Each enterprise has an authorized capital, consisting of fixed and production assets.

Enterprise funds- this is a stock of certain goods and factors of production that are in his ownership for a certain period of time. In the production process, part of the funds serves for the direct creation of goods and services, while the other is the means of production or the basis for the functioning of the enterprise. In this regard, two types of funds are distinguished.

Fixed assets- an important part of all production assets of the enterprise, which are materially embodied in the means of labor. Fixed assets retain their natural form for a long time, regardless of the duration and frequency of the production process, they transfer their own value to finished products in parts and, accordingly, are reimbursed only after several production cycles.

Their value is returned in the form of depreciation deductions through the accumulation of the depreciation fund. Depending on the role of participation in production, the fixed assets of the enterprise are divided into 2 large groups.

1. Fixed production assets (OPF) are directly involved in production or create favorable conditions for its flow. OPF include following:

1) buildings as a set of workshops and production units;

2) structures in the form of engineering and construction objects, bridges and tunnels;

3) transmission devices, objects for transportation and transmission of energy, for example, electricity, heat, gas and water supply networks;

4) machines and equipment: power, intended for energy generation; workers (presses, machine tools, etc.), measuring instruments (laboratory equipment), computers and other machinery and equipment (telephone exchanges, fire protection, etc.);

5) vehicles for working personnel and cargo directly for movement through the territory of the enterprise or delivery to other production facilities;

6) tools and devices of auxiliary shops with a service life of over 1 year;

7) production and household inventory, represented by tables, containers, shelves, safes and furnishings (furniture);

8) land plots on the balance sheet of the enterprise, as well as perennial plantings, such as shrubs;

9) other OPF, for example, libraries and museum values.

Depending on the degree of participation in the production process, OPF are active (machines and equipment that manufacture products) and passive (buildings and structures).

OPF structure Is the ratio of all OPF groups in their total value, expressed as a percentage. Knowledge of the structure of OPF is of great practical importance, as it allows you to determine the important characteristics of production and the efficiency of the enterprise.

For example, a high specific gravity of the active part of the OPF determines the high progressiveness of the OPF structure. It is generally accepted that for Russian enterprises the share of machinery and equipment, equal to 35%, testifies to the efficiency of production.

2. Fixed non-productive assets (ONF) include objects of household and cultural purposes, which are directly on the balance sheet of the enterprise. These include medical institutions, preschool institutions (kindergartens), households, palaces of culture, etc. In general, the ONF forms the social infrastructure of the enterprise.

As a rule, they are created directly for the employees of a given enterprise or organization. This ensures the attractiveness of jobs, i.e. the organization is actively involved in social security and staff support.

Today it is one of the important conditions for a successful organization, since the employee and the quality of his work are influenced not only by wages, but also by the working conditions themselves.

2. Methods for assessing OPF, their balance and indicators of movement and use

Based on the classification fixed assets by the time of their use, the following methods of their assessment can be determined:

1) at the full initial cost of the OPF. It includes their actual cost at the time of commissioning and application in the production process. This is the so-called book value, which remains constant over a long service life. The initial cost is calculated on the basis of current market prices and does not react to further changes and dynamics of pricing.

2) at the full replacement cost of the OPF, which reflects their value in modern prices, taking into account the rate of inflation, that is, it is determined by recalculating the initial cost. Evaluation of OPF at this cost allows you to really estimate the size of the organization's funds.

In the process of operation, OPFs lose their original characteristics over time. This is due to the deterioration of equipment with too frequent or prolonged use, or with its obsolescence as a result of the emergence of new, more technologically advanced machines. Therefore, there are three new forms of assessing the OPF:

1) initial cost less depreciation. Depreciation is the loss of usefulness by fixed assets and a decrease in their value until the end of their service life;

2) replacement cost less depreciation. The difference between the initial and replacement value of the OPF is the residual value at the time of their withdrawal from circulation or liquidation;

3) the residual value represents the real value of the sale of worn-out and already discontinued OPF. Very often this is the price of scrap.

So, the most complete picture of the features of the movement of the OPF can be obtained based on the data of balances, which can be presented in two versions:

1) at full initial cost;

2) at cost, taking into account annual depreciation.

Thus, in order to visualize the balance of the optical object in the first way, it is necessary to construct a table.

Table 1 OPF balance at full initial cost, thousand rubles

The balance sheet for fixed non-productive assets is drawn up in a similar way. The balance, compiled at cost, taking into account depreciation, is calculated by reducing the indicator "availability of OPF at the end of the year" by the amount of depreciation.

The main indicators characterizing the presence of OPF at the enterprise include indicators of movement and use.

1. Indicators of OPF movement:

1) the coefficient of receipt = the value of the funds received / value at the end of the reporting period. In this example, K p = 500/1600 (thousand rubles);

2) input coefficient = funds put into circulation / value at the end of the period; K cc = 390/1600 (thousand rubles);

3) retirement rate = value of retired funds / value at the beginning of the period; K in = 400/1500 (thousand rubles);

4) liquidation ratio = value of liquidated funds / value of funds at the beginning of the period; K l = 350/1500 (thousand rubles).

2. Indicators of using OPF:

1) return on assets (FO) shows how much production falls on 1 ruble. used formatting objects.

FO = cost of PP (gross product) / average annual cost of OPF (F av), where F av = (cost of F at the beginning of the period + cost of F at the end of the period) / 2;

2) capital intensity - a coefficient inverse to capital productivity. This coefficient shows how much of the production facility is spent on the production of a unit of production. F capacity = F cf / VP.

3. The concept of wear

A huge part of the costs of a firm or enterprise in the process of production activities are the costs of factors of production purchased directly from the resource market (raw materials, equipment, premises, etc.).

Fixed assets of the enterprise- this is material capital, enclosed in buildings, equipment, various structures. This type of resource is not consumed in one production cycle, but serves for a long time and, as a result, is subject to wear and tear.

Revolving funds- capital materialized in raw materials, cash, labor. These are the resources that contribute to the implementation of the process of creating goods and services by putting them into circulation.

Wear- the process of loss of its usefulness and initial value by fixed assets. There are 2 types of OPF wear.

1. Physical deterioration implies the loss of material properties by fixed assets during their operation, i.e., the loss of consumer qualities by capital resources. In other words, this is a process of deterioration of the technical and economic characteristics of fixed assets, which occurs under the influence of the labor process, natural forces (for example, metal corrosion) or due to their non-use. Physical wear and tear of the first degree directly depends on the rate of production and is calculated like variable costs. Regular use of OPF in the production process wears them out over time, makes them of little use and unsuitable for further use. This type of wear is a completely normal and inevitable phenomenon that an enterprise encounters in the course of its activities. Physical deterioration of the second degree determines the degree of destruction of those production assets that, for whatever reason, were not put into production (that is, due to idle equipment) or were used extremely irrationally. Consequently, physical wear and tear of the second degree is not related to the scale of production, but depends on the amount of unused assets. These are the so-called fixed costs of the firm. Such costs have a negative return and can significantly reduce the efficiency of production and operation of the enterprise.

2. Obsolescence- reduction in the cost of OPF until the end of its service life. This form of wear can be caused by quite objective reasons:

1) the cost of OPF may decrease due to the appearance of more modern productive and economical machine tools and machines. With the advent of new technologies, the old means of labor lose their usefulness and go out of circulation, being replaced by technologically more advanced equipment. In general, this leads to an increase in production efficiency, but at the same time increases its costs, since the replacement of equipment occurred earlier than the due date;

2) a decrease in prices in the market for factors of production can also lead to obsolescence of the OPF. For example, when consumer demand in the real estate market falls, relative housing prices fall. As a result, the work of construction organizations turns out to be unprofitable, since the costs can exceed the costs of construction. But this process has nothing to do with the loss of useful properties of construction equipment (cranes). Thus, obsolescence, like physical deterioration of the second degree, should be attributed to fixed costs, since it also does not depend on the volume of output.

4. The concept of depreciation and its rate

In the course of its functioning, the firm bears the costs associated with the acquisition of factors of production. But capital goods must sooner or later be reproduced, and the costs of them must be reimbursed.

Depreciation- This is a process of permanent transfer of the value of fixed assets to manufactured products in order to accumulate funds for the purchase of new assets and the restoration of existing ones. Capital goods are used over time, so their value is transferred to the goods produced as they wear out. Of course, the company cannot reimburse the costs after each production cycle, but it is nevertheless necessary to spend funds on modernizing equipment. For these purposes, a depreciation fund is created, which is formed by regular deductions from the company's profits.

The term "depreciation" has 2 meanings. On the one hand, depreciation is the amount of wear of the OPF, expressed as a percentage in relation to the total volume of the OPF. On the other hand, depreciation is presented as the sum of savings to cover depreciation or the amount of money required to reproduce worn-out capital goods. Monetary expression of depreciation is the amount of depreciation deductions for a certain period of time. The term "annual depreciation" is especially popular. Experts calculate this indicator based on the following formula:

A g = (F b - F l) / T sl.,

where A g is the sum of annual depreciation deductions;

F b - the cost of fixed assets on the balance sheet of the enterprise;

Ф l - the cost of OPF that were liquidated over the past period of time, in this case a year;

T sl - the period of possible operation of the OPF.

The formation of a depreciation fund is a voluntary decision of the enterprises themselves, however, the state still regulates this process by independently setting depreciation rates. The fact is that these norms, in one way or another, determine the amount of profit tax that the state receives in the form of income to the state budget.

The amount of wear itself is difficult to measure objectively. Therefore, any enterprise, deliberately overestimating this value "on paper", that is, documentary, actually has costs incommensurably greater than the real profit. Such measures can be taken to avoid tax payments. That is why the state sets an upper limit for depreciation deductions, that is, the maximum amount of money to cover depreciation.

Consequently, the depreciation rate is a relative indicator, defined as the ratio of the annual depreciation rate and the book value of the OPF: HA = (A g / F b)? 100%. Enterprises, as a rule, set the amount of depreciation charges themselves. This indicator determines the period of time during which the cost of fixed assets will be fully reimbursed. Depreciation regulation is a serious issue.

Understated norms halt technical progress and slow down the process of replacing the means of production. Outdated equipment does not allow minimizing costs and reduces the company's competitiveness in the market. Overestimated norms, on the contrary, are characterized by an intensive change of equipment, which increases the productivity of a unit of labor. However, this causes a natural process of cost growth, which generally reduces the profitability of the enterprise in the short term. Thus, the company is always faced with the task of establishing the optimal depreciation rate, which would make it possible to make a profit at the lowest cost.

5. Methods of depreciation

Depreciation is the accumulation of funds for the restoration of worn-out production assets that have an extremely limited life of productivity and other useful properties. There are a lot of methods for calculating depreciation. But each organization chooses its own way of covering the depreciation of capital goods. And this choice is based directly on the profitability and efficiency of the production process.

The main methods of depreciation it is considered to be the following.

1. Linear way represents an even transfer of the cost of a capital asset to the entire set of costs throughout the entire service life. And g = F b / T sl, where A g is the annual amount of depreciation. This method is used to calculate depreciation for buildings, structures, transmission devices, non-production equipment (laboratory measuring instruments, etc.). The positive aspect of this method of determining the cost of depreciation, of course, is the clarity and ease of calculation. However, the linear approach has several downsides:

1) during the entire service life of the equipment, downtime occurs when it actually drops out of the production cycle. Consequently, fixed assets wear out unevenly, therefore, depreciation deductions in different periods should be differentiated values ​​and this formula cannot be applied;

2) there is no accounting for the obsolescence of the processing plant, which arose as a result of the introduction of new technologies and equipment. As a result, obsolete machines and equipment are retired from production, and such a concept as "under-depreciation" arises:

H = (F o + R l) - F l,

where Ф about - the residual value of fixed assets;

R l - costs associated with the elimination of obsolete fixed assets;

Ф l, is the liquidation value.

3) the real inflation rate is not taken into account.

2. To eliminate the shortcomings of the linear method, accelerated depreciation method... This method of depreciation allows you to recover about 60 - 75% of the total cost of OPF for only half of their service life, while with linear - only 50%. The accelerated depreciation method is also called the declining balance method, and it is used to depreciate equipment that is prone to rapid physical wear and tear or obsolescence.

3. A type of accelerated depreciation is cumulative method, which allows you to write off up to 80% of the cost in almost the first 3 years.

A = (T sl. - m + 1) F b / S,

where m is the ordinal number of the year for which the calculation is made;

S is the sum of years of service life;

S = T sl (T + 1) / 2.

A - depreciation.

The basis of this method is the initial cost of the OPF. Here the amortization is greatest precisely in the first years of the use of capital goods. The cumulative method allows the company to insure against losses and reduce the risk associated with depreciation of obsolete equipment. In addition, the sooner the value of the lost funds is replenished, the faster the organization will be able to acquire new ones.

4. Manufacturing method. Here, the amount of depreciation charges depends mainly on the volume of products. It is calculated monthly based on the actual output. This method is convenient when the cost of OPF is written off, intended for the production of a specific volume of products (for example, for the depreciation of vehicles, the operation of which is limited by the mileage).

Today, the tax legislation of the Russian Federation actually prohibits the excessive use of non-linear methods of depreciation. Only one method is allowed - the diminishing balance method, and with a doubled amortization rate. In this case, the depreciation rate increases accordingly by 2 times.

The linear method is convenient for large diversified corporations, since with the maximum set of OPF, the contribution of each of them is practically insignificant. Thus, the average depreciation rates simplify the work of the accounting department. In the West, the so-called equilibrium method (the correspondence of income and expenses) is used. From an economic point of view, this method is most convenient for the organization's budget, since the greatest amount of depreciation occurs precisely during the period when the profitability from the use of OPF is the maximum value.

6. Accelerated depreciation and the problem of renewal of fixed capital in Russia

The non-linear method of accruing depreciation in the form of accelerated depreciation is characterized by overestimated rates, which generally speeds up the process of replacing fixed assets. However, such an overestimation of depreciation charges in the short term is accompanied by an increase in costs, which significantly reduces the profitability of the enterprise.

It is generally accepted that developed countries overestimate the depreciation rate to a moderate extent, that is, they pursue a policy of accelerated depreciation. For example, the state proposes to write off the cost of fixed assets (machinery and equipment), the service life of which is 7 years, practically in 5 years. The objectives of this policy are to improve the investment climate in the economy and stimulate investment directly into fixed assets. This means that investments are in direct proportion to the size of the depreciation fund, the funds of which are spent directly on upgrading equipment.

Thus, for Russia, which needs additional investment, accelerated depreciation is an opportunity for the growth of financial development of enterprises. However, so far the non-linear method of writing off the cost of fixed assets is not used at all enterprises, since this, in one way or another, causes an increase in costs and, as a result, an increase in the general level of prices for finished goods and services.

The problem of renewal of fixed capital is one of the main problems that an enterprise may face. Outdated equipment significantly reduces the return on capital resources, which causes an increase in average costs. In addition, the use of technologically imperfect equipment is accompanied by overestimated values ​​of energy and production factors (raw materials and labor resources).

A resource-limited economy, which aims to maximize output, is characterized by a rare change of worn-out equipment, that is, even decommissioned OPF continue to participate in the production process. In addition, the value of obsolescence is not taken into account. Achievements of science and technology are not introduced into production, which slows down the process of renewal of fixed capital. The above situation was characteristic directly for the planned economy of the USSR.

The problem of updating the means of production is acute in Russia today, since obsolete equipment not only increases costs, but also reduces the return on the company's fixed assets.

In 1997, the state reassessed its capital resources, increasing their value. In fact, this should have caused an increase in depreciation charges. But the position of individual enterprises was so difficult that the income they received could not provide even a simple reproduction of resources, there was not enough money to acquire them.

Depreciation in this case only increased costs, ruining firms, as a result of which they were forced to turn to the state for help with a request to stop deductions. Thus, it can be concluded that financial instability and risk appetite inhibit depreciation.

7. The concept of working capital and their structure

To carry out production activities, the company invests in production factors, one of which is working capital.

Working capital of the enterprise- these are production assets that are wholly and completely consumed during one production cycle. As a result, they change their natural-material form and completely transfer their own value to the cost of finished goods and services. In other words, circulating assets are raw materials, factors of production (capital, land and labor), as well as funds that are spent on creating a new product. Unlike fixed assets, they constitute the material basis of production. Full cost recovery at the end of each production cycle is very convenient. This means that as goods are sold, not only all costs are reimbursed, but also the cost of factors of production that were expended in a given cycle. Thus, the cost of the finished product contains the full amount of reimbursement of working capital. Each turnover (cycle) for such funds is a complete stage of production, after which the used funds are not restored, but others are involved in production.

In accordance with the above, we can conclude about the importance of dividing the entire production fund into its component parts - fixed and circulating assets. This allows you to exercise the greatest control over all the activities of the firm. For a clear production mechanism, it is necessary to have both types of funds, since the entire process of creating goods and services is built on them.

The structure of working capital is represented by such elements as:

1) raw materials and basic materials required directly for the production of finished products, their share in the total assets is about 30%. In other words, it is the primary source of final goods and services;

2) a set of auxiliary materials (for example, lubricating oils required for the normal functioning of fixed assets);

3) fuel and electricity, which ensure the operation of equipment that produces a finished product or its components;

4) purchased semi-finished products, as well as semi-finished products of our own production;

5) spare parts for the current repair of equipment (as a rule, they make up 3-4% in the structure of working capital);

6) products of subsidiary farming (for example, containers and container materials necessary for packaging, delivery and loading of goods and services);

7) low-value and quickly wearing out objects of labor. These include tools with a service life of less than 1 year.

The structure of the company's working capital is directly dependent on the following factors:

1) the industry affiliation of the enterprise, which determines the specific weight of each of the structure elements;

2) the nature and characteristics of the organization of the production process;

3) conditions of supply and sale of products;

4) the nature and specifics of settlements with consumers and suppliers.

Consequently, the features of the economic activity of the enterprise and the specificity of its production activities predetermine the economic forms in which the circulating assets are located.

This means that the territorial disunity and economic independence of the enterprise require that raw materials and materials be on it in the form of production stocks (work in progress). This is necessary for the smooth course of reproduction.

8. Manufacturing stocks, ways to reduce stocks

A significant share in the composition of reserves at the enterprise is productive reserves, that is, raw materials, materials and fuel that are in the warehouses of the enterprise and intended for production consumption, but have not yet entered the production process. Depending on the reasons for which production stocks are formed, there is the following classification.

1. Current stocks, ie stocks that must continuously satisfy the current consumption of production in material resources between two successive receipts of these resources.

2. Insurance stocks created in case of unforeseen circumstances.

3. Seasonal stocks, which are formed in enterprises working on raw materials, the production or supply of which are seasonal.

4. There is one more type of inventory - unfinished production, that is, the production of products has begun, but has not yet ended, or is being processed at a certain stage of production within the given enterprise.

5. There are also stocks of finished goods - finished goods and services, ready for sale and consumption.

In general, inventories are of great strategic importance both for the structure of consumption and for the economy as a whole. In a crisis economy, supply, as a rule, exceeds the amount of demand, therefore unsold goods in warehouses form stocks.

When the economy starts to "rise", the structure of demand is leveled, it starts to grow. In the long run, in conditions of limited resources, enterprises cannot immediately increase production to meet demand. Therefore, the supply is expanding through the once formed reserves.

However, in some cases, excessive stocks indicate imperfection in the organization of production and sales activities or a decrease in consumer demand due to poor quality of goods, service or other consumer properties.

The main ways to reduce inventories

Internal factors

1. Rational use of the amount of raw materials required for production.

2. Elimination of excess stocks of materials that in the near future may not be involved in production. Storing surplus inventory, especially with high interest rates in the country, becomes costly and increases the overall costs of the enterprise.

3. Improving the organization of supply, including the timely delivery of raw materials and supplies to workshops or warehouses.

4. The optimal choice of suppliers.

5. Well-established work of transport, which is on the balance sheet of the enterprise and serves production by transporting raw materials and materials, or sales through the sale of finished products.

6. Improvement of production rationing.

7. Improving the organization of storage facilities.

External factors

1. General economic situation. Macroeconomic instability, accompanied by imbalances in supply and demand patterns, interest rate movements and price levels, can all make holding inventories either costly or necessary. In this case, when organizing storage facilities, one should focus on the state of the economy.

2. Features of tax legislation.

3. Conditions for obtaining a loan.

4. Possibilities of targeted (state) financing.

9. Indicators of the use of working capital

In total, there are 4 main indicators by means of which it is possible to characterize the process of using circulating production assets.

1. Turnover ratio shows how many turnovers the funds make over a certain period of time.

K o = RP / O cf. ,

where RP is the volume of products sold in rubles;

Oh Wed - the average residual value of raw materials and supplies.

In other words, this indicator characterizes the amount of finished and already sold products, which accounts for 1 ruble of primary raw materials and materials.

Accordingly, the higher this ratio, the more efficiently the working capital is used at the enterprise. If the turnover ratio decreases, this will be a consequence of a corresponding decrease in the RP and an increase in OCP. Consequently, a larger number of working capital will be spent on the manufacture of each additional unit of production.

2. Duration of 1 turn characterizes the amount of time spent on the implementation of one production cycle.

where T is the total number of days.

Thus, with the rational use of circulating assets and with an increase in the indicator K about, the duration of 1 turnover, respectively, should decrease.

The less time is spent on the implementation of one turnover of production assets, the more often they (turnovers) are made with the least amount of time and the more finished products can be manufactured. Consequently, the duration of the turnover is inversely related to the value of the turnover ratio.

3. Specific consumption of raw materials and materials- the total amount of materials (working capital), which is spent on the production of 1 unit of production:

where M is the total consumption of materials in natural units;

q - the number of units of manufactured products in pieces.

If an enterprise develops intensively and functions effectively, this indicator will decrease for it. The lower the specific consumption of raw materials, the greater the volume of goods and services will be produced, all other things being equal and a given amount of circulating assets at a certain point in time.

4. Material consumption shows the cost of material resources that were spent on the manufacture of one unit of production.

where C is the actual cost of resources in rubles;

Q is the entire volume of goods and services in monetary terms.

The consumption of materials should decrease, that is, the actual costs incurred by the enterprise in organizing production activities should never exceed the value of the goods produced or the income that can be obtained during their sale.

To organize efficient production, an enterprise must look for ways to reduce costs, mainly in terms of saving production resources. Thus, it is possible to identify certain sources of reducing the cost of materials.

1. This can be achieved by reducing the weight of the manufactured product. For example, this method can be widely used in metallurgy, where the heavy metal itself can be replaced with an alloy with a lower specific gravity, while maintaining the size and shape of the product. However, this method cannot be applied to a number of industries (for example, in the food industry).

2. Reducing waste loss. This problem is especially urgent today. Due to limited resources, it is necessary to develop technologies for the processing of industrial waste and, in the future, for their secondary use. In addition, in order to really reduce waste, it is important to seriously approach the problem of rational use of resources available in production. The solution of these problems will allow the enterprise to really expand production at the lowest cost.

Property, plant and equipment is a part of property that is used as a means of labor in the manufacture of products, the performance of work or the provision of services, or for the management of an organization for a period exceeding 12 months.

The fixed assets of an industrial enterprise are a set of material values ​​created by social labor, participating in the production process for a long time in an invariable natural form and transferring their value to manufactured products in parts as they wear out.

There are several classifications of fixed assets.

By purpose and scope of application, fixed assets are subdivided into:

1) the production fixed assets of the main activity, which function in the production process, constantly participate in it, wear out gradually, transferring their value to the finished product. They are replenished through capital investments,

2) non-production fixed assets, which are intended to service the production process, and therefore do not directly participate in it, and do not transfer their value to the product, because it is not produced. They are reproduced at the expense of the national income.

Despite the fact that non-productive fixed assets do not have any direct effect on the volume of production, the growth of labor productivity, a constant increase in these funds is associated with an improvement in the welfare of employees of the enterprise, an increase in the material and cultural standard of their lives, which ultimately affects the result of activities enterprises.

Fixed non-productive assets these are the objects of the enterprise to which such non-production facilities belong (residential buildings, kindergartens and nurseries, schools, hospitals and other healthcare and cultural facilities), which are under the jurisdiction of industrial enterprises (they do not directly, but indirectly affect the production process ).

Basic production assets- a set of means of labor that function in the sphere of material production in an invariable natural form for a long time and transfer their value to the newly created product in parts, as they wear out for a number of circuits.

According to the existing classification, industrial fixed assets in terms of their composition, depending on the intended purpose and functions performed, are divided into the following types:

1) building.

2) structures.

3) transmission devices.

4) cars and equipment.

5) vehicles.

6) and tools, production and household equipment and other fixed assets.

Generalizing indicators of the efficiency of using fixed production assets include:

Return on assets;

Capital intensity;

Labor-to-labor ratio;

Profitability of fixed assets;

Input rate of fixed assets;

Retirement rate of fixed assets

In return on assets (f B) is understood as an indicator of the efficiency of using fixed production assets, which characterizes the volume of products (services) produced by an enterprise in value indicators (OP) by a unit of fixed production assets (SR) It can be calculated by the formula (618):

Capital intensity (FМ) is the inverse of the capital productivity indicator, i.e. it shows how much the enterprise needs to purchase fixed assets to produce the required volumes of n products (services) It can be calculated by the formula (619)):

The capital-labor ratio (fn) is understood as the indicator of the efficiency of the use of fixed assets by employees of the enterprise, which is calculated as the ratio of the cost of the active part of the fixed assets F (II, III, IV) (i.e. II, III and IV groups of fixed assets according to the given in p62 classification) and the number of industrial and production personnel in the maximum workload of the enterprise change (PPVP), i.e. according to the formula (620) 0):

The profitability of fixed assets (Rf) is understood as the indicator of the efficiency of using the fixed assets of the enterprise, which is calculated as the ratio of profit from the main production and non-production capacity of the enterprise (P) to the average annual cost of fixed assets (FSR), i.e. according to the formula (621):

The coefficient of input of fixed assets into production (coefficient of renewal) (KVN) shows how much funds were introduced (Fvv) in comparison with their value at the end of the reporting period (Fcl) and p is calculated by the formula (622):

The coefficient of retirement of fixed assets from production (kVie) shows how much funds were withdrawn (FViv) in comparison with their value at the beginning of the reporting period (FRP) It is calculated by the formula.

Fixed assets (, fixed capital) is a part. They are created in the process, are repeatedly used in production (economy) and gradually (in parts, by way) transfer their value to the created products and services, without changing their natural-material form.

Fixed assets are the most important element of national wealth.

Essence of fixed assets

Fixed assets refer to production assets, as they are created and used in the production process.

Fixed assets include objects that serve for at least a year and cost above a certain value, established depending on the dynamics of prices for the products of asset-creating industries (Fixed assets include objects, the cost of which is determined in the amount of fifty times the statutory minimum monthly wage on the date of their acquisition).

The essence of fixed assets:

• they are materially embodied in the means of labor;
• their cost is transferred in parts to the product;
• they retain their natural shape for a long time as they wear out;
• are reimbursed based on depreciation at the end of the service life.

Signs of fixed capital

• Operates for a long time, participates repeatedly in the production of products and services
• It transfers its value to the result of labor in parts, as it wears out
• During operation, it does not change its material form

Classification of fixed assets

To study the composition of fixed assets, groupings are used according to the following criteria:

• by sectors of the economy - fixed assets of sectors that produce goods and provide services;
• by forms of ownership - fixed assets in state, private and other types of ownership;
• according to the system of participation in the production process - fixed assets directly used in the production process of products (works, services), and inactive fixed assets, including those in stock, for conservation, for repair, for reconstruction;
• by ownership - own and leased fixed assets;
• on a territorial basis - fixed assets of districts, republics, territories, regions and cities.

Sources of data on fixed assets:

• regular statistical reporting on the availability and
• one-time statistical reporting on the data of revaluation of fixed assets
• business register data and sample survey data.

By affiliation fixed assets are subdivided into own and rented. Basic production assets depending on the degree of their impact on the subject of labor divided into active and passive.

Tangible and intangible fixed assets

According to the all-Russian classifier, fixed assets are subdivided into tangible and intangible.

Tangible fixed assets include:

• Buildings (other than housing).
• Structures.
• Dwellings.
• Cars and equipment.
• Transport vehicles.
• Tools, production and household inventory.
• Working and productive livestock.
• Perennial plantings.
• Other fixed assets.

Building- buildings and structures in which the processes of main, auxiliary and auxiliary production take place; administrative buildings; household buildings. The cost of these objects, in addition to the construction part, also includes the cost of heating systems, plumbing, electrical fittings, ventilation devices, etc. The cost of buildings as part of the main industrial and production assets of Russia is 28%.

Constructions... The group of structures, constituting, respectively, 21% includes engineering and construction objects that are necessary for the implementation of the production process: roads, overpasses, tunnels, bridges, etc.

cars and equipment- power machines and equipment, including all types of power units and engines; working machines and equipment that directly affect the subject of labor or its movement in the process of creating products; measuring or regulating instruments and devices and laboratory equipment intended for measurements, regulation of production processes, testing and research; since 1972, computer technology has been separated into a separate subgroup: electronic computers, analog control machines, as well as machines and devices used to control production and technological processes; other machines and equipment that are not included in the listed subgroups.

The specific weight of the group "machinery and equipment" in 2002 was 43% in the total value of fixed assets of the industry.

Vehicles(owned by enterprises rolling stock of railways, water and road transport, as well as in-plant vehicles: autocars, trolleys, trolleys, etc.). The share of vehicles increased to 18%.

Tools and fixtures... Fixed assets include all types of instruments with a service life of over 1 year. Tools and inventory that have been in service for less than 1 year are classified as revolving funds.

Transfer devices(6%) - water supply and electricity networks; heating network, gas networks, steam pipelines, i.e., objects that transfer various types of energy from engine machines to working machines (oil pipelines, gas pipelines, etc.)

Production and household inventory and accessories designed for storing materials, tools and facilitating production operations - workbenches, shelves, tables, containers, office and household items (furniture, fireproof cabinets, duplicators, fire-fighting items, etc.).

Working and productive livestock... Working cattle (horses, bulls, oxen, camels, etc.) have been singled out as a separate group since 1996. The fixed assets also include productive livestock - adult animals that produce products and offspring (cows, ewes, sows, etc.). The value of young stock, livestock and fattening animals is included in the working capital of agricultural enterprises.

Perennial plantings... The main assets include perennial plantations: fruit-bearing orchards, berry fields, forest shelter belts.

On-farm roads.

Land owned by the enterprise.

Other fixed assets.

Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, the directions of the economic and depreciation policy of the state, the classification of fixed assets is periodically revised.

The above classification of material fixed assets is concretized for each branch of the economy. That is, the classification of fixed assets in industry differs from the classification of fixed assets in agriculture, and the classification of fixed assets in agriculture differs from the classification of fixed assets in construction.

Natural-material classification of fixed assets allows you to analyze the change in their structure, to determine the share of the active and passive parts of fixed assets. The assignment of one or another type of fixed assets to the active or passive part depends on the specifics of industry activities. Usually, buildings and structures are included in the passive part of fixed assets. But in a number of industries, for example, in the oil and gas industry, wells (included in the group of structures) belong to the active part of fixed assets.

Intangible fixed assets (intangible produced assets):

• Exploration expenditures.
• Computer software and databases.
• Original works of entertainment, literature and art.
• High-tech industrial technologies.
• Other intangible fixed assets that are objects of intellectual property, the use of which is limited by the ownership rights established on them.

Fixed assets include not only operating fixed assets, but also the cost of unfinished objects, which are transferred in this state from the manufacturer to the ownership of the user or, when they are paid in stages, are actually financed by the customer. Consequently, assets are accounted for in fixed assets from the moment they become the property of the owner. As a result, fixed assets increase by the value of the value of the unfinished manufactured tangible assets, i.e., by the value of the value of the work in progress of equipment (with a long production cycle) in the part paid by the customer, uninstalled equipment paid by the customer. This group also includes livestock, young animals, plantations of perennial plantations that have not reached fertile age, grown for repeated production of appropriate products, as well as families of bees, poultry and fish grown for the production of livestock products and breeding purposes.

See also

After completing this chapter, you will:

know

• - concept, essence, classification of fixed assets of the enterprise;
• - methods of valuation of fixed assets, depreciation and types of depreciation;
• - indicators of the effectiveness of the use of fixed assets, ways to increase them;

be able to

• - determine the rate of depreciation; calculate the amount of depreciation by various methods;
• - calculate indicators of the effectiveness of fixed assets, interpret their values;
• - calculate the economically justified service life of fixed assets;

own

The main methods used in the management of fixed assets of the enterprise.

Classification of fixed assets

The means of production used for the production of any product transfer their value to it in different ways. Some of them do it immediately, during one production cycle. For example, the cost of furniture immediately and entirely includes the cost of the lumber from which this furniture is made. Fully included in the cost of furniture and the cost of consumed glue, varnish, fasteners, as well as the cost of fuel, electricity, etc., spent on its manufacture. If we assume for a minute that the enterprise at some point in time had all the above (as well as other necessary) materials exactly as much as is needed to produce one set of furniture, then it turns out that, having produced this set, the enterprise will be able to continue its work, only selling it and again buying all the necessary materials with the proceeds.

In other words, the considered means of production in the process of each production cycle lose their original natural form and completely transfer their value to the finished product (i.e., their value is fully included in the value of the products produced in this production cycle).

Such means of production belong to working capital of the enterprise.

Another part of the means of production participates in the process of forming the value of manufactured products in a significantly different way. For example, in the production of the same furniture, woodworking equipment was used. This equipment, in contrast to the previously considered materials, after the completion of the manufacture of a set of furniture did not lose its natural form, did not lose its consumer qualities and could be used without any problems for the manufacture of the second, third, etc. sets of furniture.

This is the first difference between the two considered groups of means of production. The second follows from the first: if the means of production participate, without changing their natural form, in many production cycles, then their value cannot be included in the value of products produced in one cycle, but must be distributed among all products produced with the help of these means of production. ... Unlike circulating, such means of production are classified as fixed assets.

So, fixed assets of an enterprise- this is the value of the means of production, fully participating in many production cycles, while retaining their natural form and transferring their value to finished products gradually, as they wear out.

Historical reference

In Soviet economic theory and practice, the concepts of "fixed assets" and "fixed assets" were used practically as synonyms: in any case, no generally accepted boundaries were drawn between them. In connection with the introduction in 1996 of the All-Russian Classifier of Fixed Assets, the situation has changed.

In accordance with the new All-Russian Classifier of Fixed Assets (OKOF) entered into force on January 1, 2017, approved by order of the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology dated December 12, 2014 No. 2018-st "On the adoption and implementation of the All-Russian Classifier OK 013-2014 (SNS) ", fixed assets are produced assets that are used repeatedly or continuously over a long period, but not less than one year, for the production of goods, the provision of market and non-market services.

Fixed assets consist of tangible and intangible fixed assets.

TO tangible fixed assets(fixed assets) include: buildings, structures, machinery, equipment and other types of material fixed assets.

TO intangible fixed assets(intangible assets) include computer software, works

literature or art, technology and other intangible fixed assets that are objects of intellectual property, the use of which is limited by the ownership rights established on them.

Thus, fixed assets form one of two constituent parts of fixed assets - tangible fixed assets. The second component is intangible fixed assets, or intangible assets. Unlike quite tangible fixed assets, intangible assets cannot be “touched”: you can stand on a land plot, you can pick up a document certifying the right to use a land plot, but you cannot pick up this right itself. Nevertheless, intangible assets behave in the economy in exactly the same way as fixed assets: both of them can be quite expensive, usually serve for a rather long time, but gradually wear out, i.e. lose their usefulness to their owner. The latter means that there must be the same mechanism for transferring their value to the products produced with their help. All this makes it possible to combine intangible assets into one group with fixed assets.

Earlier we gave a theoretical definition of fixed assets. However, in practice, using exclusively this definition, it is sometimes difficult to establish whether this or that type of production resources belongs to fixed or circulating assets. In addition, the classification of a large number of very cheap items as fixed assets, such as hammers, screwdrivers, etc. (although they, in fact, should really belong to fixed assets), would overly complicate the accounting in the enterprise, without leading to a significant increase in its accuracy. Therefore, the accounting system has formed its own understanding of what should be attributed to fixed assets and what should not. Moreover, it does not coincide in everything with the scientific one.

So, in accordance with the requirements of accounting and reporting in the Russian Federation, fixed assets do not include items that have served less than one year, regardless of their cost.

Since 2016, the tax accounting limit for depreciable property has been increased - RUB 100,000. per unit and a useful life of more than 12 months.

Note that Art. 257 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation defines fixed assets as follows: part of the property used as means of labor for the production and sale of goods (performance of work, provision of services) or for managing an organization with an initial cost of more than 40,000 rubles. As you can see, there is no indication of the service life in this definition. However, further in the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, the term "fixed assets" is replaced by the term "depreciable property", and here it already becomes clear that there can be no depreciable property with a service life of less than one year.

Classification by species (species classification) is used most often. As already noted, the classifier of fixed assets includes two sections - tangible and intangible fixed assets, each of which has several subsections, which just characterize the classification of fixed assets by their types. The ratio of individual types of fixed assets is called their species structure. In the current version of the classifier, seven groups of fixed assets are distinguished (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1

	Fixed asset groups
	Explanation
Residential buildings and structures	Buildings and dwellings used as residences, mobile homes, floating houses, other buildings (premises) used for dwellings, as well as historical monuments identified mainly as dwelling houses
Buildings (other than residential) and structures, land improvement costs	Buildings that are architectural and construction objects, the purpose of which is to create conditions (protection from atmospheric influences, etc.) for labor, social and cultural services for the population and storage of material values
Machinery and equipment, including household inventory and other objects	Vehicles, information, computer and telecommunications (ICT) equipment (machines, apparatus, aggregates, installations, etc., including their constituent accessories), household inventory and other objects
Weapon systems	Armament (small arms, artillery, complexes and launchers of unguided missiles, etc.); aircraft, orbital vehicles and means of their preparation for launch; ships, combat tracked and wheeled vehicles
Cultivated biological resources	Cultivated resources of plant and animal origin, which repeatedly produce products,
Transfer costs of non-produced assets	Land, mineral wealth, etc.
intellectual property	Research and development, expenditures on exploration and evaluation of mineral reserves, software and databases, software, databases, originals of entertainment, literature or art, other objects of intellectual property

Classification of fixed assets by type of activity.This classification characterizes the structure of the national economy by type

activities measured by fixed assets. Comparing this structure with the structure of the national economy, measured by the number of enterprises, manufactured products, and the number of employees, one can obtain very valuable information about some indicators characterizing the organization of various types of activity.

Classification of fixed assets by branches and sub-branches of the national economy and industry gives an idea of ​​the sectoral composition of the national economy (or industry) in terms of fixed assets. The shares of individual sectors in the total value of fixed assets of the national economy characterizes the sectoral structure of the national economy, measured by fixed assets.

A significant part of the national wealth is fixed assets related to non-financial assets.

Fixed assets (fixed assets, fixed capital) are tangible assets (property) created in the production process, which for a long time (at least one year) are used in the economy in an unchanged natural-material form, gradually lose their value and transfer it on products and services created through depreciation charges over the entire service life.

Fixed assets (OF) are divided into production (OPF) and non-production assets (NPF).

Fixed production assets are assets (means of labor) that are used to produce goods or provide market and non-market services. However, not all means of labor are OPF, for example, machines in the warehouse of an enterprise that manufactures them act as finished products and are included in the circulation funds of this enterprise.

Basic non-productive assets are objects (property) for consumer purposes: housing stock, administrative buildings, objects of culture, art, and defense. They are not involved in the creation of products and services, but they are also used for a long time and gradually lose their value.

The main tasks of statistics of fixed assets are: 1) study of the availability and composition of fixed assets; 2) analysis of the state, movement, use of fixed assets and labor equipment with fixed assets.

Sources of information for statistics of fixed assets are primary accounting data (fixed assets accounting card), balance sheet and annexes to it (form No. 5), annual statistical reporting in form No. 11 "Information on the availability and movement of fixed assets (funds) and other of non-financial assets of commercial organizations ", according to form No. 11 (brief)" Information on the availability and movement of fixed assets (funds) of non-commercial organizations ", as well as according to form No. PM" Information on the main indicators of the activity of a small enterprise. "

In statistical reporting, data on the availability of fixed assets are given at the beginning of the year, at the end of the year and their average annual cost. For accounting - monthly, at the end of the period. If data are available at the beginning of the months, the average annual value of fixed assets is calculated using the average chronological formula.

If there is information on the receipt and disposal of fixed assets during the year (monthly), their average annual cost is determined by the formula:

F n- the cost of the OF at the beginning of the year

F in- the cost of OF introduced during the year

F l- the cost of retired,

T in- the number of months of work of the PF introduced during the year,

T l- the number of months that have passed since the disposal of the fixed assets in

throughout the year.

The formula allows you to take into account the time of functioning of fixed assets in production.

The composition of fixed assets in statistics is studied as a whole for the economy as a whole, for sectors of the economy, for types of economic activity in accordance with OKVED.

Since 1971 in our country there is a unified classification of fixed assets, which includes 12 groups:

1) buildings;

2) structures;

3) transmission devices;

4) machines and equipment (power; workers; measuring and regulating instruments and devices; laboratory equipment; computers; others);

5) vehicles;

6) general purpose tool;

7) production inventory;

8) household inventory;

9) working and productive livestock;

10) perennial plantings;

11) capital expenditures for land improvement (without structures);

12) other fixed assets.

Based on this classification of assets by natural-material composition, production fixed assets are grouped into active (machinery and equipment - workers and power) and passive (buildings, structures, household inventory, others). The division into active and passive parts depends on the branch of functioning of fixed assets (industry, agriculture, construction, transport, communications and other branches of production).

The ratio between the active and passive part of fixed assets is called the technological structure of fixed assets.

There are other classifications of fixed assets, developed for the purpose of calculating and accounting for depreciation (depreciation) of fixed assets:

1) Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 1 of 1.01.2002 "On the classification of fixed assets included in depreciation groups."

2) Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation No. 156n dated November 27, 2006 (“Regulation on accounting 6/01”).

3) Tax Code of the Russian Federation (as amended on 1.02.2010).

In the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, for example, fixed assets include property worth more than 20,000 rubles and with a service life of more than 12 months. It is divided into 10 depreciation groups by useful life (group 1 - from 1 year to 2 years inclusive, group 2 - from 2 years to 3 years inclusive, etc., group 10 - property with a term service over 30 years).