People engage in economic activities under the influence. Human economic activity in natural areas. Human economic activity

ODiplom // GMU // 04/01/2014

The influence of natural conditions and natural resources on the territorial organization of society.

Natural factors have played and continue to play an important role in the life and development of human society.

The concept of "natural factors" usually includes the following categories: natural conditions, natural resources, landscape sustainability and ecological situation, which we will consider further mainly from the standpoint of management science.

Natural conditions are understood as the totality of the most important natural characteristics of the territory, reflecting the main features of the components of the natural environment or local natural phenomena.

Natural conditions directly affect the life and economic activities of the population. Depends on them: settlement of the population, development and distribution of productive forces, their specialization. They determine the cost and, consequently, the competitiveness of manufactured products, which is especially important for countries with a significant distribution of extreme natural features, including Russia.

Among the components of the natural environment, as a rule, the characteristics of natural conditions are considered, as a rule, the climate, the geological environment, surface and underground waters, soils, biota, and also landscapes.

An additional, but very important characteristic of natural conditions is the prevalence of local natural phenomena - adverse and dangerous natural phenomena, which include natural disasters and natural foci of infections.

The climatic features of the territory are manifested, first of all, in the ratio of heat and moisture.

The amount of heat required for the complete completion of the growing cycle (growth period) is called the biological sum of temperatures. Thermal resources determine the vigor of plant growth.

As the largest country in the world in terms of territory (about 17 million sq. Km), Russia is characterized by a significant variety of climatic conditions. At the same time, it should be emphasized that Russia as a whole is the northernmost and coldest country in the world, which affects its economy, economy, many aspects of population life and politics. The consequence of climatic conditions is permafrost, which covers an area of ​​almost 10 million square meters. km.

The specifics of permafrost must be taken into account when creating engineering structures: pipelines, bridges, railways and highways, power lines and other infrastructure facilities.

Humidification manifests itself primarily in the form of atmospheric precipitation, which is the second most important climatic factor. It is necessary for the entire period of plant life. Lack of moisture leads to a sharp decrease in yield. To identify the conditions of humidification of a particular territory, they operate with indicators of the amount of precipitation and the value of possible evaporation. In Russia, territories with excessive moisture prevail, i.e. excess of precipitation over evaporation.

The most important factors in the formation of the natural specificity of the region are the relief and geological structure. Influencing all components of the natural environment, the relief contributes to the appearance of differences in landscapes and at the same time itself is affected by natural zoning and altitudinal zonation. Engineering-geological conditions of the area reflect the composition, structure and dynamics of the upper horizons of the earth's crust in connection with the economic (engineering) human activities. On the basis of engineering and geological studies, the most favorable places for the placement of various types of economic objects are determined, stability calculations are carried out rocks at construction works, processing of banks after filling reservoirs, stability of dams, determine the requirements for the construction of structures in permafrost conditions, excessive surface moisture in seismic, karst, landslide areas, etc. Taking into account mining and geological conditions is vital in all spheres of economic activity, but especially in urban planning, transport and hydraulic engineering.

For agriculture and a number of other spheres of the economy, soil conditions are of paramount importance. Soil is a special natural body that is formed as a result of the transformation of the surface layer of the earth's crust under the influence of water, air and biota and combines the properties of living and inanimate nature... The value properties of the soil are reflected in its fertility - the ability to provide plants with assimilable nutrients and moisture and create conditions for harvesting.

In the natural sciences, biota is understood as a historically formed aggregate of living organisms inhabiting any large territory, i.e. fauna and flora of this area. The characterization of the natural conditions of the area also includes an assessment of flora and fauna.

In Russia, the main types of vegetation include tundra, forest, meadow and steppe. Forests have a special place among the different types of vegetation. Their ecological and economic value is high, as well as their unique environment-forming role on the planet.

Natural conditions affect almost all aspects of the daily life of the population, the peculiarities of their work, rest and life, people's health and the possibility of their adaptation to new, unusual conditions. The overall assessment of natural conditions is determined by the level of their comfort for humans. To measure it, up to 30 parameters are used (duration of climatic periods, temperature contrast, climate humidity, wind regime, the presence of natural foci of infectious diseases, etc.)

According to the level of comfort, there are:

1.Extreme territories (polar regions, high-mountainous regions of high latitudes, etc.);

2. uncomfortable territories - areas with harsh natural conditions, unsuitable for the life of a non-indigenous, unadapted population; subdivided into cold humid (arctic deserts, tundra), arid territories (deserts and semi-deserts), as well as mountainous areas;

3. hypercomfortable territories and areas with limited favorable natural conditions for the resettlement population; subdivided into boreal (temperate forests) and semiarid (temperate steppes);

4. preferable territories - areas with slight deviations from the natural optimum for the formation of a permanent population;

5.comfortable areas - areas with almost ideal conditions external environment for the life of the population; are typical for the southern part of the temperate zone, in Russia they are represented by areas of insignificant area.

Natural conditions are of paramount importance for those branches of the national economy that operate under the open sky. These are agriculture, forestry and water management. Almost all types of construction are highly dependent on natural conditions. The natural parameters of the territory have a significant impact on the organization of municipal utilities.

In the north and in other regions with extreme natural conditions, there is a need to create special technical means adapted to these conditions, for example with an increased safety margin.

A specific form of natural conditions are adverse and dangerous natural phenomena inherent in certain localities (NOA) or natural disasters.

The most common and at the same time dangerous for humans natural disasters include earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes and storms, tornadoes, typhoons, landslides, landslides, mudflows, avalanches, forest and peat fires. Typical examples of unfavorable natural phenomena are droughts, frosts, severe frosts, thunderstorms, heavy or prolonged rains, hail and some others.

Vital in many cases, protection from NOA inevitably leads to a significant increase in the cost of building and maintaining cities and communications; technologies adapted to increased loads or capable of preventing hazardous impacts.

Natural resources are represented by those elements of the natural environment that can be used in the process of material production at this stage of the development of society. They are used to obtain industrial and food raw materials, power generation, etc.

As the basis of any production, they are subdivided into:

1. subsoil resources (these include all types of mineral raw materials and fuels);

2. biological, land and water resources;

3. resources of the World Ocean;

4. recreational resources.

On the basis of exhaustion, natural resources are divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible.

Exhaustible resources are subdivided into non-renewable and renewable ones. Inexhaustible natural resources include water, climatic and space resources, resources of the World Ocean.

Mineral resources remain an indispensable foundation for the development of any society. By the nature of industrial and sectoral use, they are divided into three large groups:

- fuel or combustible - liquid fuel (oil), gaseous (suitable gas), solid (coal, oil shale, peat), nuclear fuel (uranium and thorium). These are the main sources of energy for most types of transport, thermal and nuclear power plants, blast furnaces. All of them except nuclear fuel used in the chemical industry;

- metal ores - ores of ferrous, non-ferrous, rare, noble metals, rare and rare earth metals. They form the basis for the development of modern mechanical engineering;

- non-metallic - mining chemical raw materials (asbestos, graphite,

- mica, talc), building materials (clays, sands, limestones),

- agrochemical raw materials (sulfur, salts, phosphorites, and apatites), etc.

The economic-geographic assessment of mineral resources is a complex concept and includes three types of assessments.

It includes: a quantitative assessment of individual resources (for example, coal in tons, gas, wood in cubic meters, etc.), its value increases as the exploration of the resource increases and j decreases as it is exploited; technological, technical, (identifies the suitability of resources for economic purposes, their condition and knowledge, the degree of exploration and availability) and cost (in monetary terms).

The total cost of explored and estimated mineral raw materials is 28.6 (or 30.0) trillion US dollars, of which one third is gas (32.2%), 23.3 is coal, 15.7 is oil, and the forecast potential is USD 140.2 trillion (structure: 79.5% - solid fuel, 6.9 -gas, 6.5-oil).

The natural resource potential of Russia is distributed unevenly across the territory. The main and most promising sources of natural resources are located mainly in the East and North of the country and are remote from the developed regions at very significant distances. The eastern regions account for 90% of the reserves of all fuel resources, more than 80% of hydropower, a high proportion of reserves of non-ferrous and rare metal ores.

Nature has a huge impact on human economic activity. Climatic features, relief, inland waters, permafrost, soils largely predetermine the specialization of agriculture. Natural conditions affect the development of many industries (mining, forestry, hydropower, etc.).

Human economic activity

For non-traditional types of energy - wind, tidal, geothermal, solar, the natural factor is generally decisive. The natural specificity of the territory affects the features of construction, the development of transport and resort facilities.

To prove this, let us give as an example the types of human agricultural activities in the tundra and steppe zones.

In the tundra zone, located in the subarctic climatic zone, where the average July temperature barely reaches + 8 ° C and the entire territory is covered by permafrost with an abundance of swamps and absolutely infertile waterlogged and frozen tundra-gley soils, crop production in open ground is impossible.

The most important branches of agricultural specialization here are the traditional occupations of the inhabitants of the Far North - reindeer husbandry, hunting and fishing.

In the steppe zone, located in the southern regions of the temperate climatic zone, where the average July temperatures are + 22 ° C, with insufficient moisture, fertile chernozem soils, plant growing is becoming the leading branch of agricultural specialization.

Agriculture here is a developed and diversified form of activity. In the steppe zone, wheat, corn, sugar beets, sunflowers, essential oil crops are grown, vegetable growing, melon growing, horticulture and, partly, viticulture are developed.

Among the branches of animal husbandry, dairy and meat and meat and dairy cattle breeding, horse breeding, pig breeding, sheep breeding and poultry breeding have developed here.

Nature influences human economic activity.

Prove this by comparing the types of economic activities in different natural areas. For which types of economic activities are natural conditions especially important? wikipedia
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With the emergence and improvement of man, the evolutionary processes of the biosphere have undergone a significant change. At the dawn of his appearance, man had a predominantly local impact on the environment. This was expressed, first of all, in meeting the minimum needs for food and housing.

Ancient hunters, with a decrease in the number of game animals, went to hunt to other places. Ancient farmers and pastoralists, if the soil was depleted or there was less forage, they reclaimed new lands. At the same time, the population of the planet was small. There was almost no industrial production... The insignificant amount of waste and pollution generated at that time as a result of human activity was not dangerous.

Everything could be utilized due to the destructive function of living matter.

The growth of the planet's population, the successful development of animal husbandry, agriculture and scientific and technological progress determined the further development of mankind.

More than 7 billion people live on Earth now, by 2030.

this number will grow to 10 billion, and by 2050 - to 12.5 billion. Providing the world's population with food and energy resources is already an acute problem. Today, countries with constant food shortages are home to about 70% of the world's population. Non-renewable natural resources are declining catastrophically.

For example, according to forecasts of scientists, mankind will use up all reserves of metals within the next 200 years.

Economic activity man on the present stage increasingly demonstrates negative examples of impact on the biosphere. These include: pollution environment, depletion of natural resources, land desertification, soil erosion. Natural communities are also disturbed, forests are being cut down, rare species of plants and animals disappear.

Environmental pollution

Environmental pollution- the entry into the environment of new, uncharacteristic for it solid, liquid and gaseous substances or the excess of their natural level in the environment, which has a negative impact on the biosphere.

Air pollution

Clean air is essential for the life of all living organisms.

In many countries, the problem of keeping it clean is a state priority. The main cause of air pollution is the combustion of fossil fuels. Of course, he still plays a leading role in providing energy to all sectors of the economy. Today, the vegetation of the planet is no longer able to fully assimilate the products of combustion of liquid and solid fuels.

Carbon oxides (CO and CO2) released into the atmosphere as a result of fuel combustion are the cause of the greenhouse effect.

Sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3), resulting from the combustion of fuels containing sulfur, interact with water vapor in the atmosphere. The end products of this reaction are solutions of sulfuric (H2SO3) and sulfuric (H2SO4) acids.

These acids fall to the surface of the earth with precipitation, cause acidification of the soil, and lead to human diseases. Forest ecosystems, especially conifers, are most affected by acid precipitation. They have the destruction of chlorophyll, underdevelopment of pollen grains, drying and falling of needles.

Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2), when exposed to ultraviolet rays, are involved in the formation of free radicals in the atmosphere.

Nitric oxides lead to the development of a number of pathological conditions in humans and animals. These gases, for example, irritate the respiratory tract, cause pulmonary edema, etc.

Chlorine compounds make a significant contribution to the destruction of the planet's ozone layer.

For example, a single chlorine free radical can destroy up to 100,000 ozone molecules, which is the cause of ozone holes in the atmosphere.

The causes of radioactive pollution of the atmosphere are accidents at nuclear power plants (for example, at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986).

Nuclear weapons testing and improper waste disposal also contribute to this process. nuclear power... The radioactive particles that have entered the atmosphere are scattered over long distances, polluting the soil, air, and water bodies.

Transport should also be mentioned as a source of air pollution. Engine exhaust gases internal combustion contain a whole range of contaminants.

Among them are oxides of carbon and nitrogen, soot, as well as heavy metals and compounds with a carcinogenic effect.

Hydrosphere pollution

Freshwater shortage is a global environmental problem. Along with the waste and scarcity of water, the growing pollution of the hydrosphere is of concern.

The main cause of water pollution is the direct discharge of industrial waste and municipal waste water into aquatic ecosystems.

In this case, biological contaminants (for example, pathogenic bacteria) also enter the aquatic environment with chemicals.

When heated waste water is discharged, physical (thermal) pollution of the hydrosphere occurs. Such discharges reduce the amount of oxygen in the water, increase the toxicity of impurities and often lead to death (death of aquatic organisms).

Soil pollution

In connection with human economic activity, chemicals enter the soil that disrupt soil-forming processes and reduce fertility.

Soil contamination occurs with excessive use in agriculture mineral fertilizers and pesticides. Together with organic fertilizers(manure) biological pollutants can enter the soil.

What human economic activity has changed the face of the steppes

Depletion of natural resources

Natural resources are the means of subsistence of people, which are not created by their labor, but are found in nature.

The main problem of their state of the art- reduction in the number of exhaustible and deterioration in the quality of inexhaustible natural resources. This is especially true for animal and plant resources.

Habitat destruction, environmental pollution, overuse of natural resources, poaching significantly reduce the species diversity of plants and animals.

During the existence of mankind, about 70% of forest lands have been cut down and destroyed. This became the reason for the extinction of plant species inhabiting herbaceous and shrub layers. They could not survive in direct sunlight.

Due to deforestation, the animal world... Animal species that had close ties with tree layers either disappeared or migrated to other places.

It is believed that since 1600, as a result of human activity, about 250 species of animals and 1000 species of plants have completely disappeared from the face of the Earth. About 1,000 species of animals and 25,000 species of plants are currently under threat of destruction.

Animal and plant resources are capable of permanent regeneration.

If the rate of their use does not exceed the rate of natural renewal, then these resources can exist for a very long time.

However, the speed of their renewal is different. Animal populations can recover their numbers in a few years. Forests grow in several decades. And soils that have lost their fertility restore it very slowly - over several millennia.

A very important resource problem for the planet is the preservation of the quality of fresh water.

As you know, the total reserves of water on the planet are inexhaustible. However, fresh water accounts for only about 3% of the entire hydrosphere. Moreover, only 1% of fresh water is suitable for direct human consumption without preliminary purification. About 1 billion people on Earth do not have constant access to fresh water. drinking water... Therefore, humanity must consider fresh water as an exhaustible natural resource. The problem of fresh water is aggravated every year due to the shallowing of rivers and lakes as a result of reclamation measures.

The consumption of water for the needs of agriculture and industry is increasing, water bodies are polluted with industrial and household waste.

Lack of fresh water and its poor quality also affect human health.

It is known that the most dangerous infectious diseases (cholera, dysentery, etc.) occur in places where access to clean water is difficult.

Desertification

Desertification- a set of processes that lead to the loss of a continuous vegetation cover by the natural community with the impossibility of its restoration without human participation.

Desertification is mainly caused by anthropogenic factors. These are deforestation, irrational use of water resources for irrigation, etc. For example, excessive cutting of woody mountain vegetation causes natural disasters - mudflows, landslides, avalanches.

An excessive load on pastures with an increase in the scale of livestock production can also lead to desertification. The vegetation cover eaten by animals does not have time to recover, and
the soil is subject to various types of erosion.

Soil erosion is the destruction of the fertile soil layer under the influence of wind and water.

Soil erosion occurs due to the massive inclusion of more and more lands by humans in active land use.

To the greatest extent, desertification is characteristic of regions with an arid climate (deserts, semi-deserts) - countries of Africa and Asia (especially China).

Today this problem is of an interethnic nature.

Therefore, the UN adopted the International Convention to Combat Desertification, which was signed by almost 200 states.

The main consequences of human economic activity are environmental pollution, depletion of natural resources and land desertification.

Prevention of the destructive influence of the anthropogenic factor on the biosphere is today an important common human problem, in the solution of which every inhabitant of the Earth should participate.

Steppe- a plain in temperate and subtropical zones, overgrown with herbaceous vegetation.

The steppes play an important role in the life of nature in Russia. They are located in the south of the country, in particular, near the Black Sea and the Caucasus, as well as in the Ob valley and in Transbaikalia.

The soil is chernozem, which most often lies on a layer of loess-like clays with a significant lime content.

This black soil in the northern strip of the steppe reaches the greatest thickness and obesity, as it sometimes contains up to 16% of humus. To the south, the black soil becomes poorer in humus, becomes lighter and turns into chestnut soils, and then completely disappears.

Steppe climate

In the steppe regions, the climate is temperate continental, winters are cold, sunny and snowy, and summers are hot and dry. The average temperature in January is −19 ° C, in July - +19 ° C, with typical deviations up to −35 ° C and +35 ° C. The climate of the steppes is also characterized by a long frost-free period, high average annual and average monthly temperatures.

Human activities in the steppes

Little precipitation falls here - from 300 to 450 mm.

Vegetable world

The vegetation consists mainly of grasses, growing in small tufts, between which bare soil is visible. The most common are various types of feather grass, especially feather grass with silky white feathery awns. It often covers large areas entirely. On very thick steppes, feather grass species, which are much larger in size, develop.

On dry barren steppes, smaller feather grass grows. After feather grass, the most important role is played by various species of the genus Tonkonog ( Koeleria). They are found everywhere in the steppe, but play a special role east of the Ural Mountains; some species are excellent food for sheep.

The stock of plant matter in the steppes is much less than in the forest zone.

See also: Steppe plants

Animal world

Both in species composition and in some ecological features, the fauna of the steppe has much in common with the fauna of the desert.

Just like in the desert, the steppe is characterized by high aridity, only slightly less than in the desert. Animals are active in summer, mainly at night. Many of them are drought-resistant or active in spring, when there is still moisture after winter. Of the ungulates, typical species are distinguished by their sharp eyesight and the ability to run quickly and for a long time; from rodents - building complex burrows (ground squirrels, marmots, mole rats) and jumping species (jerboas).

Most of the birds fly away for the winter. Common for the steppe are the steppe eagle, bustard, steppe harrier, steppe kestrel, and lark. Reptiles and insects are numerous.

Soil

The climate of the steppes is very dry, so the lands of the steppes suffer from a lack of moisture. Due to the fertility of the land, there are many arable lands and places for grazing livestock, so the steppes suffer.

The soil in the steppe is black soil, most often lying on a layer of loess-like clays, with a significant lime content. This chernozem in the northern strip of the steppe reaches the greatest thickness and obesity, as it sometimes contains up to 16% of humus. To the south, the black soil becomes less, it becomes lighter and turns into chestnut soils, and then completely disappears.

Economic activity

Human economic activity in the steppe zone is limited by natural conditions.

Distributed cattle breeding and agriculture... Mainly grown cereals, vegetables, melons culture. But, often, irrigation is required.

Bred cattle of meat and dairy breeds, sheep and horses... Settlements are spread along water bodies - rivers or artificial ponds.

The steppe is an excellent area for farming, both for plant growing, for the cultivation of crops such as wheat, corn, sunflower, and for grazing, thanks to the presence of grasses.

Agricultural activity is traditionally developed in the steppe regions.

Role in literature

Nikolai Gogol described the steppe very vividly and picturesquely in his story "Taras Bulba":

The plow has never crossed the immeasurable waves of wild plants; only the horses, hiding in them, as in the forest, trampled them. Nothing in nature could be better: the entire surface of the earth seemed like a green-golden ocean, on which millions of different colors splashed.

Blue, blue, and purple hairs shone through the thin, tall stalks of the grass; the yellow gorse jumped up with its pyramidal top; white porridge with umbrella-shaped caps dazzled on the surface; brought in, God knows where, an ear of wheat was poured in the thick of it. Partridges prowled under their thin roots, their necks outstretched.

The air was filled with a thousand different bird whistles. In the sky the hawks stood motionless, their wings spread out and their eyes fixed motionlessly into the grass. The cry of a cloud of wild geese moving aside echoed God knows in what distant lake.

A seagull rose from the grass with measured waves and luxuriously bathed in the blue waves of air; there she disappeared in the air and only flickers like a single black dot! There she turned over her wings and flashed before the sun! Damn you, steppes, how good you are! "

Khomutovskaya steppe.

A herd of horses grazes in freedom

CC © wikiredia.ru

Economic use of the steppe zone

The steppe zone, together with the forest-steppe, is the main granary of the country, an area of ​​cultivation of wheat, corn, sunflower, millet, melons, and in the west - industrial horticulture and viticulture.

Agriculture in the steppe zone is combined with developed animal husbandry (cattle, horse breeding, sheep breeding and poultry breeding). In the west of the zone, the development of land for arable land can be considered complete: the area plowed up has reached 70-80%. In Kazakhstan and Siberia, the percentage of plowed-up is much lower. And although here not all the land resources suitable for plowing have been exhausted, the percentage of plowing of the Kazakh and Siberian steppes will remain further lower than in the European steppes due to the increased salinity and stony soil.

The reserves of arable land in the steppe zone are insignificant.

In the northern, chernozemic subzone, they amount to about 1.5 million hectares (development of solonetzic chernozems, meadow chernozem and floodplain soils). In the southern subzone, plowing of 4-6 million hectares of solonetzic chestnut soils is possible, but this will require complex anti-solonetz measures, and irrigation is required to obtain sustainable yields.

In the steppe zone, the problem of combating droughts and wind erosion of soils is more acute than in the forest-steppe. For this reason, snow retention, field protection afforestation, and artificial irrigation are of particular importance here.

The zone's rich soil and climatic resources are complemented by a variety of minerals.

Among their deposits of iron ores (Krivoy Rog, Sokolovsko-Sarbayskoe, Lisakovskoe, Ayatskoe, Ekibastuz), manganese (Nikopol), coal (Karaganda), natural gas (Stavropol, Orenburg), chromites (Mugodzhary), rock salt (Sol- Iletsk), phosphorites (Aktyubinsk).

Located on the territory of one of the most developed natural zones by man, many mineral deposits are well studied and widely developed, contributing to the industrial development of the steppe regions of the USSR.

Literature.

Economic activity of people in the steppe. Help!

Milkov F.N. Natural zones of the USSR / F.N. Milkov. - M.: Mysl, 1977 .-- 296 p.

More articles about the steppe

Economic activity is a set of various industries that can interact with each other and are aimed at satisfying human needs.

How did the business start?

Economic activity must be continuous. This is one of the basic necessary principles for the maintenance of human life. The very first economic activity can be considered agriculture, when a person learned to grow plants and domesticate animals. Already in the Stone Age, with the emergence of the division of labor, trade appeared.

Trade is the exchange of goods and materials. Initially, it arose as an exchange of surplus products or manufactured goods. In the process of such a relationship, a person got rid of unnecessary products or things, and in return received the necessary products. Before the advent of money, trade was natural, but with the advent of money, commodity-money relations arose. Since its inception, trade has had a tremendous impact on social life.

Economic activities

There are several types of economic activities:

Rice. 1. Agricultural activities.

The development of agriculture depends on the geographic location of a particular country and its climate.

• In agriculture, there are livestock and crop production ... Crop breeding is engaged in the selection of cultivated plants, breeding species resistant to external conditions. Livestock breeding is engaged in breeding livestock in order to obtain products: meat, milk, eggs, wool. In animal husbandry, there are: poultry, cattle, pig, sheep. Land plays an important role in economic activity. The future harvest depends on the fertility of the soil, therefore, in areas with a harsh climate, agricultural activity is difficult.
• Extractive and processing industry is also one of the economic activities. The industry includes fuel, light, food, timber industry, non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, as well as mechanical engineering and other industries.

Rice. 2. Timber industry.

• Building plays an important role in the field of financial and economic activities. With the increase in the growth rate of cities and the resettlement of people there, high-quality and inexpensive housing was required. Construction is engaged not only in the construction of new facilities, but also in the reconstruction of old ones.
• Services sector provides a person with material and non-material services. The material includes - communications, transport, consumer services, the intangible - health care, trade.

Rice. 3. Healthcare.

• There are also industries such as transport, healthcare, science, education ... These industries have a good outlook for development. After all, huge funds are already being invested in science, health care and education for their further development.

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Human life activity is studied by a wide variety of sciences, representing separate branches of knowledge, each of which can be a complete master in a limited sphere, within the limits of research precisely delimited to it.

Economic theory studies the economic activity of people.

Economic activity is an expedient activity, i.e. efforts of people in the process of management, based on a well-known calculation and aimed at meeting various kinds of their needs.

The vital activity of a person in the process of managing is manifested, on the one hand, in the waste of energy, resources, etc., and on the other, in the corresponding replenishment of the life expenditure, while the economic entity (that is, a person in economic activity) seeks to act rationally, that is, by comparing costs and benefits (which does not exclude mistakes in making economic decisions). And this behavior is explained as follows.

An essential feature of human life and activity is dependence on the material world. Some material goods (air, water, sunlight) are in such an amount and in such a form that their use is available to a person everywhere, at all times. Meeting the needs for them does not require any effort or donation. These are free and gratuitous goods. As long as such conditions persist, these benefits and needs for them are not the concerns and calculations of a person.

Other material goods are available in limited quantities (various kinds of "rarity"). To satisfy the existing needs in them and to have them in an accessible quantity, efforts are needed to obtain and adapt them to the needs. These goods are called household goods. They are the ones that are of interest to a practical business executive and an economist-theoretician. The loss of these benefits is a loss, damage, the reimbursement of which requires new efforts, costs, donations. The well-being of people depends on them, so the business executive treats them carefully, economically, and prudently.

The economic activity of people is a very complex and intricate complex of various phenomena and processes, in which economic theory distinguishes four stages: production itself, distribution, exchange and consumption. Production is the process of creating material and spiritual benefits necessary for the existence and development of a person. Distribution is the process of determining the proportion, quantity, proportion in which each economic person takes part in the product produced. Exchange is the process of movement of material goods and services from one subject to another and a form of social communication between producers and consumers, mediating social metabolism. Consumption is the process of using the results of production to meet specific needs. All these stages are interconnected and interact (Fig. 2.1.1).

But before characterizing the relationship between these four stages, it is important to note that all production is a social and continuous process; constantly repeating itself, it develops historically - it goes from the simplest forms (the extraction of food by primitive man with the help of primitive means) to modern automated high-performance production.

With all the dissimilarity of these types of production (both from the point of view of the material basis and from the point of view of social form), one can single out the common points inherent in production as such.

Production in general is the process of man's influence on objects and forces of nature in order to adapt them to the satisfaction of certain needs.

Although production in general is an abstraction, abstraction is reasonable, because it really separates the general, fixes it and therefore saves us from repetition.

Any production is characterized by the interaction of three simple elements: labor, objects of labor and means of labor.

Human labor plays a decisive role in the production process. It is a fundamental condition for the life of society. It is labor that has an active, creative, constructive role. Labor is a source of wealth. All material goods and services are the result of human labor. Even the ancients understood the special role of labor. For example, the words of Horace are known: "Nothing is given to mortals without great difficulty" (Fig. 2.1.2).

The interaction of labor and means of production is realized through technology and organization of production. Technology reflects the technical side of production and is a way of human influence on objects of labor, based on the use of mechanical, physical, chemical properties means of production. The organization of production ensures the unity, interaction of all workers involved in production, interconnected by the division of labor, as well as the organization of the use of labor and means of production. Through such forms as specialization, combination, cooperation, concentration of production, etc., the interconnection of production in sectoral and territorial directions develops. Improving a complex and flexible system of organizational ties is an important condition for economic growth.

The social nature of production, which gives rise to the existence of the concept of "social production", is explained by the fact that the production process is carried out not by isolated economic entities, but in society in the system of social division of labor and specialization.

The social division of labor means that in any more or less numerous community of people, none of the participants in the economy can live at the expense of complete self-sufficiency with all production resources, all economic benefits. Various groups producers are engaged in certain types of economic activity, which means specialization in the production of certain goods.

It is precisely because of the organization, cooperation and division of labor that production has a social character. Since production is always social in nature, people, regardless of their will and consciousness, enter into certain relations with each other in it, and not only according to the systemic organization of production factors, but also according to the social form of participation in it and the nature of the appropriation of its results.

Today, the importance of energy and information is seriously increasing. Until recently, mechanical and especially electric motors were the main driving force and the main source of energy used in production. In 1924, at the International Energy Conference in London, the German physicist O. Wiener calculated that the mechanical engines of the whole world, at a time when no more than 2 billion people lived on earth, replaced labor of about 12 billion people. Since then, the power of mechanical engines on the globe has increased significantly, more powerful energy sources such as atomic, intranuclear, laser, energy of chemical processes, etc. have begun to be used. It is estimated that by the end of the XXI century.

nuclear power plants will provide up to 45% of all electricity in the world. Information is of great importance today, which acts as a condition for the operation of a modern system of machines, which includes control device, and the conditions for improving the quality, qualifications of the workforce, as well as a necessary prerequisite for the successful organization of the production process itself.

The correlation and interconnection of the four stages of human economic activity is expressed in the following.

Production is the starting point of economic activity, consumption is the final point, distribution and exchange, mediating stages that link production with consumption. Although production is the primary stage, it serves consumption. Consumption forms the final goal and motive of production, since in consumption the product is destroyed, it dictates a new order for production. A satisfied need gives rise to a new need. The development of needs is the driving force behind the development of production. But the emergence of the needs themselves is due to production - the emergence of new products causes a corresponding need for this product and its consumption.

The distribution and exchange of the product depends on production, because only what is produced can be distributed and exchanged. But, in turn, they are not passive in relation to production, but have an active opposite effect on production. In its most general form, according to the accepted accounting methods, the structure social production can be represented as follows (Fig. 2.1.3).

Material production, according to official statistics, includes industries and enterprises where material goods are produced: industry, agriculture and forestry, construction, as well as industries that provide material services: transport, communications, communal and personal subsidiary farming. Such a solution to the issue is far from indisputable, and positions are expressed in the economic literature that deny the legitimacy of classifying the branches of the national economy that represent the sphere of circulation (i.e., trade, public catering, material and technical supply, sales and procurement) to material production on the basis of, what their main function- buying and selling does not create a new product and does not increase the value of the product.

The sphere of material production should be distinguished from the non-production sphere, or the sphere of non-material production. It includes: health care, education, science (discussion), culture, art, housing, utilities, consumer services, management, financing and lending, passenger transport, service communication, sports, etc.

Labor expended in the sphere of material production and creating material wealth acts as productive labor.

Unproductive labor is labor that does not contribute to the creation of material wealth.

Productive and unproductive labor is socially useful labor necessary for the development of society, affecting the increase in the efficiency of the aggregate social product of labor.

Not only things, material goods, but also services of a material (repair, transport, storage) and non-material nature (services of education, health care, culture, everyday life) can be socially useful. Production needs are met by scientific, informational, transport and other services. The totality of all services forms a service sector.

Production and personal services are an integral part of the social product, and the labor expended on their production acts as a part of productive, socially useful labor.

HTP has led to the rapid development of the service sector, which does not create an independent material product, but performs important social functions. This area includes production and social infrastructure.

For modern reproduction, the sphere of military technology also plays an essential role. In addition, in some countries (with a mono-specialization - for example, oil), there is also a zero division - oil production.

The minimum acceptable for social reproduction is the presence of two divisions in reproduction: Iu II. I is the production of means of production, II is the production of consumer goods. This division is due to the fact that the means of production and consumer goods perform significantly different functions in the reproduction process. If the first serve for the reproduction of predominantly material, material elements of the productive forces, then the second - for the reproduction of the personal factor of production.

All of the above processes are carried out under certain conditions, in a certain situation, in an economic environment.

The doctrine of the environment of the human economy distinguishes between the natural and social environment. This is due to the fact that in their economic activities people are limited and conditioned: first, by nature; secondly, a public organization.

The natural environment determines the natural conditions of management. These include climatic and soil conditions, conditions of heredity, population size, quality of food, housing, clothing, etc. We already know that a person carries out his activities in conditions of natural limited resources. So, it is known that the area of ​​the globe is 510.2 million square meters. km, and most (3/4) falls on the sea. At the same time, the soil conditions of the earth's crust are different, the volume of minerals is limited, the flora and fauna (forests, furs, etc.) are diverse - all this determines certain conditions of management.

The climatic conditions of human life are also varied. So, the hot zone of the earth's surface is 49.3%, moderate - 38.5, cold - 12.2%. The climate determines the duration and effectiveness of agricultural work. So, the duration of agricultural work in Europe ranges from 11 to 4 months (in Russia - 4 months, in Germany - 7, Southern England - 11 months). The duration also determines the freezing time of navigable rivers, which will certainly affect the results of economic activities (the Volga freezes for 150 days, the Rhine for 26 days, and the rivers of the Arkhangelsk region for 200 days). According to Humboldt's calculations, a field of bananas growing in southern latitudes can feed 133 times more people than a field of wheat of equal size. The amount of precipitation also affects the yield. So, in the Tula region, a relatively dry climate (no more than 200 mm of rain), in rainy years, the yield increases by almost 1.5 times. Regions with average precipitation (from 250 to 1000 mm) are considered the most favorable for economic activity, these include: Central and Western Europe, Eastern China, and the eastern half of the United States.

Heredity plays a very significant role in achieving certain economic results. In ancient Sparta, children of weak physique were killed, and on the island of Condia there was a law according to which young people of both sexes, distinguished by beauty and strength, were selected. They were forced to marry in order to improve the "breed" of people. Science today certainly recognizes the law of heredity. Children inherit not only external similarities, but also mental qualities, not only health, but also diseases (diabetes, arthritis, cancer, sclerosis, epilepsy, hysteria, etc.). Poverty associated with poor nutrition, poor hygienic conditions are reflected not only in the growth of mortality and diseases of the present, but also of the future generation. It is very important to remember that all reforms to improve the situation of the population have a beneficial effect not immediately, but gradually.

From the standpoint of the modern science of human life in the natural environment, it is necessary to take into account the relationship between man and space. The idea of ​​the life and activity of people as a cosmic phenomenon has existed for a long time. At the end of the 17th century. Dutch scientist H. Huygens in his work "Cosmoteoros" noted that life is a cosmic phenomenon. This idea was comprehensively developed in the works of the Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky about the noosphere. The noosphere is a new phenomenon on Earth. In it, for the first time, a person becomes the largest geological force, because with his work and thought he can radically rebuild his life, change the conditions of life in comparison with the past. The power of a man on Earth, according to this teaching, is connected not with his matter, but with his brain, with his mind and directed by this mind - his labor.

It is possible to separate a person from nature only mentally. Not a single living organism is in a free state on Earth. All of them are inextricably and continuously connected, first of all, by nutrition and breathing with the material and energy environment surrounding them. Outside it, in natural conditions, they cannot exist, and even more so they cannot engage in economic activities. Materially, the Earth and other planets are not alone, but in communication. Cosmic matter falls on the Earth and affects the life of people, and the earth (the results of this life) goes into outer space, the so-called "breath of the Earth". The state of the biosphere is entirely dependent on life on Earth. Strengthening consciousness, thoughts in the economic activities of people, the creation of forms that increasingly enhance the influence of life on the environment, lead to a new state of the biosphere - the noosphere (the kingdom of the human mind).

The biological unity and equality of all people is a law of nature. Hence, the realization of the ideal of equality, and economic life - the principle of social injustice is natural and inevitable. One cannot go against the conclusions of science with impunity. This is what determines the inevitability of reforms in economic activity.

In the XXI century. mankind by its life activity becomes a single whole, for today there is not a single corner of the Earth where a person could not live and work, communication, communication with the help of radio, television, computers, information, etc. has increased. All this is due to technology created by the mind person. In these conditions, universal human values ​​are brought to the fore, and the main problems in the development of the world economy are global universal ones.

Importance and significance more natural environment economic activities are unconditional, but their influence should not be exaggerated, because a person is so cunningly created that his body adapts to certain conditions, people's knowledge of the properties of materials develops, the ability to use them on the basis of the development of science and technology, the growth of the level of social culture, which can make it easier or more difficult for them to fight nature.

Economic activity of people is carried out within the framework of certain rules of the game, the main of which is property relations. It is these relations that determine the social environment of economic activity, which is reflected in the effectiveness of management. Adam Smith wrote that "a person who is unable to acquire any property cannot have any interests, as there is more and work less." The motivation for work is either extremely weak or completely absent. This theoretical position is confirmed by the management practice of the "post-communist" countries, where until recently "no-man's" public property prevailed. Private property creates conditions for free competition and encourages proactive, creative and more productive work.

Significant influence on the conditions of economic activity is exerted by various kinds state organizations establishing laws, business rules, regulating conditions labor activity as well as societies, partnerships, parties and trade unions demanding better working conditions. Replacing the absolutely bureaucratic economic system with free institutions seems to "cleanse" the social atmosphere, freeing business executives from the oppressive sense of connectedness and subordination, awakening in them personal initiative and business scope, more calm and correct, defending their interests.

Property relations give rise to differentiation of producers, poor and rich appear. Upbringing, education and average life expectancy in these social groups are different. Upbringing and education, contributing to physical and mental development, improve the human body, make it more capable of work and affect heredity. Therefore, while studying at universities, you, dear students, benefit not only yourself, but also your children, grandchildren, descendants! The French physiologist Florence argued that under favorable conditions, a person at the end of the 19th century. could live 100 years, while the average life expectancy then was 40 years (for comparison: today in France - 76 years, in Russia - 69.5 years). The French doctor Dipson showed that the average life expectancy of the rich at the end of the 19th century. was 57 years old, and the poor - 37 years old.

The property relations largely determine the working conditions. Even the ancients understood that a person cannot work without rest. The commandment of Moses says that the seventh day of the week should be dedicated to rest: "Do not do any work on that day, neither you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your servant, nor your servant girl, nor your ox, nor your donkey, nor anyone thy cattle, nor the stranger that is in thy gates. " In addition to the Sabbath day, the Jews also had a Sabbath year (every seventh and 50-year anniversary). At this time, it was commanded to forgive debts on pain of great punishment.

During the emergence of capitalism, the working day was 15, 16, 17 or more hours a day. Today our farmers work the same.

The desire for an "unreasonable" increase in the working day is caused by the erroneous belief that profit depends on the length of the working day. There is no doubt that a person can and should work without damage to his body, only what is known, a certain amount of hours a day. It is assumed that during the day a person should work 8 hours, sleep 8 hours, rest 8 hours. If these boundaries are exceeded, then the person shortens the life period during which he will be able to work, and becomes a victim of premature death. Excessive physical stress causes expansion of the lung tissue, large veins are pressed down, less blood flows to the heart, blood pressure increases, heart palpitations, liver and spleen disorders. Prolonged sitting position with the torso tilted forward leads to circulatory disorders in the chest, abdominal cavity, causes breathing difficulties, digestive problems, hemorrhoids, cramps, stomach pains, etc., constant standing during work is no less harmful.

Thus, the behavior of the "economic man" is determined not only by natural, but also social conditions, and therefore, not only by social laws, but also by the laws of biology, the cosmos and the entire system of laws of natural science. The difference between economic laws is that the former are manifested through the activities of people, which are determined by consciousness, usually appear on average as tendencies and are (most of them) historically transient.

All natural zones have long been mastered by man. He is actively engaged in economic activities, thereby changing the characteristics of natural areas. How does human economic activity differ in natural zones?

Polar deserts

These are the most unsuitable regions for the economy of Russia. The soil here is permafrost and covered with ice. Therefore, neither animal husbandry nor crop production is possible here. There is only fishing here.

Arctic foxes live in coastal areas, whose fur is highly valued in the world. Arctic foxes are actively hunted, which can lead to the extinction of this species.

Rice. 1. The most unsuitable for farming natural zone - the Arctic desert

Tundra and forest-tundra

Natural conditions are not much better than in the polar deserts. Only indigenous people live in the tundra. They are engaged in hunting, fishing, reindeer herding. What changes did the person make here?

The soil of these areas is rich in gas and oil. Therefore, they are actively mined here. This leads to significant environmental pollution.

Forest zone

This includes taiga, mixed and deciduous forests. The climate here is temperate, characterized by cold winters and relatively warm summers. Due to the large number of forests, flora and fauna are widespread here. Favorable conditions allow various types of human economic activities to flourish. A large number of factories and plants have been built in these regions. They are engaged in animal husbandry, agriculture, fishing, woodworking industry. This is one of the most human-modified natural areas.

Rice. 2. There is active deforestation in the world

Forest-steppe and steppe

These natural and economic zones are characterized by a warm climate and insufficient rainfall. The soil here is the most fertile, and the fauna is very diverse. In these areas, agriculture and animal husbandry flourish most of all. Various varieties of vegetables and fruits, cereals are grown here. Coal and iron ore are actively mined. This leads to distortion of the relief and the destruction of some species of animals and plants.

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Semi-deserts and deserts

It is not the most favorable conditions for human economic activity. The climate is hot and dry. The soil is deserted, not fertile. The main economic activity in the deserts is animal husbandry. The population here breeds sheep, rams, horses. The need to graze animals leads to the final disappearance of vegetation.

Rice. 3. Animal husbandry in the desert

Subtropics and tropics

This region has been the most affected by human activity... This is due to the fact that it was here that civilizations originated and the use of these areas has been going on for a very long time.

Subtropical and tropical forests are practically cut down, and the territory is occupied by agricultural plantings. Huge areas are occupied by fruit trees.

What have we learned?

A person is engaged in economic activities in almost all natural areas of the world. This leads to their significant modification, which, ultimately, can lead to the extinction of some species of animals and plants.

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"economic activity" is revealed as a set of actions aimed, in particular, at replenishing the stock of material goods and ensuring the possible completeness of satisfying the needs that they are called to serve. For this purpose, existing goods are stored, new ones are obtained and produced, they move in space and in exchange, and their consumption is also organized. The motive of economic activity is the desire of a person to satisfy his needs for material benefits. Thus, economic activity is a manifestation of an economic (economic, expedient) motive in human life ... "

Source:

Order of Rospatent of 25.07.2011 N 87 "On the introduction of the Guidelines for the examination of applications for inventions"

Source:

"GOST R 52104-2003. Russian Federation... ... Terms and Definitions"

(approved by the Resolution of the State Standard of the Russian Federation of 03.07.2-st)

"... Business activities: activities carried out in the course of production activities individual entrepreneur or legal entity, regardless of the form of ownership and whether it is commercial or non-commercial ... "

Source:

"GOST R 52104-2003. National Russian Federation. Resource saving. Terms and definitions"

(approved by the Resolution of the State Standard of the Russian Federation of 03.07.2003 N 235-st)

Official terminology... Academic.ru. 2012.

See what "Economic activity" is in other dictionaries:

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economic activity- the totality of all labor actions directed by people to external nature in order to use and adapt it to meet their needs ... Reference commercial vocabulary

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3. Ordinary business activities as evidenced by arbitrage practice(clause 5 of the information letter of the Plenum of the Supreme Arbitration Court of Russia dated 13.03.2001 N 62), it is considered that the implementation of transactions provided for by the charter of an economic entity, as well as ... Official terminology

Books

• The economic activities of Metropolitan Platon, A.A. Belyaev. Reprinted edition using print-on-demand technology from the original of 1899.