Typography woodcut art graphic

On March 1, 1564, by order of Ivan the Terrible and the blessing of the Metropolitan of All Russia Macarius, the first accurately dated book "Apostle" was published in Russia. The book was created in the printing house of Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets, who went down in history as the first Russian printers. The choice of "Apostle" for the first edition of the state printing house was not accidental: "Apostle" in ancient Russia was used to train the clergy. It contains the first examples of the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures by the disciples of Christ. Printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, the first dated book became a model for subsequent editions. Work on the "Apostle" was carried out during the year from April 19, 1563 to March 1, 1564. For printing it was necessary to cast fonts, make equipment. The preparation of the text of the "Apostle" also took a long time. It was edited with the participation of Metropolitan Macarius.

The first printed "Apostle" is distinguished by the highest editorial culture. Not a single spelling error, erasure or typo was found in it. Researchers continue to admire highly artistic engravings, filigree typography, original headpieces and excellent two-color printing quality. Ivan Fedorov himself cut and cast letters, engraved drawings and headpieces, edited and typed text and printed the entire "factory" - about 1200 books. Several earlier Moscow publications are known, but they contain no imprint and are referred to as "anonymous". In the polygraphic sense, Ivan Fedorov's "Apostle" is made at a higher professional level.

THE PRINT BOOK IN THE XVII CENTURY

In Moscow Russia of the 17th century. a very peculiar phenomenon took place: printing was not officially prohibited here, but was monopolized by the state, which arrogated to itself the right to be the only printer in the country. All Moscow book printers were in the tsarist service. Until the end of the 17th century. book printing in Muscovite Rus was carried out in four locations: in Moscow, in Aleksandrova Sloboda (16th century), in Nizhny Novgorod and in the Iversky Monastery. The first decade of the 17th century was a direct continuation of the 16th century, there were three "huts" at the Moscow Printing House. Andronik Timofeev Nevezha continued his activity; after his death (c. 1603), his son, Ivan Andronikov Nevezhin, became the head of the business. During 1601-1611. Nevezhin published 10 editions: Hours, Service Book, Psalter, Lenten and Color Triodi, Apostle and Menaion for September - December.

In the second "hut", organized in 1605, the master was a man of versatile abilities Anisim Mikhailov Radishevsky. He came from Volhynia, perhaps he studied typographic craft from Ivan Fedorov. In 1586 Anisim Mikhailov moved to Moscow and began to work at the Printing House of the “printed books as a binder”. Having organized his "hut", Radishevsky in 1606-1610. published an excellently designed Four Gospels and a large volume (1266 p.) Church Charter.

The master of the third "hut" was Nikita Fyodorov-Fofanov, who released the General Minea in 1609. In 1611, during the Polish-Swedish intervention, as "The Legend is Known About the Imagination of Books in Printing" says, "the printing house and the entire stem of that printing business from those enemies and the adversary went bankrupt and burned by fire." Fofanov took his "hut" to Nizhny Novgorod. Here in 1613 he published a notebook of 6 sheets (12 pages) - the so-called Nizhny Novgorod monument, found and published by A.S.Zernova. Next year the typography from Nizhny Novgorod was moved to Moscow, and Nikita Fofanov on June 5, 1614 began printing the Psalter, which was published on January 6, 1615. From that time on, printing in Moscow went on without interruption.

In 1612, for the Boyar Duma, "an estimate was drawn up for what two printing stocks would be, to make two camps for the Frya business", a document containing a listing of printing equipment. By 1620 the printing house was rebuilt in the old place, on Nikolskaya Street. Here they built a large stone chamber near the city wall, several wooden choirs. Craftsmen with their "pants" gradually moved to the newly rebuilt Printing House.

The most important event in the history of Russian book printing is the replacement of a handicraft printing workshop by an enterprise of a manufacturing type. The old printers were generalists. They cut punsons, poured fonts, engraved forms for illustrations and ornamentation, they could type text, squeeze it, and sometimes they themselves intertwined finished books... Elements of the division of labor are contained in the estimate of 1612. Along with the master, mention is made of the wordsmith, the standard-bearer (artist), the cutter (engraver), the carpenter and the blacksmith. There are no typesetters or printers in this estimate. The documents of the 1920s testify to the growth of the division of labor: for each mill, in addition to the master, there were 2 typesetters, 4 printers - "teredorschik" and 5 "batyshchik", who applied paint to the form. Several years later, one of the batychiks was ordered to disassemble the used set. A new specialty was born - "dismantler".

In the 17th century, at the Moscow Printing House, several typefaces, or "alphabet", were used, which bore the names of the masters who made them. Nikita Fofanov cast the alphabet, which was called "Nikitinskaya", in 1687 it was renewed by the Ukrainian type-writer Arseniy and received the name "Arseniyevskaya". The Osipovsky font was named after its master Osip Kirillov. Craftsman Kondrat Ivanov made punsons and matrices of the “big Gospel” type. The "alphabet" was cast by the wordsmith Ivan Strong. It was first used in the Four Gospels of 1627. This is the main type of Moscow in the 17th century.

The main printing equipment of the Moscow Printing House was manual printing mills. They were made at the very yard - in the "carpentry". The State Historical Museum has preserved an exceptionally precisely made model of the printing press. The basis was two oak tables with horizontal beams. On the crossbeams there was a "pushing tackle", a vertical metal rod, "pras", with a screw thread and a pointed lower end - "pendulum", which transmitted pressure to the pressure plate - "piyam". "Pras" was turned with a handle - "cookies". To lift the "piyama" during the reverse movement of the "cookie" on the "pras" there is a hollow metal cube - "nut", fixed with a disc - "torus". The “piyam” was tied to the ears of the “nut” with ropes. The "nut" itself went up and down in the square groove of the middle crossbar of the printing mill. The printing plate was placed in an "ark" - a wooden box mounted on a pull-out board. On the "ark" was suspended a "tympanum" - a metal frame covered with leather. A blank sheet of paper was placed here before printing. To protect the margins of the sheet served "frashket" - cut from parchment and strengthened on metal base frame. For applying paint to printed form used "matrices" - leather pillows with wooden handles. The pillows were stuffed with horsehair. Before printing, sheets of paper were moistened by placing them on a damp canvas. The prints were dried by hanging them on ropes.

Books of the 17th century known to us. in terms of content, they fall into three groups. The first includes liturgical, church service, or cult books. These editions represent a separate group in terms of design. The invariable feature of church service books is two-color printing, black and red; two-color printing technology in Moscow in the 17th century. remains the same, Fedorov. The second group consists of books intended for godly reading and study outside the church; the third group - books that are not at all religious content.

ABC for the last two thirds of the 17th century. eight editions were printed, in the first third - none, since the main book on which literacy was taught was the Psalter. Contents of Moscow primers of the 17th century. goes back to the primers of the Vilna and Lviv press.

Life at the Moscow Printing House was full of passions, intolerance gave rise to frequent mistakes, misunderstandings, causing slander and slander, ending in accusations of heresy and persecution. Editing of books in the 17th century. was by no means a safe business. The more they wished to be faithful, the more fatally they were mired in delusions. It often happened that they gave a blessing for the publication of a book, and after a while they condemned it as unreliable, began to alter it by replacing the sheets, or reprinted it in its entirety.

Moscow book publishing policy in the 17th century was determined, of course, not only by ecclesiastical, but also by secular state power, by the government of a certain reign. In 1645, after the death of Tsar Michael, two lines began to appear. The first, church line was carried out by Patriarch Joseph, the representative of the second line was the young Tsar Alexei and his entourage; the result was the expansion of the subject matter of the published books. In total in the 17th century. seven books of completely secular content were published in Moscow; three were published in the early years of Tsar Alexei. By their publication, book printing was for the first time placed at the service of basic state needs: in the epilogues to books of a secular nature, there is no mention of the "blessing" of the patriarch; in the book of the monk Smotritsky it is given. Naturally, the first concern of the state, surrounded on all sides by aggressive neighbors, was the concern for military defense. Fighting Western armies, one had to keep up with Western military science. In order to keep up with it, the German book of Walhausen was translated under the title "The Teaching and Cunning of the Military Structure of the Infantry People" and published in the most haste order (from June 1 to August 26, 1647). The publication of the publication was delayed due to the fact that the printing of plates engraved on copper had to be done in Holland, since the gravure printing technique had not yet been mastered in Moscow. The edition came out in 1649 with a special title page, engraved in Holland on copper after a drawing by Grigory Blagushin.

The line of development of the old Moscow typography is determined by two points: at the first point, at the end of the 16th century, it serves mainly for the purpose of multiplying liturgical texts; in the second, at the end of the 17th century, it begins to free itself from this exclusivity and stands on the threshold of becoming the bearer of general cultural and scientific values. The interest of the history of Moscow printing lies in the process of its gradual departure from the original ecclesiastical impulse, in the process of its secularization, secularization, emancipation from the bonds of theocratic churchliness. This process is part of the general cultural development of Russian society, but in the monuments of the press it is especially evident.

Publications of the section Literature

"Apostle" - the first dated printed book in Russia

In March 1564, the first printed dated book, The Apostle, was published. The history of book printing in Russia began with her. Remembering Interesting Facts about the "Apostle" and its publishers.

Books "Freehand"

Ivan III Vasilievich. Portrait from the "Royal Titular". XVII century.

The title page of the manuscript "Stoglava" from the Main Collection of the Library of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.

The first printer Ivan Fedorov. Ivan Tomashevich. 1904 g.

Typography in Russia was preceded by the era of handwritten books. They copied them in monasteries, and at the same time did not do without the "human factor". To prevent errors and deviations from church norms from appearing in the books, the rules for the work of the "writers" of sacred texts were published in Stoglava in 1551. The collection also contained church rules and instructions, Old Russian norms of law and morality.

“The Blessed Tsar and Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia ordered to buy holy books at auction and invest in holy churches. But among them there were few suitable ones - all were spoiled by scribes, ignorant and ignorant of the sciences. Then he began to think about how to organize the printing of books, so that henceforth the holy books would be published in a corrected form. "

Ivan Fedorov, afterword to the "Apostle"

The first printing house in Russia

Progress has helped to start solving the problem on a national scale. A century earlier, the printing press was invented, and later it appeared in Russia. In the middle of the 16th century, several "anonymous" books of religious content were published in Russia without specifying the publisher. These were three Gospels, two Psalms and a Triode. In 1553, Tsar Ivan the Terrible ordered the construction of the Printing House at the expense of the royal treasury - not far from the Kremlin, on Nikolskaya Street. The oldest of the buildings of the first printing house has survived - "correct" or proof-reading.

By order of the sovereign "to find the skill of printed books", the deacon of the Kremlin Church of St. Nicholas Gostunsky, Ivan Fedorov, got down to business. Fedorov was well educated: he knew Greek and Latin, knew how to bind books and was engaged in foundry.

Why exactly "Apostle"

Monument to Ivan Fedorov, Moscow. Photo: artpoisk.info

The Apostle, 1564 Book cover. Photo: mefodiya.ru

The site of the former printing yard, Moscow. Photo: mefodiya.ru

For the printing of the first edition, they took the Acts and Epistles of the Apostles, written by the Evangelist Luke - part of the New Testament. The book was used in divine services, in the training of priests and for teaching literacy in parish schools.

Printing such a serious book required careful preparation. For a new undertaking, Ivan Fedorov needed helpers - among them was Pyotr Mstislavets, who is also considered one of the first book printers in Russia. First, everyone learned to type and type. Fedorov and his assistants made shapes for each letter, cast more and more lead letters of different fonts and cut out wooden ornaments to decorate the chapters. The sovereign personally supervised the preparation process.

Especially diligently Ivan Fedorov and Metropolitan Macarius selected the primary source - versions of the handwritten "Apostles" were sent from monasteries. A reference chamber was opened at the Printing House, where a sample was prepared for printing. The text of the book itself also required elaboration.

“I must say that Ivan Fyodorov“ lightened ”the book by removing from it many official materials that were not included in the canonical text, but traditionally placed in the handwritten Apostles. These are all kinds of prefaces, interpretations, etc. "

Evgeny Nemirovsky, bibliologist, doctor of historical sciences

It took almost ten years from the tsar's command to start the printing press until the printing itself. Only in April 1563 did the craftsmen begin to make the book itself.

Work on the book

Fragment of the book "Apostle". 1564 g.

Fragment of the book "Apostle". 1564 g.

The first book was printed for almost a year. As a result, a “handwritten semi-ustav” of the 16th century was taken as a sample font - medium-sized rounded letters with a slight tilt to the right. Church books were usually copied in this style. To make the printed book easier to read, the craftsmen painstakingly aligned the lines and spaces between words. For printing, glued French paper was used - thin and durable. Ivan Fedorov engraved and typed the text himself.

In 1564, the first Russian printed dated book was published. It had 534 pages, each with 25 lines. The circulation at that time was impressive - about two thousand copies. About 60 books have been preserved in museums and libraries to this day.

A work of polygraphic art of the 16th century

Frontispiece and title page of The Apostle. 1564 Copy from the State Public scientific and technical library Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Fragment of the book "Apostle". 1564. A copy from the State Public Scientific and Technical Library of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

The "Apostle" was decorated in the style of ancient Russian handwritten books. The wood binding was covered in morocco with gold stamping and brass clasps. Inside the "Apostle" was "with pictures": the book was decorated with 48 drawings of fancifully intertwined herbs with fruits and cones. The beginning of the chapter was highlighted by the printer with ornaments, and the drop caps and inserts were also marked in red with cinnabar. The paints turned out to be of such high quality that they did not fade even after centuries.

With such a traditional design, a new decor element appeared in "Apostle": an engraved frontispiece - a drawing placed on the same spread with the title page. It depicts the figure of the Evangelist Luke in an arch on two columns.

"Last year they introduced printing ... and I myself saw with what dexterity the books were being printed in Moscow.", - noted the work of Moscow printers in 1564 by the Italian aristocrat Rafael Barberini, who visited Russia in those years.

Years of preparation and meticulous work on the book paid off: the researchers did not find a single mistake or typo in the book.

The author of the afterword talked about the great church building "in all the city" of Moscow Russia, especially "in the newly enlightened place in the city of Kazan and within it", and the need for printed church books that were not distorted by scribes: mind. "

Other books by Ivan Fedorov

A year after the release of The Apostle, Ivan Fedorov published a collection of prayers called The Chapel. The book came out in two "factories", that is, editions. The first printer spent about three months at work, after which he left Moscow for Lvov.

"... It is not appropriate for me to shorten the time of my life either by plowing or sowing seeds, because instead of a plow I own the art of handicraft tools, and instead of bread I must sow spiritual seeds in the Universe and distribute this spiritual food to everyone according to order ..."

Ivan Fedorov

Later he published another version of the "Apostle" and the first Russian textbook - "ABC", following his life principle - "to sow spiritual seeds." Another book Ivan Fedorov published in the printing house of the city of Ostrog in 1581 - the Ostrog Bible.

Museum of the History of Printing, Book Publishing and the History of MPI-MGUP opened in Moscow state university press on November 1, 2000 on the initiative and under the guidance of the rector prof. A.M. Tsyganenko. The author of the exposition is the head of the museum, Assoc. S.V. Morozov.

Located in two educational buildings. The main exposition (Mikhalkovskaya str., 7) consists of three parts: the history of writing, paper, printing and publishing; history of MPI-MGUP; showroom. Park of printing presses since 1911 (Pryanishnikova St., 2). The total area of ​​the exposition is about 1000 m 2.

The museum has over 22,000 exhibits: printing machines and equipment of both domestic and foreign manufacturers, starting from the middle of the 19th century, handwritten and printed books. All stages are presented printed matter: from the editorial preparation of manuscripts to their printing.

Printing presses, machines, equipment

The prepress process is represented by a collection of stationary and portable typewriters(more than 20 storage units). Typesetting: manual - in metal and wood fonts; automatic dialing - linotypes; phototypesetting - with horizontal and vertical cameras, Kaskad and Kvant equipment complexes; digital - computers.

The evolution of the printing process can be shown: woodcut board of the end of the 17th century. from Tibet; printing presses from the 19th to the early 20th centuries. German firms: proof printing (3), lithographic, vise (2), crucible; printing machines early. and mid XX century. - crucible, flatbed (7), offset, rotary.

The bookbinding process is represented by paper-cutting machines of the beginning of the 20th century, presses and machines for rounding the spines of book blocks, gilding presses, manual and automatic wire-stitching machines, thread-sewing machines of foreign and domestic factories.

Antique books, rare editions published in Russia and abroad

The exposition presents books from publishing houses of Russia and the USSR. Handwritten and early printed books, as well as those published in Russian and foreign languages in the XVI-n. XXI century The museum has 25 handwritten books of the 16th-19th centuries: Liturgical convoy in 4 parts (early 16th-early 17th centuries); Literary collections of the late 17th - early 18th centuries (The walk of Tryphon Korobeynik, About King Agea, About Cyprian and Queen Ustinia, the Word about evil wives, Conversation of three saints, etc.) and historical ser. XVIII century. (Description of Kazan by M.S.Pestrikov, About the destruction of the holy city of Jerusalem, Legend of the conception and birth of Peter the Great by P.N.Krekshin, Notes by A.A.Matveev about the rifle riots).

Old printed books of the Moscow Printing House and the Synodal Printing House: "Color Triod" (1591) Andronik Nevezha, "Apostle" 2nd half. XVII century, "Grammar" by Melenti Smotritsky (1648). 20 editions of the 18th century: "Military Charter" (St. Petersburg, 1719), "Polydora Virginia of Urbinsky" (1720); publications of the Academy of Sciences, N.N. Novikova, I. G. Rachmaninov, Free Printing House I.V. Lopukhin, Free Russian Printing House A.I. Herzen in London (essay for children "The Adventures of Gribul" by J. Sand in Russian), university publishing houses (Moscow, Kazan, Tomsk), etc.

There are lifetime editions of poets of the Silver Age: the first magazine of Russian futurists "Dead Moon" (1914), LEF (magazine of the Left Front, edited by V. Mayakovsky, 1923). Of the 30 Russian journals of the XIX century. most of them are on display.

Books published in Germany, France, Italy, incl. works of Rabani (1532), elzivir of the 17th century.

Books about the museum's collections

The collection of the museum has become the object of research by scientists.

The following books have been published about the museum: "N.N. Vysheslavtsev" - a monographic album about the artist of the "Silver Age", "Manuscript books of the 16th-19th centuries. in the collection of the museum ”,“ Books in the collection of the museum of the 18th century ”, catalog“ Printing equipment in the collection of the museum ”.

Museum's own publications

A big event was the publication of a two-volume edition of the memoirs of graduates "We are from MPI", a bio-bibliographic dictionary "We are from MPI-MGAP-MGUP" about the teachers of the university for 80 years.

The work on the book "Let's Not Forget Those Who Brought Victory" made it possible to establish the names of 400 defenders of the Motherland - graduates, teachers, employees of MGUP, and to open a memorial.

For the 70th anniversary of the Victory, the memoirs of the children of the war "1941. Childhood is canceled" have been collected and published.

Museum exhibitions

An important part of the museum's work is the organization of art exhibitions. These are exhibitions of diploma and term papers students, teachers, prominent artists working on book design, etc. In total, over 200 exhibitions have been held in 16 years.

The first foreign exhibitions were held in the museum - from Iran and Bratislava, Germany; there was an exhibition of Arabic writing from National Museum Republic of Tatarstan.

The museum showcases its collections at exhibitions and other museums

The exhibition activities of the museum are not limited to the walls of the museum: the museum exhibits its materials at International exhibitions Polygraphinter, at the Polytechnic and Biological Museum. Timiryazev, in the Presidential Library of the Kremlin, in the Crocus-Expo.

The museum hosts meetings of MPI-MGUP alumni, with workers of publishing houses and printing enterprises, with veterans. Literary and musical evenings are organized.

The museum is filming, filming TV programs

Filmmakers and videographers turn to us for advice. We took part in more than 20 programs on all channels of the central TV, cable and CAO - "Doverie", "Rodnoy ugolok" and in news programs on the radio. Films “Printing Machines” were shot with the “Culture” channel under the headings “Time Machines”, “History of Paper”, etc.

More than 3,000 thousand people visit the museum annually with excursions

Students and teachers, university staff, schoolchildren of Moscow and other cities, various delegations, including foreign ones, inspect the exposition, organize events, attend master classes.

We invite you to our museum!

Johannes Gutenberg and the first printing press

For centuries, the knowledge contained in the books has been the property of a few, mainly monks and priests. Each book was unique, but for most people of the Middle Ages this problem was not present - they were illiterate. In the Middle Ages, books were copied by hand, usually in monasteries. Monks often spent years on one book. In 1450, an invention changed the world.

In the German city of Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg invented the technique of printing with movable letters. Books could now be printed in large numbers and relatively cheaply. The technical foundation was laid for future changes in science, politics and religion.

Johann Gensfleisch, who later changed his surname to Gutenberg, was born in Mainz around 1400. His father was a wealthy merchant. Young Johann went to the monastery school. This is what we know, but then his trace is lost for a long time.
He reappeared only in 1434 in Strastbourg. Here he founded a factory for the production of mirrors for pilgrims. They were very popular among believers who hoped to catch in the mirror a piece of God's spirit from each temple and the relics stored in it. The Gutenberg affair flourished.

At that time, the trade in religious objects brought in a lot of income. Engravings depicting saints were especially popular. Woodcut is one of the first printing techniques, but it only came to Europe in the Middle Ages. It was used mainly for replicating paintings and texts. But cutting out the blocks to the size of a page was time consuming. First, I had to draw a mirror image of the page on the block, then the individual letters were cut out. Finally, the block was smeared with ink, paper was placed on it and rubbed with a bone instrument to absorb the ink.

In 1448 Gutenberg returned to Mainz. Here he found financial support and was able to go about his business. A brilliant thought occurred to him. He divided the text into components: letters, punctuation marks and their frequent combinations - ligatures. They were combined into blocks, typing words, lines and pages. Cast letters could be reused in different combinations.

This is how the letter is made. An inverted letter is engraved at the end of the metal rod. It is dipped in softened copper, leaving an imprint in it. This matrix acts as a form for a real font, which is cast from lead.
In order to be able to produce letters quickly and in sufficient quantity, Gutenberg took another important step - he invented a tool for hand casting. It consists of a rectangular gutter. A matrix is ​​inserted into one end, molten lead is poured from the other. When the mold is opened, there is a ready-made lead letter inside. The matrix can be used to produce an unlimited number of characters.

Finally, the typesetter begins to make a layout out of the letters. Rows are inserted into the form so that they form the desired sequence. The result is a mirror image of the page. The form is smeared with printing ink. Gutenberg used a mixture of soot, varnish and egg white. Now you can start typing. Gutenberg had a special machine, but he borrowed the principle from the wine press.

Gutenberg bible
One of Gutenberg's greatest fans was Martin Luther. The art of printing led him to a bold idea - there is no need for a layman to wait for a priest to tell him what the Bible says. He can read it himself and make a choice between the true text and the false interpretations of the church. Luther printed half a million copies of his German translation of the Bible - a huge print run at the time. To convey his ideas to people, he distributed hundreds of thousands of brochures.

Gutenberg himself did not get rich off his invention. He did not even have time to finish printing the Bible when his creditor demanded to pay back the debt. In the ensuing judicial war, Gutenberg lost both the press and all printed Bibles.

Shortly thereafter, Mainz was captured by enemy troops. Gutenberg was expelled. Three years later, he was allowed to return and work for the new archbishop. On February 3, 1468, Johannes Gutenberg died.
He was buried in the Franciscan church in Mainz. But his invention - printing with movable letters - changed the world forever.

General characteristics of book business in the 17th century.

Internal and external situation in the country in the first decades of the 17th century. did not favor the development of the book business. Changes in socio-economic relations in the Muscovite State of the 16th century. led to an increase in feudal oppression, a deterioration in the situation of the masses and, as a consequence, to an exacerbation of the class struggle. The class struggle was reflected in the largest religious movement in Russia in the 17th century. - the split of the Orthodox Russian Church. The reason for the split was the disagreement on the issue of correcting rituals and church books. This issue acquired particular urgency after Nikon came to the Patriarchate (1652), who energetically set about correcting church books and rituals, seeking to bring Russian church practice in line with Greek practice.

The turbulent political events of the early 17th century, which cost the Russian people dearly, affected the state of the culture of Moscow society. Literacy among the Russian population at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. was still poorly distributed.

Gradually, in connection with the needs of economic and cultural development in Moscow society, the understanding of the need for a broader education than before is growing. The circle of educated people is becoming wider than in the previous century. Education spreads among the nascent nobility and already penetrates the posad environment, whereas in the 16th century. it was available mainly only to the top of the feudal class.

In the XVII century. the number of persons who owned large book collections increased. Among them are servicemen, members of the royal family, representatives of the higher clergy, enlightened monks, clerks of the Printing House, merchants. In the book collections of private individuals, secular literature occupies an increasing place. The greatest interest of the readers of the XVII century. called books on history, philosophy, geography, cosmography, medicine, but quantitatively, religious literature prevailed, which met the conditions of the time, the place that religion and the church occupied in the life of society.

Book centers

The center for the production of handwritten church service books in the 17th century. there were still monasteries. Business writing - various clerical documents and acts - was under the jurisdiction of a special system of ordering institutions and "marketplace" clerks who performed notarial functions. The number of professional scribes has increased significantly in comparison with the previous period, of which in the 17th century. 45% are secular. Serfs often became scribes. The famous scientist-writer of the XVII century. Prince Shakhovsky among his courtyard people was "the youngest in Rabeh" scribe Olferets, nicknamed "The Raven". In the XVII century. there was even a post of "room scribe".

One of the forms of organizing the work of scribes-artisans of the 17th century. there were workshops. So, in the art workshops of the Posolsky Prikaz worked gold-painters-artists, scribes, binders, who carried out mainly orders of the royal court and the Ambassadorial Prikaz, but sometimes took orders from private individuals.

Forbidden Literature and Book Censorship in the 17th Century

The ideology of the popular masses could not find reflection in the official literature, both printed and handwritten, of the 17th century. Simple Russian people eagerly caught the thoughts of forbidden works and those flying leaves that were spread secretly during the years of peasant unrest and riots. At the time of Ivan Bolotnikov and Stepan Razin, the so-called "lovely" or "anonymous" (that is, planted secretly) letters circulated among the people. They contained calls to the boyar lackeys "to beat their masters." Stepan Razin's "lovely" letters flooded the whole country.

The distribution and reading of leaflets directed against the oppressors was punished with the most severe punishment. Any literature that did not correspond to the dogmas of the church, which questioned certain provisions of church teaching, was also persecuted. Thus, Patriarch Filaret ordered in 1663 to take away from all churches and monasteries the church charter published in 1610 and send it to Moscow for burning on the grounds that he was publishing the charter “a thief, a hawk maker, a black man Login”, which outlined some of its provisions “ his self-righteousness. "

In the second half of the 17th century. in connection with the correction of church books, all previous editions were persecuted. So, in 1681, at the suggestion of the tsar, the Council decreed: when people sell "all ranks" of books of "old seals", "those books should be sent to the printing yard," and instead of them, newly corrected ones should be given, so that "there will be disagreement in the holy churches, and confusion among people. did not have". The work of Athanasius, Archbishop of Kholmogory, The Spiritual Color, directed against the schismatics, was sent free of charge to the churches and monasteries of the Novgorod diocese at the behest of Patriarch Joachim.

Activities of the Moscow Printing House

After the death of Andronicus Nevezhi in 1602, his son Ivan Andronikov Nevezhin became the head of the Printing House. From 1601 to 1611, both of them printed 10 church-service publications.

In 1605, a second "hut" was opened at the Printing House. Anisim Radishchevsky, a "printed book binder", worked there. Originally from Volyn, Radishchevsky may have learned typographic craft from Ivan Fedorov.

At the head of the third "hut", which worked at the Moscow Printing House at the beginning of the 17th century, was the master Nikita Fofanov, who published the General Minea in 1609.

During the Polish-Lithuanian intervention, "the printing house and the entire headquarters of that printing business from those enemies and adversary went bankrupt and was burned by fire ..."

In this difficult time for the country, book printing continued in Nizhny Novgorod. Nikita Fofanov arrived here from Moscow. In 1613 he published a 6-sheet notebook (12 pages) - the Nizhny Novgorod monument. The author tells about the invasion of the Polish gentry into the Russian land and about the atrocities committed by it, rejoices at the liberation of the homeland from enemy troops and the revival of the Moscow state.

In 1614, the Moscow Printing House was restored, Nikita Fofanov, who returned from Nizhny Novgorod, resumed its activities. The staff of the Printing House is gradually increasing. The handicraft stage in the development of book printing, when almost all production operations were performed by one person, is giving way to the manufacturing stage, with its inherent specialization and division of labor.

In Russia, the first manufactories appeared in those industries whose products were widely marketed. This also applied to book printing, which was designed for the mass production of church service and "chtom" books. The state character of printing and the support of the church also played a role. In the second decade of the 17th century. typists, disassemblers, typists (printers), batyrs (they applied paint to the typesetting form), punson cutters for casting letters, typewriters, bookbinders, flag bearers (they decorated "offered" copies intended for the tsar and his immediate entourage) worked at the Printing House. One of the main institutions of the Printing House was becoming the correct one with a large staff of directors, readers and scribes, who were entrusted with the "right", i.e. editing and proofreading of printed books. Correctly played the role of a censorship institution, making sure that only revised books approved by the church were published. Among the clerks there were many highly educated people for their time - Fedor Polikarpov, Sylvester Medvedev, Epiphany Slavinetsky, Arseny Sukhanov, and others.

In the early 30s. XVII century a new master appeared at the Moscow Printing House - Vasily Burtsev-Protopopov. He headed an independent department of the printing house and was called the "clerk of the alphabet business." From 1633 to 1642 he published 17 books. Later, at the end of the 70s, the "Upper" palace printing house was set up in the Trinity Tower of the Kremlin - the Tsar's personal printing house. It was led by the famous scientist, poet and playwright Simeon Polotsky. Only she had the right to publish books without the special permission of the patriarch, and she did not depend on the management of the Printing House. From 1679 to 1683, the "Upper" printing house published six books, including several works by Simeon of Polotsk.

In 1654 Patriarch Nikon became the head of the Printing House, the church books were corrected in connection with the reform of the church he was carrying out. In 1686 the leadership of the Printing House passed into the hands of the Likhud brothers; they simultaneously taught at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Under the Likhuds, the students and teachers of the Academy worked at the Printing House as directories and editors.

Throughout the XVII century. 483 books were printed in Moscow. By content, they are divided into three groups:

Liturgical, church service or cult;

Religious books, but not liturgical, intended for reading outside the church;

Books are not religious.

The majority of the editions of the 17th century. - books of the first group. The content and subject matter of the books, as in the 16th century, were determined mainly by the needs of the church: the Apostles, the Gospels, and the Psalms still constitute the bulk of the products of the Moscow Printing House. The development of the economy, public administration, the success of culture and education lead to some important changes in publishing activities Moscow Printing House. A progressive factor was the publication of essays intended not for church services, but for everyday reading. Although these books were part of the circle of church literature, they nevertheless expanded the publishing "assortment" of the Printing House. In addition to the works of such ecclesiastical writers as Ephraim the Syrian, John Chrysostom and others, this group of publications includes collections composed of the works of Byzantine writers, Ukrainian and Russian authors, as well as Prologue, an extensive collection of hagiographic and moralizing articles. Both the collections (or, more precisely, "cathedrals") and "Prologue" were very popular with the Russian reader. The Moscow edition of the Prologue in 1641 is the first Russian printed book for everyday reading.

A special troupe of 17th century editions. - ABCs and ABCs designed to teach reading and writing. Their main text consisted of prayers, but at the same time they bore the imprint of the pedagogical and literary personality of the publisher.

Vasily Burtsov initiated the publication of primers in Moscow. In 1634 in Moscow he published a printed "Alphabet". It sold out very quickly and was reissued in 1637. The second edition includes verses about the goals and methods of teaching. The book was opened with an engraved frontispiece - a scene of punishment with a rod of a guilty student in the "School". Secular engraving is a new phenomenon in the Russian printed book of the 17th century. Some primers promoted new methods of teaching and upbringing. So, in one of the most interesting primers of the 17th century. - the primer of "Slovenian-Russian letters" Karion Istomin applied the method of memorizing letters with the help of pictures. The letters are given in various styles - not only Slavic, but also Greek and Latin, in printed and handwritten versions. The illustrations for them depict objects whose names begin with the corresponding letter. So, under the various styles of the letter "A" are placed images of "Adam", "viper", "arithmetic", "April", "analogy", etc. On each sheet there are edifying verses. So, the sheet with the letter "A" ends with the following verse line: "From the beginning of the years, young all learn; everywhere from life, be wiser to console yourself. "

The entire text of the primer with illustrations was engraved on copper in 1694 by Leonty Bunin. Karion Istomin owns another remarkable primer, printed in 1696 by typographic method. This is one of the rarest Russian books. So far, only two (out of 20 published) copies of this book have been found. A significant place in the primer is occupied by poetic works of K. Istomin himself.

In 1648, the first Moscow edition of the famous "Slavic grammar by Melety Smotritsky." It is supplemented with excerpts from the works of Maxim the Greek, examples, grammatical analysis of sentences. Smotritsky's Grammar was for its time a truly scientific work. It was used in Russia as early as the 18th century. (As you know, MV Lomonosov studied according to it).

The development of military affairs and the increased attention of the state to the issues of military art was reflected in the publication of an excellently printed sheet-size book with 35 engravings on copper and an engraved title page based on a drawing by Grigory Blagushin: "The doctrine and cunning of the military structure of infantry men." It was a translation from the German military manual of Walhausen. The book was printed in 1647. The engravings were made by order of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in Holland.

In 1649, the first printed edition of the set of Russian laws, "Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich," was published. The development of trade, the strengthening of the influence of the merchants caused the appearance of such books as "The Charter on Customs Duties" (1654), "Reading is Convenient;" (1682), intended for people who "bathe and sell."

In 1699, a book was published in Moscow: "A short ordinary teaching with the strongest and best interpretation in the structure of foot regiments." This is the last secular printed book of the 17th century, in our time - the rarest edition.