of the assignment for the development of phonemic analysis and synthesis). laughing. sounds incl. 2 stages: Stage preliminary: the pronunciation and auditory image of each of the mixing is consistently clarified. sounds. Work plan: clarification of articulation and sounding of sound with reliance on visual, hearing., Tactile. Perception, kinesthetic sensations; highlighting it against the background of a syllable; determination of the presence and place in a word; determining the place of sound in relation to other sounds; highlighting it from a sentence, a text. not only by ear, but also fixed in the letter. speech. Formation of phonemes. perception is carried out with the obligatory participation of the speech-motor analyzer as well. Therefore, simultaneously with the development of phonemes. hearing imp. and work on sound pronunciation. The stage of auditory and pronunciation differentiation of mixed sounds- the wire. comparison of sounds in the pronunciation and auditory terms. Differential. sounds carried out. in the same sequence (see above), but the main purpose of the yavl. their distinction, traces. speech material incl. words with mixed sounds. Each sound is associated with a specific letter. Isp. writing ex.
2. Work on sound pronunciation... First of all, it is necessary to eliminate shortcomings in the pronunciation of phonemes (distortion, replacement, lack of sound). In addition, it must be remembered that with impaired phonemic hearing, even intact sounds cannot be articulated absolutely clearly. At the initial stages of work - exclude pronunciation, because. it can cause errors in writing.
3. Development of skills in language analysis and synthesis(when eliminating phonemes of dyslexia and dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the language string and synthea). Work on the development of the skills of language analysis and synthesis is based on the development of the ability to determine the number, last and place of words in a sentence: come up with a sentence based on a plot picture and determine the number of words; come up with. sentence with defin. number of words; composition. graphic scheme of the proposal, etc.
4. Development of syllabic analysis and synthesis. Work begins. with use. auxiliary techniques (slap, tap, name the number), then in terms of loud speech (the ability to highlight vowel sounds, preliminarily carry out work on differentiating vowels and consonants, separating vowels from speech, giving an idea of the G and C sounds, about the main signs their distinction) and only then in the inner plane.
5. Development of phonemic analysis and synthesis. Considering sequence of forms. forms of sound analysis and synthesis in ontogenesis. Simple forms: emphasizing the stressed G, a series-syllable (um, na), on the material of 2 or more syllables. Complex forms of phonemes. analysis goes through stages: 1 stage-formir. phonemes. analysis and synthesis based on aids (graph. scheme of a word and tokens) and actions (modeling sequential sounds in a word). Stage 2 - formed. actions of sound analysis in the speech plane (excl. reliance on the materialization of actions, translated into the speech plane. Word, first, second, etc. sounds, their number) .3 stage-formir. phoneme actions. analysis and synthesis in the mental plane, i.e. based on views.
6. Enrichment vocabulary and the development of practical ability to use it. This stage begins with what the children are taught in different ways the image of new words e.g. images. words with decomp. prefixes from one verb stem (u-went, came-came, went-went) \ with the help of one prefix from different ch. basics (came, brought). Another type of vocabulary work is the selection of single-root words, which improves spelling. of all classes is expanded, specified, the vocabulary is consolidated. The stock of children. Ch. task - to combine exercise. on the sound analysis of each word with clarification of its meaning and exercise. in a letter and th. A lot of work is being done to activate vocabulary.
5. Development of grammar skills... The main tasks of this stage are working on understanding and using prepositions, making sentences based on pictures, series of pictures, distributing and reducing sentences, etc.
6. Development of coherent speech, both oral and written.
Classes on eliminating deficiencies in writing and reading. are carried out on a lengthy basis. total account of the year. A prerequisite for their effectiveness is the development of writing. and speaking. Correcting deficiencies in writing and reading requires a constant system. classes.
Elimination of agrammatical dyslexia and dysgraphia: the formation of morphological and syntactic generalizations, ideas about the morphological elements of the word and the structure of the sentence. direction work: clarification of the structure of the sentence, the development of the function of inflection and word formation, work on the morphological analysis of the composition of the word and with the same root words.
Elimination of optical dyslexia and dysgraphia: development of spectator. perception (find from a number of others, crossed out.), having learned. colors of the form, size (pick the same); extended volume and clarification view. memory (what is gone?); the formation of spatial representations (to the right, to the left of oneself / letters); development of visual analysis and synthesis (construct a letter, put it out of sticks, find a given one).
Disgraphia. Study history, etiology, symptoms and prevalence. Dysgraphia classification, a brief description of main types.
Disgraphia - this is a violation of the mastery of writing or the disintegration of writing, manifested in specific errors of a persistent nature.
The pathology of writing is denoted by the following terms: agraphia(from the Greek. a- a particle that means negation, grapho - writing) - complete inability to master the letter and dysgraphia(from the Greek d ("s is a prefix meaning disorder, grapho-write) -specific violation of the letter.
To denote writing disorders, the terms are mainly used: dysgraphia, agraphia (complete inability to absorb writing), dysorphography, evolutionary dysgraphia. due to the underdevelopment (disintegration) of the higher mental functions that carry out the process of writing in the norm.
Error groups:
1) distortion of the visual image of the letter, can manifest itself in the specularity of the spelling, under-description of the letter element;
2) replacement of letters: -graphically similar (vd), -differing with an additional element (ish, pt), - similar in graphical writing (bv);
3) phonetically close sounds, mb vowels close in articulation and sound (ou), consonant replacements (b-p, z-s, ch-c); 4) distortion of the sound-letter structure of the word - the syllable structure of the word is violated (passes, complements syllables),
4) distortion of the sound structure of the word (omission of consonants) when consonants converge, permutations, simplification of consonants (country - sataran), omission of vowels (perceive a vowel as a shade of a consonant), adding vowels;
5) violation of the analysis in the structure of the sentence, can write words together (on trees), or separate spelling of a word (artist by et song);
6) agrammatisms m. morphological(incorrect spelling of morphemes, prefixes, suffixes, endings, coordination is violated (coming to the shores), a change in the type, number, face of the verb) and syntactic(violation of the sentence structure, in an independent letter - directional fragments of sentences).
According to Khvatsev, 6% (50 years), according to Paramonova, 30% (2000).
History. For the first time, A. Kussmaul pointed out violations of reading and writing as an independent pathology of speech activity in 1877. Then, many works appeared in which descriptions of children with various disorders of reading and writing were given. During this period, the pathology of reading and writing was considered as a single disorder of writing. In the literature of the late XIX and early XX centuries. it was widely believed that reading and writing disorders are one of the manifestations of general dementia and are observed only in mentally retarded children F. Bachmann, G. Wolf, B. Engler.
However, at the end of the 19th century, in 1896, V. Morgan described a case of reading and writing disorders in a fourteen-year-old boy with normal intelligence. Morgan defined this disorder as "the inability to spell correctly and read coherently without errors." Following Morgan, many other authors (A. Kussmaul, O. Berkan) began to consider impaired reading and writing as an independent pathology of speech activity, not associated with mental retardation, with a general diffuse intellectual deficiency. The British ophthalmologists Kerr and Morgan first published works specifically devoted to reading and writing disorders in children.
In 1900 and 1907. D. Ginshelwood described several more cases of reading and writing disorders in children with normal intelligence, confirming that reading and writing disorders do not always accompany mental retardation. Hinshelwood was the first to use the terms “alexia” and “agraphia” for difficulties in mastering reading and writing, referring to them as both severe and mild degrees of reading and writing disorder.
Thus, at the end of the XIX and beginning of the XX century. there were two opposing points of view. Some authors considered reading and writing impairment as one of the components of mental retardation. Others emphasized that pathology, reading and writing is an isolated disorder not associated with mental retardation.
Among the authors defending the isolated, independent nature of reading and writing disorders, there were various interpretations of the nature of this disorder. The most widespread in the literature, and especially in practical diagnostics, was the point of view asserting that the basis of the pathology of reading and writing is the inferiority of visual perception and memory. According to this view, the mechanism of reading and writing disorders is the defectiveness of visual images of words and individual letters. In this regard, reading and writing disorders began to be called "congenital verbal blindness." F. Warburg and P. Ranschburg were typical representatives of this trend. F. Warburg described in detail a gifted boy who suffered from "verbal blindness." P. Ranschburg, as a result of long tachistoscopic (a device for presenting an image for a fraction of a second) studies, came to the conclusion that the pathology of reading and writing is based on a limited field of visual perception.
P. Ranshburg first began to distinguish between milder degrees of reading and writing disorders and severe disorders, in which the symptomatology is more pronounced. Mild degrees of reading and writing disorders, he designated the terms "legasthenia" and "grafasthenia" in contrast to severe cases of reading and writing disorders, which were called "alexia" and "agraphia".
Gradually, the understanding of the nature of reading and writing disorders changed. This disorder was no longer defined as a homogeneous optical disorder. At the same time, there is a differentiation of concepts "alexia" and Dyslexia, agraphia and "Dysgraphia".
Various forms of dyslexia and dysgraphia are distinguished, classifications of reading and writing disorders appear.
The point of view of the neuropathologist N.K. Monakov was of great importance in the development of the doctrine of violations of written speech. He was the first to associate dysgraphia with speech disorders, with the general nature of speech disorder, or aphasia.
B. Illing identifies a number of processes that are disturbed in the pathology of reading and writing:
1) mastering the optical unity of the letter and the acoustic unity of sound; 2) the correlation of sound with a letter; 3) the synthesis of letters into a word; 4) the ability to dismember words into optical and acoustic elements; 5) definition of stress, melody of a word, vowels of a word; 6) reading comprehension.
E. Illing considered the main thing in the picture of alexia and agraphia to be the difficulty of association and dissociation, the inability to grasp the integrity of words and phrases,
O. Orton (1937) devoted a special study to reading, writing and speech disorders in children. He noted the high prevalence of reading and writing disorders in children, pointed out that difficulties in children when learning to read and write are different from reading and writing disorders in adults with brain damage. Orton emphasized that the main difficulty in children with reading and writing disorders is the inability to form words from letters. Orton, following E. Jackson, called these difficulties "alexia and agraphia of development" or "evolutionary dyslexia and dysgraphia." Orton concluded that alexia and agraphia in children are caused not only by motor difficulties, but also by sensory impairments. He noted that these disorders are most often found in children with motor impairments, in left-handers, in those in whom literalization is carried out late, the allocation of the leading hand, as well as in children with hearing and vision impairments.
Analyzing observations of children with reading impairments, R.A.Tkachev concluded that alexia is based on mnestic impairments, that is, memory impairments. A child with alexia does not remember letters, syllables well, cannot relate them to certain sounds. According to R.A.Tkachev, alexia is explained by the weakness of associative connections between the visual images of letters and the auditory images of the corresponding sounds. The author notes that the intelligence of children is intact. This is a violation, according to R. A. Tkachev, caused by the influence of hereditary factors.
S. S. Mnukhin in his work "On congenital alexia and agraphia" says that reading and writing disorders are found in both intellectually full-fledged and mentally retarded children. With various degrees of mental retardation, alexia and agraphia are much more common than in normal children.
The author concludes that reading and writing disorders are accompanied by a number of other disorders. Thus, all the observed children could not list the months, days of the week, the alphabet in order, although they knew all these elements and reproduced this series in random form in full, but not always in the order in which it was proposed. Errors were also observed after repeated reproduction of these series. Many children could not cope with shading in a certain rhythm. Memorizing the poem turned out to be a much more difficult process for them than for normal children. Reproduction of the story, which did not require exact transmission in order, proceeded without difficulty.
The general psychopathological basis of these disorders, according to S. S. Mnukhin, is a violation of structure formation. Alexia and agraphia are more complex manifestations of disorders, and more elementary disorders of "row-speaking" are disorders of mechanical reproduction of rows (ordinal counting, naming the days of the week, months of the year, etc.).
S. S. Mnukhin believes that in the overwhelming majority of cases with alexia and agraphia, there is a hereditary burden of varying severity (alcoholism, psychopathy, parental epilepsy, birth trauma). In the 30s of the XX century, psychologists, teachers, and defectologists began to study violations of reading and writing. During this period, a certain relationship between these disorders, on the one hand, and defects in oral speech and hearing, on the other, is emphasized (F.A.Rau, M.E. Khvatsev, R.M.Boskis, R.E. Levina).
In his early works, M. Ye. Khvatsev linked violations of written language directly with violations of sound pronunciation. Those cases when speech defects were corrected, but reading and writing disorders remained, the author explained by the greater stability of the old connections between the image of sound and the letter. In later works, M.E. Khvatsev considers these disorders in a more differentiated manner, taking into account the complex structure of the process of reading and writing, and distinguishes various forms of dyslexia and dysgraphia, many of which seem to be sufficiently substantiated to this day.
Etiology of violations of written language.
The question of the etiology of dyslexia is still controversial.
In 1918, the Englishman Hinshelwood expressed the idea of familial dyslexia. Holgren's research in 1950 found that dyslexia can be inherited in a monohybrid, autosomal, dominant pattern, i.e. one abnormal gene from the parents is enough. Czech scientist Zakhalkova in 1972 writes that hereditary burden occurs in 45% of cases. According to Kornev, with dyslexia, 60% have various kinds of mental abnormalities in relatives, only 25% have hereditary problems in mastering written speech. At the same time, Kornev notes that severe dyslexia occurs when the harmful effects of the intrauterine, natal and early postnatal periods are combined.
Reading disorders can be caused by organic and functional reasons. Dyslexia are caused by organic damage to the areas of the brain involved in the reading process (with aphasia, dysarthria, alalia). Functional reasons can be associated with the impact of internal (for example, long-term somatic diseases) and external (incorrect speech of others, bilingualism, insufficient attention to the development of the child's speech on the part of adults, lack of speech contacts) factors that delay the formation of mental functions involved in the reading process ...
G.V. Chirkina writes that all versions can be put in two directions: 1) the hypothesis of nuclear phonological deficit. At the heart of dyslexia is insufficient development of the phonemic system; 2) the hypothesis of magnocellular deficiency. Dyslexia is based on visual and motor impairment.
In recent years, dyslexia has been associated with disorders of the cerebellum and left temporoparietal region. It is believed that dyslexia in children may be due to a delay in the formation of functional systems necessary for the acquisition of written language.
A number of versions are associated with the development of lateralization in the cerebral cortex, i.e. responsibility of the right and left hemispheres for the respective functions. Orton was at the origin of this idea. Canadian scientists Springer and Deutsch noted that in children with dyslexia, some functions are traditionally right hemispheric in both the right and left hemispheres. This is the wrong point of view. French scholars Ajouriagera and Grandsponne note that the link between poor lateralization and impaired reading assimilation is indirect.
Domestic psychiatrists in the first half of the 20th century put forward the idea that unsatisfactory reading is due to a deficit of non-speech processes. Mnukhin believed that the processes of structure formation were disturbed, i.e. ranks, various sequences are poorly lined up in consciousness. And R. Tkachev considered the leading memory disorder.
At the heart of dyslexia, scientists noted the insufficient development of motor components: voluntary motor skills, auditory-motor coordination, a sense of rhythm. But such things can be considered false dyslexia.
According to Kornev, for the onset of dyslexia, immaturity of a number of mental functions is mandatory (short-term auditory-speech memory, immaturity of dynamic praxis, weak operative formation of associations between the visual and motor components, insufficient numbering, low graphic abilities, weak automation of speech rows).
Kornev's point of view differs from the dominant idea in modern speech therapy that dyslexia is based on insufficient development of oral speech.
Thus, both genetic and exogenous factors are involved in the etiology of dyslexia. Reading disorders are often observed in children with MMD, MRI, severe speech impairment, cerebral palsy, hearing impairment, and mentally retarded children. Thus, dyslexia most often manifests itself in the structure of complex speech and neuropsychiatric disorders.
The reasons for impaired reading and writing are similar.
In children with dysgraphia, many higher mental functions are unformed: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory-and-production differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexical and grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention, successive and simultaneous processes, emotionally - volitional sphere.
The concept of the essence of dysgraphia developed gradually. Since writing develops in the learning process, the phenomenon of dysgraphia was often considered as a component of mental disability. In 1877, Kussmaul identified dysgraphia as an independent speech pathology. Ophthalmologists Morgan and Kerr, as well as Hinshelwood, also pointed out the phenomenon of dysgraphia. In 1928 Ranschburg drew attention to the fact that writing problems can be expressed in different degrees. He proposed to distinguish between orthography - a pronounced violation and orthographosthenia - a weakening of the ability to write.
In the early stages, the problem of writing was associated mainly with the specifics of visual perception and memory. The views gradually changed. At the end of the 19th century, the Austrian scientist Lipmann began to consider dysgraphia, as a phenomenon of apraxia, i.e. insufficient ability to voluntarily control hand movement (unformed gnosis and praxis). Lipmann himself was the first to apply this knowledge to speech pathology.
The neuropathologist Monakov correlated dyslexia and dysgraphia, considered dysgraphia differentially, and in 1914 he identified dysgraphia caused by the fact that the child does not distinguish sounds well and the plan of movement is disrupted.
In 1937, Orton notes that it is necessary to distinguish between acquired writing impairment and congenital inability to read and write - developmental agraphia. Agrafia occurs in improperly trained children, in disguised "left-handed" children, in children who are slow to choose the leading hand, in children with motor impairment, with apraxia, hearing and vision impairments.
R. Tkachev in 1933 believes that the main problem is the retention of sounds and syllables in memory, and psychologist Mnukhin sees a violation of structure formation at the heart of dysgraphia.
M.E.Khvatsev, R.M.Boskis, A.F. Rau first of all determined the relationship between violations of sound pronunciation and mastering of writing. This idea was transformed into a relationship between various disorders of oral speech and writing, moreover, the writing defect began to be considered not as secondary to oral speech, but as caused by the same mechanisms. So the underdevelopment of the phonemic system leads, on the one hand, to defects in oral speech, and on the other hand, makes it difficult to master writing.
From a physiological point of view, the writing process is implemented through the work of a number of analyzers. In the middle of the 20th century, the neuropathologist Lyapidevsky notes that with inadequate work of the visual, tactile, kinesthetic analyzers, different types of dysgraphia can occur.
Currently, it is taken into account that not only analyzers are involved in the writing process, but, in fact, all mental processes.
Dysgraphia symptoms manifests itself in persistent and repetitive mistakes in the writing process, not associated with ignorance of grammar rules. The main feature of these mistakes is that they are allowed where the spelling of words does not cause any difficulties, where the spelling coincides with the pronunciation and all sounds are clearly audible:
distortion and substitution of letters (SLIP instead of HAT, BIT instead of GUS);
missing letters (ZOTIK instead of UMBRELLA, STL instead of TABLE);
insertion of extra letters (LUNMPA instead of LAMP, MARK instead of MARK);
permutations of letters (KONRI instead of ROOTS, VSET instead of LIGHT);
incomplete description of words (RED instead of RED, ROAD instead of ROAD);
merging several words into one (CHILDREN PLAYED instead of CHILDREN PLAYED);
division of one word into parts (U TYUG instead of IRON, ON KNO instead of WINDOW).
Classifications of dysgraphia by O.A. Tokareva and M.E. Khvatsev.
Classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account impaired analyzers, mental functions, and poorly formed writing.
O. A. Tokareva distinguishes three types of dysgraphia:
1) Acoustic- there is an undifferentiated auditory perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Frequent are confusions and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds similar in articulation and sound, as well as the reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing.
2)Optical- due to the instability of visual impressions and representations. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. At different times, the letters are perceived differently. Due to the lack of visual perception, they are mixed in writing; the most frequently observed mixtures are: n - n, n - i, y - i, c - u, w - i, m - l, b - d, p - t, n - k (handwritten). In severe cases, writing words is impossible, the child writes individual letters; mirror writing also takes place.
3) Motor- Difficulties in the movement of the hand during writing, a violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images are characteristic.
M.E. Khvatsev distinguished the following types:
1)Dysgraphia based on acoustic agnosia and phonemic hearing defects. He combined two forms of disorders: associated with a violation of the differentiation of sounds and with a violation of phonemic analysis and synthesis. There are gaps, permutations, substitutions of letters, as well as the merging of two words into one, omission of words, etc.
2)Dysgraphia due to speech disorders- arises on the basis of incorrect sound pronunciation.
3) Dysgraphia due to a violation of an arbitrary rhythm- believed that there are missing vowels, syllables, endings. Errors can be caused either by the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions of the sound-syllable structure of the word.
4)Optical- caused by a violation or underdevelopment of the optical speech systems in the brain; the formation of the visual image of a letter, a word is disturbed. With a literal one, the visual image of the letter is disturbed, distortions and replacements of isolated letters are observed; with verbal - the visual image of the word is formed with difficulty.
5)Dysgraphia for motor and sensory aphasia- manifests itself in substitutions, distortions of the structure of the word.
Modern classification of dysgraphia.
The most reasonable is Leningrad classification developed by R.E. Lalaeva and others. The following types of dysgraphia are distinguished:
1.ACOUSTIC- manifests itself in letter substitutions based on similar phonemic features of the corresponding letters. In oral speech, there are no such replacements; it is believed that this type of dysgraphia is a residual phenomenon after the child has made replacements in oral speech. It happens that the child does not distinguish phonemic signs by ear and, with a particularly increased load in the process of writing, does not sufficiently rely on the semantic component, the lexical meaning of the word, and therefore mixes sounds.
Signs of mixing sounds:
Voicing - deafness (vocal)
Nasal - oral (nasal) (b - m, d - n, b '- m', d '- n')
Hardness - softness (palatalization - 15 pairs) (we will see the wrong setting of the soft sign and the wrong choice of vowels of the first and second row)
Mixing by the way of education
Mixing at the place of education
2.ARTICULATORY - ACOUSTIC- the child transfers the shortcomings of oral speech to the letter, manifests itself in the corresponding substitutions, omissions of letters. Even stuttering (repetition of letters, syllables) can be tolerated.
3.DISGRAPHY CAUSED BY THE UNFORMED LANGUAGE ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS- errors appear, in which the immaturity of complex forms of phonemic analysis is manifested: quantitative, sequential, positional.
In case of inferiority quantitative analysis, there are omissions or additions of language units. Within the sentence, we can see the merging of words, the break of words.
In case of violation sequences analysis shows a rearrangement of neighboring linguistic units: letters, syllables, words.
Violation positional analysis is manifested in the fact that linguistic units are placed at a considerable distance from each other.
4.OPTICAL.
It manifests itself in three versions: 1) replacement of letters by optical similarity; 2) specularity; 3) skipping letters due to forgetting the image of the letter (mainly capital letters).
Various processes underlie optical errors:
Inadequacy of visual gnosis (elements of letters can be mixed according to quantitative characteristics; according to spatial position - leads to replacements of letters and specularity).
Violation of visual mnezis (memorization) - there is a random replacement, manifested in the omission of letters.
Violation of visual praxis - there are distortions of the outline of the letters, i.e. graphic errors, letter substitution and specularity.
Total mirroring is rare in school, usually there is a mirror image of individual letters.
Since this is related to spatial orientation, we can say that these are children with insufficiently mature spatial orientation.
5.AGRAMMATIC- manifests itself in agrammatisms in writing; there are errors in the replacement of suffixes and prefixes, there may be omissions of suffixes or prefixes, there may be negotiation errors that manifest themselves in incorrect endings.
In the Leningrad classification, 4 types of dysgraphia are identified in accordance with the psychophysiological approach. The fifth type is interpreted from psycholinguistic positions and does not reflect the operation of writing, but the violation of the operation of generating an utterance, an error occurs during the grammatical structuring of the utterance. Indicates a violation of oral speech, which manifests itself in written speech.
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