Maudsley lathe. Lathe: history of invention and modern models. From the creation of the machine to the creation of the industry

Maudsley's father, also called Henry, worked as a wheel and carriage repairman for Royal Engineers ( English). After being wounded in battle, he became a storekeeper at the Royal Arsenal ( English), located in Woolwich, South London, an armaments, ammunition and explosives manufacturing facility that conducts scientific research for the British Armed Forces. There he married a young widow, Margaret Londy, they had seven children, among whom young Henry was the fifth child. Henry's father died in 1780. Like many children of the era, Henry began working in manufacturing from an early age, at the age of 12 he was a "powder monkey", one of the boys hired to fill cartridges at the Arsenal (Royal Arsenal ( English). Two years later, he was transferred to a carpentry workshop equipped with a forging press, where at the age of fifteen he began to study blacksmithing.

Career

In 1800, Maudsley developed the first industrial metal cutting machine to standardize thread sizes. This allowed the concept of interchangeability to be introduced in order to put nuts and bolts into practice. Before him, the thread, as a rule, was stuffed by skilled workers in a very primitive way - they marked a groove on the bolt blank, and then cut it using a chisel, file and various other tools. Accordingly - nuts and bolts were obtained non-standard form and size, and such a bolt fit exclusively with the nut that was made for it. Nuts were rarely used, metal screws were used mainly when working on wood, to connect individual blocks. The metal bolts passing through the timber frame were jammed on the other side for fastening, or a metal washer was put on the edge of the bolt, and the end of the bolt was flared. Maudsley standardized the threading process for use in his workshop and produced a set of taps and dies, so any bolt of the appropriate size would fit any nut of the same size. This was a big step forward in technical progress and equipment production.

Maudsley was the first to invent the micrometer with an accuracy of one ten-thousandth of an inch (0.0001 in ≈ 3 microns). He named him "Lord Chancellor" because he was used to settle any questions regarding the accuracy of measuring parts in his workshops.

At an advanced age, Maudsley developed an interest in astronomy and began building a telescope. He intended to buy a house in one of the districts of London and build a private observatory, but fell ill and died before he could carry out his plan. In January 1831, he caught a cold while crossing the English Channel, returning from a visit to a friend in France. Henry was ill for 4 weeks and died on February 14, 1831. He was buried in the parish cemetery of St. Mary Magdalene ( English) in Woolwich (South London), where, according to his design, a cast-iron memorial to the Maudsley family was erected at a factory in Lambeth. Later, 14 members of his family were buried in this cemetery.

Many distinguished engineers trained in Henry's workshop, including Richard Roberts ( English), David Napier, Joseph Clement ( English), Sir Joseph Whitworth, James Nesmith (inventor of the steam hammer), Joshua Field ( English) and William Muir.

Henry Maudsley contributed to the development of mechanical engineering when it was still in its infancy, his main innovation was in the creation of machine tools that will then be used in technical workshops around the world.

The Maudsley Company was one of the most important British engineering manufactories of the nineteenth century and lasted until 1904.

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Excerpt from Henry Maudsley

“But you know, Your Excellency, a wise rule that presupposes the worst,” said the Austrian general, apparently wanting to end the jokes and get down to business.
He involuntarily glanced back at the adjutant.
“Excuse me, General,” Kutuzov interrupted him and also turned to Prince Andrey. - That's what, my dear, you take all the reports from our spies at Kozlovsky. Here are two letters from Count Nostitz, here is a letter from His Highness Archduke Ferdinand, here's another one, ”he said, handing him several papers. - And from all this cleanly, on French, make a memorandum, a note, for the visibility of all the news that we had about the actions of the Austrian army. Well, then, and introduce it to His Excellency.
Prince Andrey bowed his head as a sign that he understood from the first words not only what was said, but also what Kutuzov would like to tell him. He gathered up the papers, and, giving a general bow, quietly walking on the carpet, went out into the waiting room.
Despite the fact that not much time has passed since Prince Andrey left Russia, he has changed a lot during this time. In the expression on his face, in his movements, in his gait, there was almost no sign of the former pretense, fatigue and laziness; he had the appearance of a man who has no time to think about the impression he makes on others, and is busy with a pleasant and interesting business. His face expressed more satisfaction with himself and those around him; his smile and look were more cheerful and attractive.
Kutuzov, whom he caught up with back in Poland, received him very kindly, promised him not to forget him, distinguished him from other adjutants, took him with him to Vienna and gave more serious assignments. From Vienna, Kutuzov wrote to his old friend, the father of Prince Andrey:
“Your son,” he wrote, “gives hope to be an officer who is one of the best in his occupations, firmness and diligence. I consider myself lucky to have such a subordinate at hand. "
At Kutuzov's headquarters, between his comrades and colleagues and in the army in general, Prince Andrei, as well as in Petersburg society, had two completely opposite reputations.
Some, a smaller part, recognized Prince Andrew as something special from themselves and from all other people, expected great success from him, listened to him, admired him and imitated him; and with these people Prince Andrew was simple and pleasant. Others, the majority, did not like Prince Andrew, considered him a pouty, cold and unpleasant person. But with these people, Prince Andrew knew how to position himself in such a way that he was respected and even feared.
Leaving Kutuzov's office in the waiting room, Prince Andrey with the papers went up to his comrade, the adjutant on duty Kozlovsky, who was sitting by the window with a book.
- Well, what, prince? Kozlovsky asked.
- Ordered to draw up a note why we are not going forward.
- And why?
Prince Andrew shrugged his shoulders.
- No word from Mac? Kozlovsky asked.
- No.
- If it were true that he was defeated, then the news would come.
“Probably,” said Prince Andrey and went to the exit door; but at the same time a tall, obviously newcomer, Austrian general in a frock coat, with a head tied with a black shawl and with the Order of Maria Theresa around his neck, quickly entered the reception room, slamming the door towards him. Prince Andrew stopped.
- General in chief Kutuzov? - the visiting general quickly said with a sharp German reprimand, looking back at both sides and without stopping walking to the door of the office.
“The general in chief is busy,” said Kozlovsky, hurrying up to the unknown general and blocking his way from the door. - How would you like to report?
The unknown general looked down contemptuously from top to bottom at short Kozlovsky, as if surprised that they might not know him.
“General in chief is busy,” Kozlovsky repeated calmly.
The general's face frowned, his lips twitched and trembled. He took out notebook, quickly drew something with a pencil, tore out a piece of paper, gave it away, walked quickly to the window, threw his body on a chair and looked around at those in the room, as if asking: why are they looking at him? Then the general raised his head, stretched out his neck, as if intending to say something, but immediately, as if casually beginning to hum to himself, made a strange sound, which immediately stopped. The office door opened, and Kutuzov appeared on the threshold. The general with his head tied, as if fleeing from danger, bending down, with large, quick steps of thin legs approached Kutuzov.
- Vous voyez le malheureux Mack, [You see poor Mack.] - he said in a broken voice.
The face of Kutuzov, who was standing at the door of the office, remained completely motionless for several moments. Then, like a wave, a wrinkle ran across his face, his forehead smoothed; he bowed his head respectfully, closed his eyes, silently let Mack past him and shut the door behind him.
The rumor, already widespread before, about the defeat of the Austrians and the surrender of the entire army at Ulm, turned out to be true. Half an hour later, adjutants were dispatched in different directions with orders proving that soon the Russian troops, still inactive, would have to meet the enemy.

English mechanic and industrialist. Created a lathe screw-cutting machine with a mechanized support (1797), mechanized the production of screws, nuts, etc. early years spent at Woolwich near London. At the age of 12 he began to work as a cartridge stuffer in the Woolwich Arsenal, and at the age of 18 he was the best blacksmith of the arsenal and a mechanic-mechanic, in the workshop of J. Bram - the best workshop in London. Later he opened his own workshop, then a plant in Lambeth. Created the Maudsley Lab. Designer. Mechanical engineer. Created a mechanized lathe support of his own design. Came up with an original set of interchangeable gear wheels. Invented a cross-planer with a crank mechanism. He created or improved a large number of different metal-cutting machines. He built steam ship engines for Russia. From the beginning of the 19th century, a gradual revolution in mechanical engineering began. In place of the old lathe, one after the other, new high-precision automatic lathes, equipped with calipers, come. The beginning of this revolution was laid by the English mechanic Henry Maudsley's lathe, which made it possible to automatically grind screws and bolts with any thread.

The screw cutter designed by Maudsley represented a significant step forward. The history of his invention is described in this way by his contemporaries. In 1794-1795, Maudsley, still a young but already very experienced mechanic, worked in the workshop of the famous inventor Bramah. The main products of the workshop were water closets and locks invented by Bramo. The demand for them was very wide, and by hand making them was difficult. Brahma and Maudsley were faced with the challenge of increasing the number of parts made on machine tools. However, the old lathe was inconvenient for this. Starting work on its improvement, Maudsley equipped it with a cross-type support in 1794. The lower part of the support (slide) was installed on the same frame with the tailstock of the machine and could slide along its guide. In any place, the caliper could be firmly fixed with a screw. On the lower sled were the upper ones, arranged in the same way. With the help of them, the cutter, fixed with a screw in the slot at the end of the steel bar, could move in the transverse direction. The movement of the caliper in the longitudinal and transverse directions took place with the help of two lead screws. By moving the cutter with the help of a support close to the workpiece, rigidly installing it on the transverse slide, and then moving it along the work surface, it was possible to cut off excess metal with great accuracy. In this case, the support performed the function of a worker's hand holding the cutter. In fact, there was nothing new in the described design, but it was a necessary step towards further improvements.

Leaving Bramah shortly after his invention, Maudsley founded his own workshop and in 1798 created a more perfect lathe. This machine became an important milestone in the development of machine tool building, as it allowed for the first time to automatically cut screws of any length and any pitch. As already mentioned, the weak point of the old lathe was that only short screws could be cut on it. It could not be otherwise, because there was no support, the worker's hand had to remain motionless, and the workpiece itself moved along with the spindle. In the Maudsley machine, the workpiece remained stationary, and the caliper moved with the cutter fixed in it. In order to make the caliper move on the lower slide along the machine, Maudsley connected the headstock spindle with the caliper lead screw using two gears. A rotating screw was screwed into a nut that pulled the caliper slide and made it slide along the bed. Since the lead screw rotated at the same speed as the spindle, a thread was cut on the workpiece with the same pitch as on this screw. For cutting screws with different pitches, the machine had a supply of lead screws. Automatic cutting of the screw on the machine was as follows. The workpiece was clamped and turned to the right sizes, not including the mechanical feed of the caliper. After that, the lead screw was connected to the spindle, and the screw threading was carried out in several passes of the cutter. The return movement of the caliper was each done manually after turning off the self-propelled feed. Thus, the lead screw and caliper completely replaced the worker's hand. Moreover, they made it possible to cut threads much more accurately and faster than on previous machines.

In 1800, Maudsley made a remarkable improvement to his machine - instead of a set of replaceable lead screws, he used a set of replaceable gears that connected the spindle and lead screw (there were 28 of them with the number of teeth from 15 to 50). Now it was possible with one lead screw to obtain different threads with different pitches. Indeed, if it was required, for example, to obtain a screw whose stroke is n times less than that of the lead screw, it was necessary to make the workpiece rotate at such a speed that it would make n revolutions during the time that the lead screw received its rotation from the spindle , this was easily achieved by inserting one or more gear transmission wheels between the spindle and the screw. Knowing the number of teeth on each wheel, it was not difficult to get the required speed. By changing the combination of wheels, it was possible to achieve different effect, for example, cut a right-hand thread instead of a left-hand thread. On his machine, Maudsley performed threading with such amazing precision and accuracy that it seemed almost a miracle to his contemporaries. He, in particular, cut an adjusting screw and nut for an astronomical instrument, which for a long time was considered an unsurpassed masterpiece of precision. The propeller was five feet long and two inches in diameter with 50 turns per inch. The carving was so fine that it was impossible to see it with the naked eye. Soon the improved Maudsley machine became widespread and served as a model for many other metal-cutting machines. Maudsley's outstanding achievement earned him resounding and well-deserved fame. Indeed, although Maudsley cannot be considered the sole inventor of the caliper, his undoubted merit was that he came up with his idea at the right time and put it in the most perfect form.

His other merit was that he introduced the idea of a caliper into mass production and thereby contributed to its final distribution. He was the first to establish that each screw of a certain diameter must have a thread with a certain pitch. As long as the thread was applied by hand, each screw had its own characteristics. For each screw, its own nut was made, usually not suitable for any other screw. The introduction of mechanized threading ensured the consistency of all threads. Now any screw and any nut of the same diameter would fit together no matter where they were made. This was the beginning of the standardization of parts, which had an extremely great importance for mechanical engineering. One of Maudsley's students, James Nesmith, who later became an outstanding inventor himself, wrote in his memoirs about Maudsley as the pioneer of standardization. "He went on to spread the all-important matter of screw uniformity. Call it an improvement, or rather call it a revolution made by Maudsley in mechanical engineering. Before him there was no system in relation to the number of screw threads and their diameters. Every bolt and nut was suitable. only for each other and had nothing to do with a bolt of neighboring sizes. Therefore, all bolts and their corresponding nuts received special markings indicating their belonging to each other. Any mixing of them led to endless difficulties and costs, inefficiency and confusion - part of the machine park should was constantly used for repairs. Only someone who lived in the relatively early days of machine production can have a correct understanding of the troubles, obstacles and costs that such a situation caused, and only he will correctly appreciate the great service that Maudsley has given to mechanical engineering. "

(English) Russian located in Woolwich, South London, an armaments, ammunition and explosives business and scientific research for the British armed forces... There he married a young widow, Margaret Londy. They had seven children, among whom young Henry was the fifth child. Henry's father died in 1780. Like many children of that era, Henry began working in manufacturing from an early age, at the age of 12 he was a "powder monkey", that is, one of the boys hired to fill cartridges in the Woolwich Arsenal. Two years later, he was transferred to a carpentry workshop equipped with a forging press, where at the age of fifteen he began to study blacksmithing.

In 1789 Maudsley began working in Joseph Bramah's London mechanical workshop. In 1794, Maudsley invented a cross slide for a lathe, with which it was possible to automatically grind screws and bolts with any thread. In 1797 he created a screw-cutting lathe with a slide (mechanized on the basis of a screw pair) and a set of gears.

In 1800, Maudsley developed the first industrial metal cutting machine to standardize thread sizes. Thanks to this invention, it became possible to introduce the concept of interchangeability in order to put nuts and bolts into practice. Before him, the thread, as a rule, was stuffed by skilled workers in a very primitive way - they marked a groove on the bolt blank, and then cut it using a chisel, file and various other tools, because of which the nuts and bolts turned out to be of a non-standard shape and size, and the nut fit only to the bolt for which it was made. Nuts were rarely used, metal screws were used mainly for woodwork, to connect individual blocks. The metal bolts passing through the timber frame were jammed on the other side for fastening, or a metal washer was put on the edge of the bolt, and the end of the bolt was flared. Maudsley standardized the threading process for use in his workshop and produced a set of taps and dies, so any bolt would fit any nut the same size as himself. This was a big step forward in technical progress and equipment manufacturing.

In 1810, Maudsley founded an engineering plant, and in 1815 created a machine line for the production of rope blocks for ships.

Maudsley was the first to create a micrometer with an accuracy of one ten-thousandth of an inch (0.0001 in ≈ 3 microns). He named him "Lord Chancellor" because he was used to settle any questions regarding the accuracy of measuring parts in his workshops.

He also invented a machine for punching holes in sheets of boiler iron, designed a tunnel shield for the construction of a tunnel under the Thames in London.

In old age, Maudsley developed an interest in astronomy and began building a telescope. He intended to buy a house in one of the districts of London and build a private observatory, but fell ill and died before he could carry out his plan. In January 1831, returning from France from his friend, while crossing the English Channel, he caught a cold. After four weeks of illness, on February 14, 1831, he died. He was buried in the parish cemetery of St. Mary Magdalene (English) in Woolwich (South London), where, according to his design, a cast-iron memorial to the Maudsley family was erected at a factory in) and William Muir.

The Maudsley Company was one of the most important British engineering companies of the nineteenth century and lasted until 1904.

Henry Maudsley
Henry maudslay

Date of Birth	August 22(1771-08-22 )
Place of Birth
Date of death	The 14th of February(1831-02-14 ) (59 years old)
A place of death	United Kingdom
Country
Scientific sphere	mechanic, inventor
Media files at Wikimedia Commons

Biography

Maudsley's father, also called Henry, worked as an army wheel and carriage repairman. After being wounded in battle, he became a storekeeper at the Royal Armory. (English)Russian located in Woolwich, South London, an armaments, ammunition and explosives business and scientific research for the British armed forces. There he married a young widow, Margaret Londy. They had seven children, among whom young Henry was the fifth child. Henry's father died in 1780. Like many children of that era, Henry began working in manufacturing from an early age, at the age of 12 he was a "powder monkey", that is, one of the boys hired to fill cartridges in the Woolwich Arsenal. Two years later, he was transferred to a carpentry workshop equipped with a forging press, where at the age of fifteen he began to study blacksmithing.

One of the famous Maudsley screw-cutting lathes, created approximately between 1797 and 1800.

In 1810, Maudsley founded an engineering plant, and in 1815 created a machine line for the production of rope blocks for ships.

He also invented a machine for punching holes in sheets of boiler iron, designed a tunnel shield for the construction of a tunnel under the Thames in London.

History dates the invention of the lathe to the 650's. BC NS. The machine consisted of two installed centers, between which a workpiece of wood, bone or horn was clamped. A slave or apprentice rotated the workpiece (one or more turns in one direction, then in the other). The master held the cutter in his hands and, pressing it in the right place to the workpiece, removed the chips, giving the workpiece the required shape.

Later, a bow with a weakly stretched (sagging) bowstring was used to set the workpiece in motion. The bowstring was wrapped around the cylindrical part of the workpiece so that it formed a loop around the workpiece. When the bow moved in one direction or the other, similar to the movement of a saw when sawing a log, the workpiece made several turns around its axis, first in one direction and then in the other direction.

In the XIV-XV centuries, foot-driven lathes were common. The foot drive consisted of an eyeglass - an elastic pole, cantilevered above the machine. A string was attached to the end of the pole, which was wrapped one turn around the workpiece and attached to the pedal with its lower end. When the pedal was pressed, the string stretched, forcing the workpiece to make one or two turns, and the pole to bend. When the pedal was released, the pole straightened, pulled the twine up, and the workpiece made the same turns in the other direction.

By about 1430, instead of an ochep, a mechanism began to be used that included a pedal, a connecting rod and a crank, thus obtaining a drive similar to the foot drive widespread in the 20th century. sewing machine... Since that time, the workpiece on the lathe received, instead of oscillatory motion, rotation in one direction during the entire turning process.

In 1500, the lathe already had steel centers and a steady rest, which could be fixed anywhere between the centers.

On such machines, rather complex parts were processed, which are bodies of revolution, up to a ball. But the drive of the machines that existed at that time was too weak for metal processing, and the efforts of the hand holding the cutter were insufficient to remove large chips from the workpiece. As a result, metal processing was ineffective. It was necessary to replace the worker's hand with a special mechanism, and the muscular force that sets the machine in motion with a more powerful motor.

The emergence of the water wheel led to an increase in labor productivity, while exerting a powerful revolutionary effect on the development of technology. And from the middle of the XIV century. water drives began to spread in metalworking.

In the middle of the 16th century, Jacques Besson (died 1569) - invented a lathe for cutting cylindrical and conical screws.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov (1693-1756), a mechanic of Peter the Great, invents an original lathe-copying and screw-cutting machine with a mechanized support and a set of replaceable gear wheels. To truly understand the worldwide significance of these inventions, let us return to the evolution of the lathe.

In the XVII century. turning machines appeared, in which the workpiece was no longer set in motion by the muscular force of a turner, but with the help of a water wheel, but the cutter, as before, was held in the hand of the turner. At the beginning of the 18th century. Lathes were increasingly used for cutting metals, rather than wood, and therefore the problem of rigidly attaching the cutter and moving it along the processed surface of the table is very urgent. And for the first time, the problem of a self-propelled support was successfully solved in a copying machine by A.K. Nartov in 1712.

The inventors went to the idea of mechanized movement of the cutter for a long time. For the first time, this problem became especially acute when solving such technical problems as threading, applying complex patterns to luxury goods, making gears, etc. To obtain a thread on a shaft, for example, at first, markings were made, for which a paper tape of the required width was wound on the shaft, along the edges of which the contour of the future thread was applied. After marking, the thread was filed by hand with a file. Apart from the laboriousness of such a process, it is very difficult to obtain a satisfactory thread quality in this way.

And Nartov not only solved the problem of mechanizing this operation, but in 1718-1729. he improved the scheme himself. The tracing pin and the caliper were driven by a single lead screw, but with a different cutting pitch under the cutter and under the tracer. Thus, automatic movement of the slide along the axis of the workpiece was ensured. True, there was no transverse feed yet; instead, the swinging of the "copier-blank" system was introduced. Therefore, work on the creation of the caliper continued. Their support was created, in particular, by the Tula mechanics Alexei Surnin and Pavel Zakhava. A more perfect design of the support, close to the modern one, was created by the English machine tool Maudsley, but A.K. Nartov remains the first to find a way to solve this problem.

Second half of the 18th century in machine-tool construction was marked by a sharp increase in the scope of application of metal-cutting machines and the search for a satisfactory scheme for a universal lathe that could be used for various purposes.

In 1751, J. Vaucanson in France built a machine that, according to its technical data, already resembled a universal machine. It was made of metal, had a strong base, two metal centers, two V-shaped guides, a copper support, providing mechanized movement of the tool in the longitudinal and transverse directions. At the same time, this machine did not have a workpiece clamping system in the chuck, although this device existed in other machine designs. It provided for fixing the workpiece only in the centers. The distance between the centers could be changed within 10 cm. Therefore, only parts of approximately the same length could be processed on the Vaucanson machine.

In 1778 the Englishman D. Ramedon developed two types of threading machines. In one machine, a diamond cutting tool was moved along the rotating workpiece along parallel guides, the speed of which was set by the rotation of the reference screw. Replaceable gears made it possible to obtain threads with different pitches. The second machine made it possible to make threads with different pitches on

parts longer than the reference length. The cutter was moved along the workpiece using a string that was screwed onto the central key.

In 1795, the French mechanic Senot manufactured a specialized lathe for cutting screws. The designer provided for replaceable gears, a large lead screw, a simple mechanized caliper. The machine was deprived of any ornaments, which the masters used to decorate their products before.

The accumulated experience made it possible by the end of the 18th century to create a universal lathe, which became the basis of mechanical engineering. Henry Maudsley became its author. In 1794 he created a rather imperfect caliper design. In 1798, having founded his own workshop for the production of machine tools, he significantly improved the caliper, which made it possible to create a version of the universal lathe.

In 1800, Maudsley perfected this machine, and then created a third version, containing all the elements that screw-cutting lathes have today. At the same time, it is significant that Maudsley understood the need to unify certain types of parts and was the first to introduce standardization of threads on screws and nuts. He began producing tap and dies sets for threading.

R. Roberts was one of the students and successors of the Maudsley cause. He improved the lathe by positioning the lead screw in front of the bed, adding a gear busting, and moving the control knobs to the front

nel of the machine, which made it more convenient to operate the machine. This machine was in operation until 1909.

Another former employee Maudsley - D. Clement created a face lathe for machining large diameter parts. He took into account that at a constant rotation speed of the part and a constant feed rate as the cutter moves from the periphery to the center, the cutting speed will decrease, and created a system for increasing the speed.

In 1835, D. Whitworth invented the automatic cross feed, which was associated with a longitudinal feed mechanism. This completed the fundamental improvement of the turning equipment.

The next stage is the automation of lathes. Here the palm belonged to the Americans. In the USA, the development of metal processing technology began later than in Europe. American machine tools of the first half of the 19th century. significantly inferior to Maudsley machines.

In the second half of the nineteenth century. the quality of American machine tools was already high enough. The machines were mass-produced, and full interchangeability of parts and blocks produced by the same company was introduced. In the event of a breakdown of a part, it was enough to write out a similar one from the factory and replace the broken part with a whole one without any adjustment.

In the second half of the nineteenth century. elements were introduced that ensure complete mechanization of processing - an automatic feed unit for both coordinates, a perfect system for fastening the cutter and the part. Cutting and feed conditions were changed quickly and without significant effort. Lathes had automation elements - an automatic stop of the machine when a certain size was reached, a system for automatic control of the frontal turning speed, etc.

However, the main achievement of the American machine tool industry was not the development of the traditional lathe, but the creation of its modification - the revolving lathe. In connection with the need to manufacture new small arms (revolvers), S. Fitch in 1845 designed and built a revolving machine with eight cutting tools in the turret. The speed of tool change has dramatically increased the productivity of the machine in the manufacture of serial products. This was a serious step towards the creation of automatic machine tools.