Prospects for the use of modern types of power plants. Development of thermal power plants. Prospects for the development of TPP

To assess the prospects of TPPs, first of all, it is necessary to understand their advantages and disadvantages in comparison with other sources of electricity.

The benefits include the following.

1. Unlike hydroelectric power plants, thermal power plants can be located relatively freely, taking into account the fuel used. Gas-oil TPPs can be built anywhere, since transportation of gas and fuel oil is relatively cheap (compared to coal). It is advisable to locate pulverized coal thermal power plants near sources of coal mining. By now, the "coal" heat power industry has developed and has a pronounced regional character.
2. The specific cost of installed capacity (cost of 1 kW of installed capacity) and the construction period for TPPs are significantly shorter than for NPPs and HPPs.
3. Electricity production at TPPs, in contrast to hydroelectric power plants, does not depend on the season and is determined only by the delivery of fuel.
4. The areas of alienation of economic lands for TPPs are significantly less than for NPPs, and, of course, they cannot be compared with hydroelectric power plants, the impact of which on the environment may have a far from regional character. Examples are the cascades of hydroelectric power plants on the river. Volga and Dnieper.
5. At TPPs, almost any fuel can be burned, including the lowest-grade coals, ballasted with ash, water, rock.
6. Unlike nuclear power plants, there are no problems with the utilization of TPPs at the end of their service life. As a rule, the infrastructure of a TPP significantly “outlasts” the main equipment (boilers and turbines) installed on it, and the buildings, turbine hall, water supply and fuel supply systems, etc., which make up the bulk of the funds, serve for a long time. Most of the TPPs built over 80 years according to the GOELRO plan are still in operation and will continue to work after the installation of new, more advanced turbines and boilers on them.

Along with these advantages, TPP has a number of disadvantages.

1. Thermal power plants are the most environmentally “dirty” sources of electricity, especially those that run on high-ash sulfur fuel. True, to say that nuclear power plants that do not have constant emissions into the atmosphere, but create a constant threat of radioactive contamination and have problems with the storage and processing of spent nuclear fuel, as well as the disposal of the nuclear power plant itself after the end of its service life, or hydroelectric power plants that flood vast areas of agricultural land and change the regional climate, are ecologically cleaner, it is possible only with a significant degree of convention.
2. Traditional TPPs have a relatively low efficiency (better than that of a nuclear power plant, but much worse than that of a CCGT unit).
3. Unlike hydroelectric power plants, thermal power plants hardly participate in covering the variable part of the daily electric load schedule.
4. TPPs are significantly dependent on the supply of fuel, often imported.

Despite all these shortcomings, TPPs are the main producers of electricity in most countries of the world and will remain so for at least the next 50 years.

The prospects for the construction of powerful condensing thermal power plants are closely related to the type of fossil fuel used. Despite the great advantages of liquid fuel (oil, fuel oil) as an energy carrier (high calorific value, ease of transportation), its use at TPPs will increasingly decrease, not only due to limited reserves, but also due to its great value as a raw material for petrochemical industry. For Russia, the export value of liquid fuel (oil) is also of great importance. Therefore, liquid fuel (fuel oil) at TPPs will be used either as a reserve fuel at gas-oil TPPs, or as an auxiliary fuel at pulverized coal TPPs, which ensures stable combustion of coal dust in a boiler under certain operating conditions.

The use of natural gas at condensing steam-turbine TPPs is irrational: for this, it is necessary to use steam-gas utilization units, which are based on high-temperature gas turbine units.

Thus, the long-term prospect of using classic steam turbine TPPs both in Russia and abroad is primarily associated with the use of coals, especially low-grade coals. This, of course, does not mean the termination of the operation of gas-oil thermal power plants, which will be gradually replaced by steam turbines.

Prospects for the development of the electric power industry

The strategic goals for the development of the electric power industry in the considered perspective are:

reliable power supply of the economy and population of the country with electricity;

preservation of the integrity and development of the Unified Energy System of the country, its integration with other energy associations on the Eurasian continent;

improving the efficiency of functioning and ensuring sustainable development of the electric power industry on the basis of new modern technologies;

reduction of harmful effects on the environment.

Based on the projected volumes of demand for electricity at high rates of economic development (optimistic and favorable options), the total electricity production may increase compared to 2000 by more than 1.2 times by 2010 (up to 1,070 billion kWh ) and 1.6 times by 2020 (up to 1365 billion kWh). At a reduced rate of economic development (moderate option), electricity production will amount to 1015 and 1215 billion kWh, respectively.

Providing these levels of power consumption requires solving a number of problems that are systemic in nature:

restrictions on intersystem power flows,

aging of main power equipment,

technological backwardness, irrational structure of the fuel balance, etc.

The energy capacities of the Siberian hydroelectric power plants and thermal power plants remain unclaimed: the locked capacities in this region amount to about 7-10 million kW. Therefore, one of the strategic tasks of the electric power industry is the development of intersystem power transmissions of 500-1150 kV to enhance the reliability of parallel operation of the UPS of Siberia with the power systems of the European part of Russia along the Itat - Chelyabinsk route and with the UPS of the Far East (Irkutsk - Zeya - Khabarovsk). This will allow avoiding expensive coal transportation from Kuzbass and KATEK due to their use at local thermal power plants with the delivery of 5-6 million kW to the west and 2-3 million kW to the east. In addition, the use of the maneuverable capabilities of the Angara-Yenisei cascade hydroelectric power station will relieve tension with the regulation of the load schedule in European regions.

The depreciation of the active part of assets in the electric power industry is generally 60-65%, incl. in rural distribution networks - over 75%. Domestic equipment, which forms the technical basis of the electric power industry, is obsolete, inferior to modern requirements and the world's best products. Therefore, it is necessary not only to maintain operability, but also to significantly update the OPF based on new technology and technologies for the production and distribution of electricity and heat.

The presence of worn-out equipment in power systems, the share of which has already exceeded 15% of all capacities, and the inability to restore it, introduces the power industry into a zone of increased risk, technological failures, accidents and, as a result, a decrease in the reliability of power supply.

The irrational structure of the fuel balance is due to the pursued policy of prices for primary energy resources for power plants. Coal prices are on average 1.5 times higher than gas prices. Under such conditions, given the high capital intensity of coal-fired power plants, they become uncompetitive and cannot develop, which can aggravate the situation that has developed in recent years, when the share of electricity generation on gas in the structure of the fuel balance of thermal power plants exceeded 60%.

For the development of a unified national electrical network as the main element of the Unified Energy System of Russia and strengthening the unity of the country's economic space, it is envisaged to build a power transmission line in an amount that ensures the stable and reliable functioning of the UES of Russia and the elimination of technical constraints that hinder development competitive market electrical energy and power.

The future development of the electric grid of the UES of Russia is based on the following basic principles:

flexibility, allowing for gradual development and the ability to adapt to changing operating conditions (load growth, development of power plants, reverse power flows, implementation of new interstate contracts for the supply of electricity);

development of the main network of the UES of Russia by gradual "superstructure" with higher voltage lines after sufficiently complete coverage of the territory by networks of the previous voltage class and exhaustion of their capabilities, as well as the readiness of these networks to work with single higher voltage power lines superimposed on them;

minimizing the number of additional transformations 220/330, 330/500, 500/750 kV in the zones of joint action of these voltages;

controllability of the main electrical network through the use of forced flow distribution means - adjustable shunt reactors, DC links, synchronous and static compensators, electromechanical converters, phase-shifting devices, etc.

The backbone of the backbone networks of the UES of Russia in the period up to 2020 will continue to be 500-750 kV transmission lines. The total commissioning of transmission lines with a voltage of 330 kV and above in the period up to 2020 should be, depending on the development option, 25-35 thousand km.

The development of the country's unified electrical network will be carried out under the control of the Federal Grid Company and the System Operator (with the state's share in both - 75% + 1 share), while maintaining and ensuring the vertical of dispatch and technological control.

To ensure the predicted levels of electricity and heat consumption in the optimistic and favorable options, the commissioning of generating capacities at Russian power plants (taking into account replacement and modernization) for the period 2003-2020. are estimated at about 177 million kW, including at HPPs and PSPs - 11.2 million kW, at NPPs - 23 million kW, at TPPs - 143 million kW (of which PTU and GTU - 37 million kW) ... In a moderate version, commissioning is estimated at about 121 million kW, including at HPPs and PSPs - 7 million kW, at NPPs - 17 million kW, at TPPs - 97 million kW (of which STU and GTU - 31.5 million kW).

The development of the electric power industry in the period under consideration will proceed from the following economically justified priorities for the territorial distribution of generating capacities in the industry:

in the European part of Russia - technical re-equipment of gas-fired TPPs with replacement of steam-power turbines by steam-gas turbines and maximum development of nuclear power plants;

in Siberia - the development of coal-fired thermal power plants and hydroelectric power plants;

in the Far East - the development of hydroelectric power plants, thermal power plants on gas in large cities and in some regions - nuclear power plants, nuclear thermal power plants.

Thermal power plants will remain the basis of the electric power industry for the entire considered prospect, the share of which in the structure of the installed capacity of the industry will remain at the level of 60-70%. Electricity generation at thermal power plants by 2020 will increase 1.4 times compared to 2000.

The structure of fuel consumed at TPPs will change towards a decrease in the share of gas by 2020 and, accordingly, an increase in the share of coal, and the ratio between gas and coal will be determined by the prevailing conjuncture of prices for natural gas and coal, as well as government policy in the use of various types of organic fuel for the electric power industry.

The determining factor is the price of natural gas, which must be consistently increased to a level that provides sufficient opportunities for the development of the gas industry. In order for coal-fired power plants to be competitive with gas-fired power plants in the emerging Russian electricity market, the price of gas must be 1.6-2.0 times higher than the price of coal. This price ratio will reduce the share of gas in the structure of fuel consumption at TPPs.

As a result, the value of the average electricity tariff for all categories of consumers is estimated at the level of 2020 in the range of 4.0-4.5 cents / kWh. It is necessary to eliminate cross-subsidization and ensure differentiation of tariffs depending on the daily and seasonal schedules of load coverage, as is accepted in world practice, since the costs of generating electricity from expensive peak generating capacities are several times higher than the costs of generating electricity from the basic capacities of NPPs and CHPPs. In addition, it is envisaged to introduce a system of discounts for energy-intensive consumers.

Scenarios for the development of thermal power engineering associated with the possibility of a radical change in the conditions of fuel supply to thermal power plants in the European regions of the country, toughening of environmental requirements, overcoming by 2010 the trend of exceeding the growth rate of the volume of equipment of power plants that have exhausted their park resource over the rate of its decommissioning and renewal require the earliest implementation of the achievements of scientific and technological progress and new technologies in the electric power industry.

For power plants operating on gas, such technologies are: steam-gas cycle, gas turbine superstructures of steam power units and gas turbines with heat recovery. At power plants operating on solid fuels, environmentally friendly technologies of coal combustion in a circulating fluidized bed, and later - coal gasification using generator gas in combined cycle plants. New coal-fired thermal power plants in large cities, areas of concentrated population concentration and agricultural regions should be equipped with desulfurization units.

The transition from steam-turbine TPPs using gas to combined-cycle TPPs will ensure an increase in the efficiency of installations up to 50%, and in the future - up to 60% or more. The second direction for increasing the thermal efficiency of TPPs is the construction of new coal blocks for supercritical steam parameters with an efficiency of 45-46%. This will significantly reduce the specific fuel consumption for electricity generation at TPPs using solid fuels from 360 cf./kWh in 2000 to 310 cf / kWh in 2010 and to 280 g.f. / kWh in 2020

The most important role in reducing the consumption of fuel used for the production of electricity and heat in the electric power sector will be played by district heating, that is, electricity generation at TPPs with the utilization of heat spent in a steam-power, gas-turbine or combined steam-gas cycle.

An important direction in the electric power industry in modern conditions is the development of distributed generation based on the construction of small power plants, primarily small CHPPs with steam turbines, gas turbines and other modern technologies.

Gas turbine, gas piston and combined cycle CHPPs, focused on serving consumers with heat loads of low and medium concentration (up to 10-50 Gcal / h), called cogeneration, will primarily provide a decentralized heat supply sector. In addition, some of the district heating and industrial boiler houses will be reconstructed (where possible and economically justified) in a low-power CHP.

As a result, in the process of development of district heating and cogeneration, the share of electricity and heat producers independent of AO-energos will increase, competition among producers of electric and heat energy will increase.

To implement the industry's innovation program, it is necessary to carry out a complex of scientific research and development in the following areas:

expanding the resource base of the electric power industry and increasing regional fuel supply through the development of efficient environmentally friendly combustion of the Kansk-Achinsk and low-grade coals of the eastern regions of Russia in boilers of steam-tube power units for supercritical steam parameters, including with a "ring" furnace, in a molten slag, in furnaces with circulating fluidized bed and under pressure;

improving the effectiveness of protection the environment based on integrated gas cleaning and ash collection systems at power units;

increasing the efficiency of the steam-gas cycle by choosing a heat recovery scheme;

creation and development of production power plants a new generation based on solid oxide fuel cells for centralized power supply, study of the possibility of using other types of fuel cells for these purposes;

creation and commissioning of reliable electrical switching equipment with SF6 and vacuum insulation;

development of intersystem electric transmissions with increased throughput;

development of flexible electric transmissions;

introduction of a new generation of transformer equipment, overvoltage protection systems and microprocessor systems RZ and PAA, fiber-optic communication systems;

creation and implementation electrical equipment, including converting units, for variable frequency electric drives for various purposes;

improving the reliability of heat supply on the basis of increasing the durability and corrosion resistance of pipes of heating networks with polyurethane foam insulation.

Hydro resources in Russia are comparable in their potential to the current volumes of electricity generation by all power plants in the country, but they are used by only 15%. Taking into account the increase in the costs of fossil fuel extraction, and, as a consequence, the expected significant increase in prices for it, it is necessary to ensure the maximum possible use and development of hydropower, which is an environmentally friendly renewable source of electricity. Taking this into account, the generation of electricity at HPPs in the optimistic and favorable scenarios will increase to 180 billion kWh in 2010 and to 215 billion kWh in 2020, with a further increase to 350 billion kWh due to the construction of new Hydroelectric power station.

Hydropower will develop mainly in Siberia and the Far East, providing an almost basic operating mode for thermal power plants in these regions. In European regions, where the economically efficient potential of hydropower has practically been exhausted, the construction of small hydroelectric power plants will develop, and the construction of medium-sized peak hydroelectric power plants will continue, mainly in the North Caucasus.

To ensure the reliable functioning of the UES of Russia and to cover the uneven schedule of electricity consumption in the face of an increase in the share of basic nuclear power plants in the European part of the country, it is necessary to accelerate the construction of PSPP.

The development of the network economy, renewal of capacity and provision of an increase in the demand for generating capacity requires a multiple increase in investments in the industry.

At the same time, the sources of investment will be:

for thermal generating companies - own funds companies (depreciation and profit), debt and share capital;

for hydro-generating companies with state participation - along with the indicated sources, it is possible to create and use targeted investment funds formed from the profit of the hydroelectric power station;

for the federal grid company and the system operator - centralized investment funds included in transmission tariffs and system services.

It is necessary to modernize communal energy, including by attracting private capital in this potentially attractive investment area economic activity on the basis of reforming and modernizing the entire housing and communal complex Russian Federation with the transformation of unitary municipal enterprises that provide electricity to the population and communal sphere cities in open joint stock companies and their subsequent integration with AO-energo enterprises, including the use of concession, lease and other mechanisms for managing communal infrastructure facilities.

To attract large-scale investments in the electric power industry, a radical reform of the industry and an appropriate state tariff policy are required.

In accordance with the law "On Electricity", the reform of the electric power industry is planned to be carried out on the following principles:

assignment of transmission, distribution of electrical energy and dispatching to the subject government regulation exceptional types of activity, the implementation of which is possible only on the basis of special permits (licenses);

demonopolization and development of competition in the field of production, sales and provision of services (repair, adjustment, design, etc.);

providing all producers and consumers of electricity with equal access to the market infrastructure;

uniformity of safety standards, technical standards and regulations in force in the electricity industry;

ensuring financial transparency of electricity markets and the activities of organizations in regulated sectors of the electricity industry;

ensuring the rights of investors, creditors and shareholders when carrying out structural transformations.

The main task of the ongoing reforms in the electric power industry is the development of competition in potentially competitive areas of activity - the generation and sale of electricity in those areas where it is technologically and economically feasible, which in turn will create conditions for more efficient economic activity in the field of generation, transmission and sale of electricity. At the same time, of course, stable and stable operation of the Unified Energy System of the Russian Federation, reliable electricity and heat supply to the regions of the Russian Federation should be ensured.

Based on the principles of economic expediency in the formation of a management strategy in the field of the electric power industry, as well as on the unconditional implementation of the principles of energy security of the Russian Federation, the state will encourage a reasonable combination of export / import of electricity. The import of electricity at the first stage of the reform of the electric power industry will be considered justified in those cases when it will help to prevent an abrupt increase in tariffs for domestic market RF, as well as overcoming the deficit in certain segments of the wholesale market for the period of reconstruction of existing and construction of new generating capacities.

Bibliography

electric power fuel forecasting tariff

1. F. Kotler "Marketing and Management", Peter, 2004

2. Khungureeva I.P., Shabykova N.E., Ungaeva I.Yu. Enterprise economy: Tutorial... - Ulan-Ude, VSGTU Publishing House, 2004.

3. Avdasheva "theory of industry markets"

4. Magazine "Business and Law" No. 10/2008

5. Baryshev A.V. "Monopoly and Antitrust Policy", 1994.

The main indicators of the current state of TPP

The installed capacity of TPPs in Russia is 148.4 million kW, of which about 50% are combined heat and power plants (CHP) and about 50% are condensing power plants (IES).

The installed capacity of TPPs in RAO "UES of Russia" for 2004 is 121.4 million kW. Electricity generation at TPPs of RAO UES of Russia - 521.4 billion kWh. RAO UES of Russia also generated 465.8 million Gcal of thermal energy, which is equivalent to 541.7 billion kWh of thermal energy.

Table 1 shows fuel consumption indicators by type of fuel used.

Table 1. Fuel consumption by RAO UES of Russia by type in 2004

Efficiency of TPP

The existing efficiency of condensing power plants is 36.8%, and the average efficiency coefficient for the IES and CHP plants of the holding is 29.45%.

To compare different energy scenarios, it is necessary to have data on the efficiency of the power generating capacity.

Useful products of the thermal power industry are electricity and heat generated at CHP, IES and peak boiler houses.

The capacities of the IES are intended only for generating electricity with discharge to condensers-coolers of waste steam containing about 50% of the initially supplied energy. The electrical efficiency (efficiency e) of such plants is relatively high, but usually does not exceed 40% for the available capacities (IES).

The CHPP capacities operate in a "heating mode", in which the heated steam is used sequentially in the turbine to generate electricity, and the residual steam energy is supplied to heat consumers. Cogeneration steam extraction leads to a decrease in the electrical efficiency (efficiency e) in comparison with the operation of the CHPP in the "condensation" mode, in which steam is completely triggered in the turbine, but is subsequently discharged into the environment. At the same time, the overall efficiency of fuel use in the heating mode increases, since the spent steam, which contains more than half of the energy, is almost completely utilized. The efficiency of fuel use at CHPPs is determined by the fuel utilization factor (FUF), which can reach 85% and more. In the absence of heat consumers, for example, in the summer months, a CHPP can operate in a condensing mode, like an IES with a similar efficiency of e.

Peak boilers only generate heat.

For RAO "UES of Russia", the bulk of thermal energy and more than half of the electricity is generated at CHPPs. A small part of thermal energy is generated in peak boiler houses, which are turned on only in severe frosts, with a lack of thermal power taken from the turbines. The share of fuel consumed in such boiler houses can be taken equal to about 10% of its total consumption by RAO UES of Russia, which is consistent with the data.

The report of RAO "UES of Russia" for 2004 provides data on specific fuel consumption separately for heat and electricity generation. This division is conditional and is introduced mainly to assess the cost of production of both types of energy. There are various techniques for dividing fuel costs between heat and power generation at CHP plants. In further calculations, the fuel consumed in the peak boiler houses, as well as the excessive consumption of fuel associated with a decrease in the efficiency of the CHPP operating in the heating mode, compared to the condensation mode, are attributed to the fuel consumption for the generation of thermal energy.

In table 2, according to the data, the primary energy consumed by RAO "UES of Russia" for power generation in various modes is calculated, as well as the average KIT and efficiency of e. For the calculation, the data given in for electrical and thermal energy are first combined, and then the average indicators of the KIT and efficiency are extracted from them, taking into account the accepted share of fuel consumption in peak boiler houses.

Table 2. Calculation of the main indicators of the efficiency of energy production at RAO "UES of Russia"

Type of energy supplied	Useful vacation(2004)	specific fuel consumption	Efficiency (KIT)	Primary energy consumption
Electric Energy	521.4 billion kWh	334.1 g of fuel equivalent / kWh		1418.2 billion kWh
Thermal energy	541.7 billion kWh	124.5 g of fuel equivalent / kWh		549.1 billion kWh
Total energy supply, total energy consumption and fuel utilization rate	1,063.1 billion kWh	KIT = 1063.1 / 1967.2 = 54%		1967.2 billion kWh
Primary energy consumption for heat generation in peak boiler houses (estimated share of total consumption - 10%)				196.7 billion kWh
Primary energy consumption for electricity generation in condensing and heating modes, and average electrical efficiency		Efficiency e = 521.4 / 1770.5 = 29.45%		1770.5 billion kWh

Table 2 shows that the average KIT for the holding (54%) is relatively low, due to the large share of condensation generation (if all electricity was generated in the heating mode, it would reach 70% or more).

Prospects for the development of TPP

To assess the “combined cycle” scenario, it is necessary to have an idea of how much the existing efficiency can be improved.

According to the recommended requirements, replacement equipment for coal-fired TPPs should have an efficiency of 42-46% in condensation mode, and for natural gas TPPs - 52-58% in condensation mode and 47% in cogeneration mode. Such a sharp increase in the efficiency of e for TPPs using natural gas is explained by the possibility of using steam-gas technology (CCGT-TPP), in which gas is burned in a power plant. gas turbine(GTU) with the generation of electricity, and the heat of the exhaust gases is recovered by heating the steam used in a conventional steam turbine. The heat of the steam spent in a steam turbine can be used for heating needs, as in a conventional CHP plant (see above).

It is prescribed in the law that only steam-gas technologies can be used in the construction of new thermal power plants on gas.

At present, in Russia there are no more than a dozen operating and under construction CCGT-TPPs, which does not significantly affect the average efficiency and fuel consumption indicators for RAO "UES of Russia".

Table 3 shows information about 6 such stations, for which it was possible to obtain information from open sources.

Table 3. CCGT-TPPs under construction and operating in the Russian Federation

P / p No.	Name	Power, MW	Unit	Net electrical efficiency	specific capital investments $ / kW	implementation stage	Note	source
	North-Western CHPP unit No. 1		CCGT-450			Operated	The second block of the same capacity is under construction	own data
	Ivanovskaya GRES unit No. 1		CCGT-325 with GTE-110			construction started on 24/02/05	Construction is scheduled for completion in March 2007.
	Sochinskaya TPP					Launched in December 2004
	Ufimskaya CHPP-5		CCGT-450 with GTE - 160			start of construction according to plan - September 2002	completion of construction 2007
	Kaliningradskaya CHPP-2		CCGT-450 - 2 pcs.			The first unit was launched on October 28, 2005.
	Tyumen CHP-1					launched on February 26, 2004	construction period - 4 years

Back forward

Attention! Slide previews are for informational purposes only and may not represent all presentation options. If you are interested this work please download the full version.

The presentation is an additional material to the lessons on energy development. Energy of any country is the basis for the development of productive forces, the creation of the material and technical base of society. The presentation reflects the problems and prospects of all types of energy, promising (new) types of energy, uses the experience of museum pedagogy, independent search work of students (work with the magazine "Japan Today"), creative work of students (posters). The presentation can be used in geography lessons in grades 9 and 10, in extracurricular activities (elective classes, elective courses), in holding the Geography Week "April 22 - Earth Day", in ecology and biology lessons "Global problems of mankind. Raw materials and energy problem ”.

In my work, I used the method of problem learning, which consisted in creating problem situations in front of students and resolving them in the process of joint activities of students and teachers. At the same time, the maximum independence of students was taken into account under the general guidance of a teacher who guides the activities of students.

Problem-based learning allows not only to form the necessary system of knowledge, abilities and skills among students, to achieve a high level of development of schoolchildren, but, which is especially important, it allows to form a special style of mental activity, research activity and independence of students. When working with this presentation, students are shown an actual direction - the research activities of schoolchildren.

The industry unites a group of industries engaged in the extraction and transportation of fuel, energy generation and transmission to the consumer.

Natural resources that are used for energy production are fuel resources, hydro resources, nuclear energy, as well as alternative types of energy. The location of most industries depends on the development of electricity. Our country has huge reserves of fuel and energy resources. Russia was, is and will be one of the leading energy powers in the world. And this is not only because the country contains 12% of the world's coal reserves, 13% of oil and 36% of the world's natural gas reserves, which are sufficient to fully meet their own needs and for export to neighboring states. Russia has become one of the world's leading energy powers, primarily due to the creation of a unique production, scientific, technical and personnel potential of the fuel and energy complex.

Raw material problem

Mineral resources- the primary source, the initial basis of human civilization in almost all phases of its development:

- Fuel minerals;
- Ore minerals;
- Non-metallic minerals.

The current rate of energy consumption is growing exponentially. Even if we take into account that the growth rate of electricity consumption will decrease somewhat due to the improvement of energy-saving technologies, the reserves of electric raw materials will last for a maximum of 100 years. However, the situation is aggravated by the discrepancy between the structure of reserves and consumption of organic raw materials. So, 80% of fossil fuel reserves are coal and only 20% are oil and gas, while 8/10 of modern energy consumption is oil and gas.

Consequently, the time frame is further narrowed. However, only today mankind is getting rid of the ideological ideas that they are practically endless. Mineral resources are limited, virtually irreplaceable.

Energy problem.

Today, the world's energy industry is based on energy sources:

- Combustible minerals;
- Combustible organic minerals;
- Energy of rivers. Non-traditional forms of energy;
- The energy of the atom.

With the current rate of rise in the price of the Earth's fuel resources, the problem of using renewable energy sources is becoming more and more urgent and characterizes the energy and economic independence of the state.

Advantages and disadvantages of TPP.

TPP advantages:

1. The cost of electricity at hydroelectric power plants is very low;
2. Generators of hydroelectric power stations can be quickly switched on and off depending on energy consumption;
3. There is no air pollution.

Disadvantages of TPP:

1. The construction of a hydroelectric power station can be more time consuming and expensive than other energy sources;
2. Reservoirs can cover large areas;
3. Dams can damage fisheries by blocking the path to spawning grounds.

Advantages and disadvantages of hydroelectric power plants.

Hydroelectric power station advantages:
- They are built quickly and cheaply;
- They work in a constant mode;
- Are located almost everywhere;
- The prevalence of thermal power plants in the energy sector of the Russian Federation.

Disadvantages of hydroelectric power plants:

- Consume a lot of fuel;
- Requires a long stop during repairs;
- A lot of heat is lost in the atmosphere, a lot of solid and harmful gases are emitted into the atmosphere;
- Major environmental pollutants.

In the structure of electricity generation in the world, the first place belongs to thermal power plants (TPP) - their share is 62%.
An alternative to fossil fuels and a renewable energy source is hydropower. Hydroelectric power plant (HPP)- a power plant that uses the energy of the water flow as a source of energy. Hydroelectric power plants are usually built on rivers with dams and reservoirs. Hydropower is the generation of electricity through the use of renewable river, tidal, geothermal water resources. This use of renewable water resources implies flood management, strengthening of river beds, transfer of water resources to areas suffering from drought, conservation of groundwater flow.
However, even here the energy source is rather severely limited. This is due to the fact that large rivers, as a rule, are far away from industrial centers or their capacities are almost completely used. Thus, hydropower, which currently provides about 10% of the world's energy production, will not be able to significantly increase this figure.

Problems and prospects of nuclear power plants

In Russia, the share atomic energy reaches 12%. The reserves of mined uranium in Russia have an electrical potential of 15 trillion cubic meters. kWh, this is as much as all our power plants can generate in 35 years. Today, only nuclear power
capable of sharply and for short term weaken the phenomenon of the greenhouse effect. NPP safety is an urgent problem. The year 2000 marked the beginning of the transition to fundamentally new approaches to standardizing and ensuring the radiation safety of nuclear power plants.
Over 40 years of development of nuclear energy in the world, about 400 power units have been built in 26 countries of the world. The main advantages of nuclear energy are high ultimate profitability and the absence of emissions of combustion products into the atmosphere; the main disadvantages are the potential danger of radioactive contamination of the environment by fission products of nuclear fuel in an accident and the problem of reprocessing used nuclear fuel.

Unconventional (alternative energy)

1. Solar energy... It is the use of solar radiation to generate energy in some form. Solar energy uses a renewable energy source and in the future can become environmentally friendly.

Benefits of solar energy:

- General availability and inexhaustibility of the source;
- In theory, completely safe for the environment.

Disadvantages of solar energy:

- The flow of solar energy on the Earth's surface is highly dependent on latitude and climate;
- The solar power plant does not work at night and does not work efficiently enough in the morning and evening twilight;
Photovoltaic cells contain toxic substances, for example, lead, cadmium, gallium, arsenic, etc., and their production consumes a lot of other hazardous substances.

2. Wind power... This is a branch of energy that specializes in the use of wind energy - the kinetic energy of air masses in the atmosphere. Since wind energy is a consequence of the activity of the sun, it is classified as a renewable energy.

Wind energy prospects.

Wind power is a booming industry, as at the end of 2007 the total installed capacity of all wind turbines was 94.1 gigawatts, an increase of five times since 2000. Wind farms around the world in 2007 produced about 200 billion kWh, which is approximately 1.3% of global electricity consumption. Offshore wind farm Middelgrunden, near Copenhagen, Denmark. At the time of construction, it was the largest in the world.

Opportunities for the implementation of wind energy in Russia. In Russia, the possibilities of wind energy remain practically unrealized to date. A conservative attitude towards the future development of the fuel and energy complex practically hinders the effective introduction of wind energy, especially in the Northern regions of Russia, as well as in the steppe zone of the Southern Federal District, and in particular in the Volgograd region.

3. Thermonuclear power engineering. The sun is a natural fusion reactor. An even more interesting, albeit relatively distant, prospect is the use of nuclear fusion energy. Fusion reactors, according to calculations, will consume less fuel per unit of energy, and both this fuel itself (deuterium, lithium, helium-3) and the products of their synthesis are non-radioactive and, therefore, environmentally friendly.

Prospects for thermonuclear energy. This area of energy has great potential, currently within the framework of the "ITER" project, in which Europe, China, Russia, the USA, South Korea and Japan are involved in France, the construction of the largest thermonuclear reactor is underway, the purpose of which is to bring out the CTS (Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion) to a new level. The construction is scheduled for completion in 2010.

4. Biofuel, biogas. Biofuel is a fuel from biological raw materials, obtained, as a rule, as a result of processing sugar cane stalks or rapeseed, corn, soybeans. Liquid biofuels differ (for engines internal combustion e.g. ethanol, methanol, biodiesel) and gaseous (biogas, hydrogen).

Types of biofuels:

- Biomethanol
- Bioethanol
- Biobutanol
- Dimethyl ether
- Biodiesel
- Biogas
- Hydrogen

At the moment, the most developed are biodiesel and hydrogen.

5. Geothermal energy. Hidden under the volcanic islands of Japan are huge amounts of geothermal energy, which can be harnessed by extracting hot water and steam. Benefit: It emits about 20 times less carbon dioxide in electricity production, which reduces its impact on the global environment.

6. The energy of waves, ebb and flow. In Japan, the most important source of energy is wave turbines, which convert the vertical movement of ocean waves into the air pressure that rotates the turbines of electric generators. A large number of tidal buoys have been installed on the coast of Japan. This is how the energy of the ocean is used to ensure the safety of ocean transport.

The huge potential of the Sun's energy could theoretically provide all the world's energy needs. But the efficiency of converting heat into electricity is only 10%. This limits the possibilities of solar energy. Fundamental difficulties also arise when analyzing the possibilities of creating high-power generators using wind energy, ebb and flow, geothermal energy, biogas, vegetable fuel, etc. All this leads to the conclusion that the possibilities of the considered so-called "reproducible" and relatively environmentally friendly energy resources are limited, at least in the relatively near future. Although the effect of their use in solving individual private problems of energy supply can already be quite impressive.

Of course, there is optimism about the possibilities of thermonuclear energy and other efficient methods of generating energy, intensively studied by science, but at the current scale of energy production. In the practical development of these possible sources, it will take several decades due to the high capital intensity and the corresponding inertia in the implementation of projects.

Research work of students:

1. Special report "Green Energy" for the future: “Japan is the world leader in solar power generation. 90% of the solar energy produced in Japan comes from solar panels in conventional homes. The Japanese government has set a target for 2010 to generate approximately 4.8 million kWh of energy from solar panels. Power generation from biomass in Japan. Methane gas is emitted from kitchen waste. The engine runs on this gas, which generates electricity, and also creates favorable conditions for the protection of the environment.

The negative environmental and social consequences of the construction of large hydropower plants make us take a close look at their possible place in the electric power industry of the future.

The future of hydropower

Large hydroelectric power plants perform the following functions in the power system:

power generation;
fast matching of the generation power with the power consumption, frequency stabilization in the power system;
accumulation and storage of energy in the form of potential energy of water in the gravitational field of the Earth with conversion into electricity at any time.

Power generation and power maneuvers are possible at any scale HPP. And the accumulation of energy for a period from several months to several years (for winter and dry years) requires the creation of large reservoirs.

For comparison, a 12-kg, 12-volt, 85-amp-hour car battery can store 1.02 kilowatt-hours (3.67 MJ). To store such an amount of energy and convert it into electricity in a hydroelectric unit with an efficiency of 0.92, you need to raise 4 tons (4 cubic meters) of water to a height of 100 m or 40 tons of water to a height of 10 m.

In order for a hydroelectric power station with a capacity of only 1 MW to operate on stored water 5 months a year for 6 hours a day on stored water, it is necessary to accumulate at an altitude of 100 m and then run through a turbine 3.6 million tons of water. With a reservoir area of 1 sq. Km, the level will decrease by 3.6 m. The same volume of production at a diesel power plant with an efficiency of 40% will require 324 tons of diesel fuel. Thus, in cold climates, storing water energy for the winter requires high dams and large reservoirs.

In addition, on b O In the most part of the territory of Russia in the permafrost zone, small and medium-sized rivers freeze to the bottom in winter. In these parts, small hydroelectric power plants are useless in winter.

Large hydroelectric power plants are inevitably located at a considerable distance from many consumers, and the costs of building power lines and energy losses and heating wires should be taken into account. So, for the Transsiberian (Shilkinskaya) hydroelectric power station, the cost of building a transmission line-220 to Transsib with a length of only 195 km (very little for such a construction) exceeds 10% of all costs. The costs of building power transmission networks are so significant that in China the capacity of wind turbines, which have not yet been connected to the grid, exceeds the capacity of the entire energy sector in Russia east of Lake Baikal.

Thus, the prospects for hydropower depend on advances in technology and production, and storage and transmission of energy collectively.

Energy is a very capital intensive and therefore conservative industry. Some power plants are still in operation, especially hydroelectric power plants built at the beginning of the twentieth century. Therefore, to assess the prospects for half a century, instead of volumetric indicators of one or another type of energy, it is more important to look at the speed of progress in each technology. Suitable indicators of technical progress in generation are efficiency (or percentage of losses), unit capacity of units, cost of 1 kilowatt of generation power, cost of transmission of 1 kilowatt per 1 km, cost of storing 1 kilowatt-hour per day.

Energy storage

Storage electricity is a new industry in the energy sector. For a long time, people stored fuel (firewood, coal, then oil and oil products in tanks, gas in pressure tanks and underground storages). Then mechanical energy storage devices appeared (raised water, compressed air, super flywheels, etc.), among them pumped storage power plants remain the leader.

Outside the permafrost zones, the heat accumulated by solar water heaters can already be pumped underground to heat houses in winter. After the collapse of the USSR, experiments on the use of solar heat energy for chemical transformations ceased.

Known chemical batteries have a limited number of charge-discharge cycles. Supercapacitors have much more O longer durability, but their capacity is still insufficient. The accumulators of magnetic field energy in superconducting coils are being improved very quickly.

A breakthrough in the distribution of energy storage will occur when the price drops to $ 1 per kilowatt-hour. This will make it possible to widely use types of power generation that are not capable of operating continuously (solar, wind, tidal energy).

alternative energy

From technology generating the fastest change is happening now in solar energy. Solar panels allow you to produce energy in any required amount - from charging your phone to supplying megacities. The energy of the Sun on Earth is a hundred times more than other types of energy combined.

Wind farms have gone through a period of price declines and are at the stage of increasing tower size and generating capacity. In 2012, the capacity of all wind turbines in the world surpassed the capacity of all power plants in the USSR. However, in the 20s of the 21st century, the possibilities for improving wind turbines will be exhausted and solar energy will remain the engine of growth.

The technology of large hydroelectric power plants has passed its "finest hour", with every decade fewer and fewer large hydroelectric power plants are being built. The attention of inventors and engineers turns to tidal and wave power plants. However, tides and large waves are not everywhere, so their role will be insignificant. In the 21st century, small hydroelectric power plants will still be built, especially in Asia.

Getting electricity from the heat coming from the bowels of the Earth (geothermal energy) is promising, but only in certain areas. Fossil fuel combustion technologies will compete with solar and wind energy for several decades, especially where there is little wind and sun.

The fastest growing technologies are the production of combustible gas by fermentation of waste, pyrolysis or decomposition in plasma). Nevertheless, solid household waste will always require sorting (or better separate collection) before gasification.

TPP technologies

The efficiency of combined cycle power plants exceeded 60%. Re-equipment of all gas-fired CHPPs into steam-gas (more precisely, gas-steam) will increase electricity generation by more than 50% without increasing gas combustion.

Coal-fired and fuel oil CHPPs are much worse than gas-fired ones in terms of efficiency, the price of equipment, and the amount of harmful emissions. In addition, coal mining requires the most human lives per megawatt hour of electricity. Gasification of coal will prolong the existence of the coal industry for several decades, but the miner's profession is unlikely to survive until the 22nd century. It is very likely that steam and gas turbines will be replaced by rapidly improving fuel cells in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy bypassing the stages of obtaining thermal and mechanical energy. In the meantime, fuel cells are very expensive.

Nuclear power

The efficiency of nuclear power plants has grown the most slowly over the past 30 years. Perfection nuclear reactors, each of which costs several billion dollars, is very slow, and safety requirements drive up construction costs. The "nuclear renaissance" did not take place. Since 2006, the commissioning of nuclear power plants in the world is less than not only the commissioning of wind farms, but also solar ones. Nevertheless, it is likely that some nuclear power plants will survive until the 22nd century, although due to the problem of radioactive waste, their end is inevitable. Probably, thermonuclear reactors will work in the 21st century, but their small number, of course, "will not make the weather."

Until now, the possibility of realizing a "cold fusion" remains unclear. In principle, the possibility of a thermonuclear reaction without ultra-high temperatures and without the formation of radioactive waste does not contradict the laws of physics. But the prospects for obtaining cheap energy in this way are very dubious.

New technologies

And a little fantasy in the drawings. Now in Russia three new principles of isothermal conversion of heat into electricity are being tested. These experiments have a lot of skeptics: after all, the second law of thermodynamics is violated. So far, one tenth of a microwatt has been received. If successful, the clock and instrument batteries will appear first. Then light bulbs without wires. Each light bulb will be a source of coolness. Air conditioners will generate electricity instead of consuming it. The wires in the house will no longer be needed. It's too early to judge when science fiction comes true.

In the meantime, we need the wires. More than half of the price of a kilowatt-hour in Russia is accounted for by the cost of building and maintaining power lines and substations. More than 10% of the generated electricity is spent on heating wires. Reducing costs and losses allows "smart grids", which automatically manage many consumers and producers of energy. In many cases, it is better to transfer direct current than alternating current to reduce losses. In general, heating wires can be avoided by making them superconducting. However, room temperature superconductors have not been found and it is not known whether they will.

For sparsely populated areas with high transportation costs, the prevalence and availability of energy sources is also important.

The most common energy is from the Sun, but the Sun is not always visible (especially beyond the Arctic Circle). But in winter and at night the wind often blows, but not always and not everywhere. Nevertheless, wind-solar power plants already now allow to significantly reduce the consumption of diesel fuel in remote villages.

Some geologists claim that oil and gas are formed almost everywhere today from carbon dioxide that enters the ground with water. However, the use of hydraulic fracturing ("fracking") destroys natural places where oil and gas can accumulate. If this is true, then a small amount of oil and gas (ten times less than now) can be extracted almost everywhere without damage to the geochemical circulation of carbon, but exporting hydrocarbons means depriving yourself of the future.

The world's diversity of natural resources means that sustainable energy production requires a mix of different technologies to suit local conditions. In any case, an unlimited amount of energy on Earth cannot be obtained for both environmental and resource reasons. Therefore, the growth in the production of electricity, steel, nickel and other material things on Earth in the next century will inevitably be replaced by an increase in the production of intellectual and spiritual.

Igor Eduardovich Shkradyuk