"Goals, objectives, methods and means of work management in groups of preschool children." Each type of work activity consists of What are the goals of work

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- physical

- mental (operational, operator, creative)

By means of labor:

- manual

- mechanized

- automated

- automatic

By working conditions:

- comfortable

- extreme

- harmful, dangerous

Labor organization:

- static

- dynamic

- monotonous

- individual

- collective

According to the requirements for the subject of labor:

- ability level

- vocational education

- professional experience

- health status

- physical development

Human operator– a person carrying out labor activities, the basis of which is interaction with the subject of labor, machine and the external environment through information systems(models) and controls.

It should be noted that the identification of the significance of a particular feature for each of the components of activity in relation to a specific profession or specialty requires a psychological analysis of this activity, construction of a professiogram and psychogram labor process(Zinchenko V.P., Munipov V.M., 1979; Klimov E.A., 1996; "Fundamentals of Engineering Psychology", 1986). The presented list of classification signs labor activity is, to a certain extent, conditional - some types of activity for certain components can be characterized not by one, but by several signs: for example, the activity of a shift manager of NPP operators in terms of content belongs to the category of operational and operator work, and pilots of international lines - to the category of operator work with elements of physical load of a static (posture) and dynamic (work with the steering wheel, levers, pedals) character.

In labor psychology and engineering psychology, considerable attention is paid to the study of the psychological characteristics of operator activity, the issues of ensuring its improvement and design. This situation is due to:

1) the ever-increasing pace of technical development, the development and implementation of various control systems for mobile objects, technological and communication processes and, as a result, the emergence of new operator professions;

2) high complexity and responsibility of operator activities, accompanied in some cases by increased danger, as evidenced, for example, by the statistics of accidents in aviation and at nuclear power plants;

3) the presence of the phenomena of the systemic organization of the components of the operator's activity, their close relationship and interdependence, which determines the need to consider this activity as being carried out in the "man-machine-environment" system (Lomov BF, 1966; Kotik MA, 1978; Bodrov V.A., Orlov V.Ya., 1998).

23.2. System "man-machine-environment"

The "man-machine-environment" system consists of a human operator (a group of operators), a machine (technical devices, tools) through which the operator performs labor activity, and the environment (external working conditions) in which this activity is carried out. In The Handbook of Engineering Psychology (1982) human operator is defined as a person performing labor activity, the basis of which is interaction with the subject of labor, machine and the external environment through information systems (models) and controls.

All numerous systems "man-machine-environment" have a number of common features, They, as a rule, are:

1) complex dynamic systems consisting of interacting elements of different nature and characterized by a change in the structure and (or) interconnections of components over time;

2) purposeful systems, that is, pursuing a given goal by changing their behavior when external conditions change, which is due to the inclusion of a person in the system;

3) adaptive systems capable of adapting to changing working conditions due to the flexibility and plasticity of human behavior and the adaptability of the technical links of the system;

4) self-organizing systems capable of reducing entropy (uncertainty) after the system is brought out of a stable, equilibrium state under the influence of various kinds of disturbances, which is determined by purposeful human activity.

Thus, all the considered features of the SCHMS are determined by the presence of a person in their composition, his ability to correctly solve the arising tasks, depending on the specific conditions and situation.

The basis for the classification of SCHMS (Fig. 23-2) is made up of four groups of signs:

intended purpose of the system,

characteristics of the human link,

the type and structure of the machine link and

type of interaction of system components.

By their intended purpose, the following classes of systems can be distinguished:

- managers (a person's task is to control a machine - a car, an airplane, a rolling mill, etc.);

- servicing, which include control and measuring and repair systems (a person's task is to monitor the state of equipment, search for malfunctions and eliminate them);

Rice. 23-2. Classification of SCHMS

- training, for example simulators and simulators (ensure the development of certain skills in a person);

- information - location and information retrieval systems (provide search, accumulation and receipt of information necessary for a person);

- research - information and expert systems that simulate stands, measuring devices (used in the analysis of certain phenomena, when searching for new information).

According to the characteristics of the human link, SCHMS are divided into monosystems (they include one person and one or several technical devices) and polysystems (they consist of a team of operators interacting with a complex of technical devices).

According to the characteristics of the machine link, one can distinguish:

1) instrumental systems (they include instruments and devices as technical devices);

2) simple systems (include a stationary and non-stationary technical device and a person using these devices);

3) complex systems, for example power plant, a computing complex (in addition to a person, they include a set of technologically connected, but different in their functional purpose, devices and machines to obtain a single product);

4) system-technical complexes (the most complex SCHMS with a team of operators involved in the use of these systems, and not fully defined connections).

By the type of functional relationships between a person and a machine, SCHMS are subdivided into systems of continuous interaction, in which a person constantly monitors and controls a moving object or technological processes, and systems of episodic interaction, in which control and management are carried out regularly ("operator-computer") or probabilistically ( "Operator - system of purposeful control", "adjuster - machine tool").

Any SCHMS must have specified properties that are incorporated into it during design and are implemented during operation. The properties of SCHMS are understood as its objective features, which are manifested during operation. The quantitative characteristics of this or that property are called the quality indicators of the SCHMS. There are a number of quality indicators that affect human activity in the SCMS and at the same time depend on his activities:

1. Speed (regulation time) - is determined by the time of passage of information on closed loop SCHMS:

where Tts is the delay (processing) time of information in i-th link of the SCHMS, k - the number of serially connected links of the SCHMS, which can be both technical links and operators.

2. Reliability - characterizes the faultlessness (correctness) of the solution of the tasks facing the SCHMS. It is estimated by the probability of the correct solution of the problem, which, according to statistical data, is determined by the ratio:

where is Mosh and N- respectively, the number of erroneously solved and the total number of tasks to be solved.

3. The accuracy of the operator's work is determined by the degree of deviation of a certain parameter, regulated or measured by the operator, from the specified or nominal value. Quantitatively, the accuracy of work is estimated by the amount of error with which the operator measures, sets or regulates this parameter:

where Mon is the nominal or specified value of the parameter, Pop is the actually measured or adjusted value of this parameter by the operator.

4. Timeliness of solving the SCHMS problem is estimated by the probability that the problem will be solved in a time not exceeding the permissible:

where Рсв is the probability of a timely decision, M ns is the number of untimely decisions, N- the total number of solutions to problems.

5. Human labor safety in the SCHMS is assessed by the probability of safe work:

where Rvoz is the probability of a hazardous or harmful production situation for humans i-type, Roche - the probability of operator's wrong actions in i-situations, n- the number of possible traumatic situations.

6. The degree of automation SCHMS - characterizes the relative amount of information processed by automatic devices, and is determined by the formula:

where Ka is the automation coefficient, Hop is the amount of information processed by the operator, Nschms is the amount of information circulating in the SCHMS.

Ergonomic indicators are of great importance in the analysis and assessment of the SCHMS - the ergonomics of the system, its controllability, serviceability, adaptability and habitability. They take into account the set of specific properties of the SCHMS, which ensure the possibility of implementation in it effective operation operator

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SEE MORE:

Labor activity. Labor process. Types of work

The concept of professiography. Professiogram. Psychogram. Professiocard.

Emotions. Definition. Components of emotions. Classification of emotions. Functions of emotions. The influence of emotions on human activity.

4. Memory: concept, characteristics, types. Stages of memory fixation. Memory and learning. Methods and techniques for improving memory.

QUESTIONS FOR THE STATE EXAM ON THE DISCIPLINE "Labor Safety"

Labor protection service in the organization. Committees (commissions) on labor protection. The main tasks of the labor protection service at the enterprise Obligations of the employer and the employee to ensure safe conditions and labor protection. Occupational health and safety training and occupational health and safety training. Financing measures to improve labor conditions and safety.

Industrial accident. Priority measures taken in connection with an industrial accident. The procedure for investigating accidents at work. The procedure for registration of materials for the investigation of an industrial accident.

Features of labor protection for women. Benefits for pregnant women and women with small children. Features of labor protection for persons under 18 years of age. Benefits and compensation for heavy, harmful and hazardous conditions labor.

Terminal state. Causes. Clinical death. Factors affecting the duration of clinical death. Signs of clinical death (absolute and relative).

Labor activity

Complex of primary resuscitation measures.

QUESTIONS FOR THE STATE EXAMINATION ON THE DISCIPLINE "Psychophysiology of professional activity"

1. Activity: concept, basic forms. The structure of labor activity. Parameters and specifics of labor activity. General requirements for work. Profession and specialty. Classification of professions.

Activity- this is a specific human form of active attitude to the surrounding world, the content of which is its purposeful change and transformation.

Main forms of activity:

labor activity;
learning activities
leisure.
a game;

The highest form of human activity is work

Work is an expedient human activity, in the process of which he, with the help of tools of labor, influences nature and uses it in order to create use values necessary to satisfy needs.

Labor activity- conscious, energy-consuming, generally recognized as expedient human activity, requiring the application of efforts and the implementation of work.

Educational activities- activities specifically aimed at mastering the methods of objective and cognitive actions, generalized theoretical knowledge.

Leisure- this is a part of the non-working time that remains with a person after the fulfillment of immutable non-production duties (moving to and from work, sleeping, eating, and other types of household self-service).

A game is a special kind of human activity (possible as a form of entertainment), created on the basis of rules that determine the goals of the game and the permitted means for achieving them.

In the structure of labor activity, the following are distinguished the elements

1) deliberately set goals- what is the activity for?

2) objects of labor- what is transformed in the process of activity (materials, people)

3) means of labor- with the help of which the transformation takes place (devices, devices, mechanisms)

4) technologies used- techniques and methods used in the process of activity;

5) labor operations-action of labor activity

Parameters and specifics of labor activity.

Labor activity has the following parameters:

labor productivity- the amount of products produced per unit of time;
labor efficiency- the ratio of material and labor costs, on the one hand, and the results obtained, on the other;
division of labor- the distribution of specific production functions between participants in the labor process (on the scale of society and in specific labor processes).

Specificity a person's labor activity is determined by the functions that he performs, the degree of their diversity and complexity, the level of independence and creativity of the employee.

The nature of the requirements for a participant in labor activity is determined by the specifics of labor activity and, above all, by the specific content of labor and its place in the system of division of labor.

General requirements for employment:

1) the employee must own all the techniques and methods of production that make up the technological process (the requirement of professionalism);

2) the qualifications of the employee cannot be lower than the level that is determined by the nature of the work.

3) the employee is required to unconditionally comply with labor laws and internal labor regulations, compliance with the specified parameters of the production process, fulfillment of obligations arising from the content of the employment contract (labor, technological, performance, contractual discipline requirements).

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Work- it is an activity that distinguishes a person from animals. It was labor, according to F. Engels, that contributed to the formation of a person as a social being.

Labor activity manifests itself in various spheres of human life. He works at work, at home, at his summer cottage, etc. Depending on the result, labor is divided into productive and unproductive. Productive labor associated with the creation of a variety of material objects. For example, a person works in a factory, manufactures parts, from which a product is then assembled (TV, vacuum cleaner, car, etc.). At the end of the working day, he comes home, prepares food and devotes his free time to his favorite business (hobby), for example, assembling a radio, carving figurines from wood, etc. On summer weekends in the country, he cultivates a vegetable garden and harvests in the fall. These are all examples of productive labor.

Unproductive labor is aimed not at creating, but at serving material objects. In the economic sphere, non-productive labor is associated with the provision of services: transportation of goods, their loading, warranty service etc. In the domestic sphere, unproductive work includes cleaning an apartment, washing dishes, renovating a house, etc.

Both productive and unproductive labor are equally important. If there was only the production of industrial products, but there were no services for its repair, then the dumps would be filled with broken items household appliances, cars, furniture, etc. Why buy a new thing if it is more expedient to fix the old one?

But humanity creates not only material objects. It has accumulated a huge cultural experience in literature, science and art. How to classify this type of labor? In this case, they talk about intellectual work or spiritual production. To distinguish this type of labor, a special classification was required, namely, the division of labor into mental and physical.

Humanity for many centuries of its history knew mainly only physical work... Many works were carried out with the help of human muscular strength. Sometimes a person was replaced by animals. Mental labor was the prerogative of monarchs, priests and philosophers.

With the development of science and technology, the appearance of machines in industrial production, physical labor was increasingly replaced by mental labor. The share of workers engaged in mental work has steadily increased. These are scientists, engineers, managers, etc. In the XX century. not without reason they started talking about the objective fusion of mental and physical labor. After all, even the most simple job now requires a certain amount of knowledge.

IN finished form nature gives us very little. Even mushrooms and berries in the forest cannot be picked without labor. In most cases, natural materials are difficult to process. Thus, labor activity is necessary in order to adapt the products of nature to human needs.

Satisfaction of needs is purpose labor activity. It is necessary to realize not only the need itself, but also to comprehend the ways of its satisfaction and the efforts that need to be made for this.

To achieve the goals of work, a variety of funds. These are various tools of labor, adapted to perform a particular job. Starting any work, you need to know exactly what tools are needed at the moment. You can dig up a garden in the country with a shovel, but the field cannot be plowed without the use of special equipment. You can dig a hole with the same shovel, or you can do it within a few minutes with an excavator. Thus, you need to know the most effective ways impact na object of labor , those. on what is being transformed in the process of labor activity. Such methods of influencing the object of labor are called technologies, and the set of operations to transform the initial product into the final one - technological process.

The more advanced tools and the more correct technology are used, the higher will be labor productivity. It is expressed in the amount of products produced per unit of time.

Each type of labor activity consists of separate operations, actions, movements. Their nature depends on the technical equipment of the labor process, the qualifications of the employee, and in a broad sense, on the level of development of science and technology. In our time of scientific and technological progress, the level of technical equipment of labor is constantly increasing, but this does not exclude the use of human physical labor in some cases. The fact is that not all labor operations can be mechanized. Technique is not always applicable when loading and unloading goods, during construction, assembling the final product, etc.

Labor activity, depending on its nature, goals, expenditure of efforts and energy, can be individual and collective. The work of a craftsman, housewife, writer and artist is individual. They independently perform all labor operations until the final result is obtained. In most cases, labor operations, one way or another, are divided between individual subjects of the labor process: workers at a factory, builders at the construction of a house, scientists at a research institute, etc. Even initially seemingly individual, work activity can be part of the totality of the work operations of many people. For example, a farmer buys fertilizers produced by other people to improve the land, and then sells the crop through wholesalers. This position is called specialization, or division of labor . For a more effective organization of the labor process, communication between its participants is necessary. Through communication, information is transmitted, coordination occurs joint activities.

The concept of "work" is synonymous with the concept of "work". In a broad sense, they really coincide. However, if by work we can

to name any activity to transform the surrounding reality and satisfy needs, then work is most often called an activity that is carried out for reward. Thus, work is a kind of labor activity.

By profession a type of work activity with a specific nature and purpose of work functions is called, for example, a doctor, teacher, lawyer. The presence of special, more in-depth skills and knowledge in this profession is called specialty. Even at the stage of training in the specialty, specialization, for example, a surgeon or a general practitioner, a physics teacher or a mathematics teacher, etc.

But it is not enough to have a certain specialty. Need to get skills practical work on it. The level of training, experience, knowledge of the submitted specialty is called qualifications . It is determined by rank or rank. Grades exist among industrial workers and school teachers. The titles are awarded to scientists and higher education workers.

The higher the qualifications of the employee, the higher the remuneration for his work. In the event of a job change, it is easier for him to find more a good place... If they say about a person: “This is a highly qualified worker, a professional in his field,” then they mean the high quality of the work he does.

Professionalism requires an employee to do more than just mechanically follow the instructions of the manager. Having received an order, a person must think about how best to carry it out. In the rules, orders, instructions it is impossible to foresee the weight of the situation that arises in the labor process. The employee must find the optimal solution that allows him to carry out the assignment given to him in a quality manner and on time. Such a creative approach to completing assignments is called initiative.

Any work activity, whether it is chopping firewood in the country or performing complex production processes at the plant, requires the implementation of special rules. Some of them are related to the technological process, i.e. the consistency and correctness of all work performed by the employee. Others are based on compliance with safety regulations. Everyone knows that you cannot disassemble electrical appliances if they are not disconnected from the mains, make fires near wooden structures, drive a car with a faulty engine cooling system, etc. Failure to comply with such rules can lead both to the breakdown of a thing that was improperly exploited, and to harm to human life and health. But a person's labor activity often takes place in a team, and non-compliance with equipment operating standards and safety rules can harm the health of other people.

An important role in the process of labor activity is played by working conditions . These include workplace equipment, noise level, temperature, vibration, room ventilation, etc.

Especially harmful extreme conditions labor causes serious occupational diseases, major accidents, serious injuries and even death.

During the formation and development of industrial production, the worker began to be considered along with machines as part of the production process. This approach excluded initiative in the performance of work duties. Workers had the feeling that they were dominated by machines as individuals. They developed a negative attitude towards work as something forced, performed only when necessary. This phenomenon of industrial production is called dehumanization of labor.

There is currently a problem humanization of labor, those. his humanization. It is necessary to eliminate the factors that threaten human health. First of all, it is necessary to replace heavy monotonous physical labor with the work of machines. It is necessary to prepare educated, comprehensively developed workers capable of creatively approaching the work functions they perform; to raise the level of work culture, that is, to improve all the components of the labor process (working conditions, relationships between people in a team, etc.). An employee should not be confined to a narrow sphere of labor functions performed by him. He should know the content of the labor process of the entire team, understand the features of production at the theoretical and technological level. Only in this case labor activity will become the basis for a person's self-realization.

The opposite of work is leisure activities. Lawyers call all free time from work a time of rest. This does not mean that during such periods a person does nothing. He may work around the house, go for a walk, or travel. All of these ways of spending free time involve committing active action... One such action is a game.

Play activity, in contrast to labor, is focused not so much on the result as on the process itself. Games originated in ancient times and were associated with religion, art, sports, military exercises. Scientists will probably never figure out how games came to be. Perhaps they stood out from the ritual dances of ancient people, or maybe they were a way of teaching the younger generation.

Proponents of the theory of the biological origin of play believe that games are inherent in many animals and are based on instincts. For example, during games, young animals learn patterns of behavior of representatives of their own species, and mating games help to attract a partner. The opposite point of view is that play is a specific human activity.

If we consider play as a kind of human activity, then we can say that it is more inherent in children. With the help of games, children learn, communicate, learn something new, develop their mental and physical abilities. There are many types of games: with objects, plot, role-playing, mobile, educational, sports, etc. As a person grows up, the number of games in his life decreases. Some disappear altogether, remaining as childhood memories, others are replaced by sports and art. New types of "adult" games appear, primarily gambling: cards, slot machines, casinos, etc. Excessive enthusiasm for them often leads to serious consequences: a player can lose all his property, leave his family without a livelihood, and even commit suicide.

Originality play activities, especially in childhood, is most manifested in this duality. The player performs real actions, although they are conditional, allowing him to act in an imaginary setting. It is no coincidence that in the process of playing children say the words “as if”, emphasizing that the situation is fictitious.

The distribution of roles plays an important role in the game. Each of the players strives to take the main, best role for himself. There may not be enough such roles for all participants. Therefore, the game teaches loyalty and compromise even at the stage of its preparation.

The implementation of role-playing functions is associated with the transformation of the player into an imaginary hero. Moreover, the entire course of the game is based on the fulfillment of certain rules that are the same for all participants. The game can be used with various objects, symbols, gestures, conventional signs... Often, specific situations are modeled, which contributes to the inclusion of the child in the world of human relations, teaches adult life.

Labor activity

Some types of games develop mental activity, instill perseverance, patience, i.e. those qualities that are useful during study, and then in the process of work.

No doubt interconnection of labor and games. Some, especially educational, games are associated with the need to make certain efforts, and in work you can find elements of the game. “He does it playfully,” they say about the masters of their craft, that is, makes easy, at ease, highly professional

Questions and tasks

1. How has labor influenced the processes of anthropo- and socio-genesis?

2. In what spheres of human life and how is labor activity manifested?

3. What are the differences between productive and non-productive
labor?

4. What is intellectual work? What is the relationship between mental and physical labor?

5. What are the goals of pond activities? How are subject, object and tools interconnected?

6. What role does specialization play in work?

7. Explain the concepts of profession, specialty, qualifications.

8. Who are called professionals? What is meant by professionalism? Give examples of professionalism.

9. What rules must be followed in the course of work? Why is their implementation necessary?

10. What is the problem of humanizing labor?

11. What are the differences between work and play? What role does play play in a person's life?

12. What questions of labor are raised in the following statements: AP Chekhov: “You must put your life in such conditions that labor is necessary. Without labor, it cannot be clean and joyful life».

F.W. Taylor: “Everyone must learn to abandon their individual methods of work, adapt them to a number of newly introduced forms and get used to accepting and executing directives concerning all small and large methods of work, which were previously left to their personal discretion *.

JW Goethe: “Every life, every activity, every art must be preceded by a craft that can be mastered only with a certain specialization. The acquisition of complete knowledge, complete knowledge in the field of one subject gives more education than the assimilation of half a hundred different subjects. "

Leo Tolstoy: "Physical labor not only does not exclude the possibility of mental activity, not only does it not humiliate its dignity, but also encourages it."

IP Pavlov: “All my life I have loved and love mental work and physical, and, perhaps, even more than the second. I felt especially satisfied when I introduced some good guess in the latter, i.e. connected the "head with hands" ".

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One of the reasons for the formation of the level of employment is the content of labor, which prepares workers' satisfaction in work. If still quite recently, at the end of the 1990s, wages, confidence in the future and social protection occupied the highest positions in the hierarchy of labor motivation of the Russian population, now the content of labor and the possibility of professional and career growth... Even in the absence of work, the majority of citizens, having a certain level of wealth in the family, are not looking for work in general, but for places to use their forces in accordance with their specialty, profession, qualifications, and also spiritual needs. This form of employment is the most rational, since knowledge is in demand, on which the material and spiritual forces of society were spent, and its intellectual potential is precisely used.

The content of labor embodies a set of characteristics of a certain useful work, which are associated with its technological basis, due to the saturation with instruments of labor, the degree of mechanization and automation of labor functions and the organization of production. Modification of the content of labor is directly related to the development of the productive forces of society and depends on three groups of factors:

1) production technology;

2) mechanization and automation of production;

3) organization of production.

To the definition of "the content of labor" is added another one that is essential for the characteristics of specific labor functions, - meaningfulness of labor. They are interconnected as the general and the particular. The content of labor conveys a generalized view of labor as a labor process in general and a specific sphere of human activity. The meaningfulness of labor is a characteristic of the work of certain categories of workers: an operator, a foreman, a foreman, and perhaps a production team. Assessment of the meaningfulness of work is a detailed examination of the functions carried out by employees, the data they use. To study specific technical innovations, taking into account their impact on changes in the functions of labor, priority should be given to the study of the content of labor.

This includes:

1) functions of labor;

2) methods of their execution (manual or mechanized);

3) the complexity of labor;

4) its severity;

5) monotony;

7) intensity;

8) organization.

These components are interconnected with each other. The essence of the content of labor is revealed directly through the functions of labor (management, control, auxiliary work, etc.). At the same time, scientific and technological progress transforms not only the functions of labor, but also such parameters as severity, complexity, intensity. The forms of labor organization also have a significant impact on the combination of the functions of workers' labor.

The changes that occur with the functions of labor mean a shift in the professional and qualification structure of employed people towards their division according to types of labor with a diverse content: manual - mechanized, physical - mental, heavy - not heavy, monotonous - varied. The study of rational structural relationships in the composition of the employed by type of labor serves as the task of social statistics in the study of the content of labor.

The study of transformations in the professional, functional, qualification composition of workers, as well as in their division by type of labor, serves as the essence of the statistical study of transformations in the content of labor. The accounting object in this case is not a labor process, but a generalization of workers and workplaces where they work.

The set of needs that people strive to meet at work may vary, not only depending on professional group, external conditions, but also on the age of the employee, his marital status, career stage. If at the first stage of work in the organization for the employee, the motives that are associated with orientation in work, with the establishment of personal contacts with colleagues may come to the fore, then later, when the newcomer has fully acclimatized, the importance of the motives associated with the need for official and professional growth. Likewise, an increase in wages and an improvement in social conditions can significantly affect the hierarchy of workers' labor motives.

Comparison of the needs of workers at the beginning and in the middle of a career is shown in Table 11.

Leading compensation consulting firm Watson-Wyatt conducted a survey different groups employees regarding the perks they prefer.

Types of work

The totals are presented in Table 12. For example, it turned out that for those over 50, the first place is taken by the total income (salary plus bonus), which exceeds the average level. Those under 30 value the potential for professional growth, skill development and flexible working hours most of all. So, it can be seen that these preferences change over time, as well as depending on the economic and personal circumstances of workers.

The content of labor is not the only factor in the formation of the level of employment in the territory. The state of the labor market is characterized by dependence on the well-being of citizens, on the level of income they receive for their respective work. Accordingly, a low level of remuneration for labor determines secondary employment and leads to a low labor intensity.

4. Activities

Human activity means the activity of a person, designed to satisfy needs and interests by achieving a consciously set goal. In the structure of activity, goals and motives are distinguished. What a person strives for is the goal of activity, and why he does it is the motive of activity. Activities are subdivided into individual elements called activities.

Types of actions

1. External (can be observed from the side) - internal (hidden from the eyes, are performed in the internal plane). As you master a particular activity, external actions can turn into internal ones.

1.9. Types and conditions of human labor activity

This process is called interiorization: for example, first the child learns to read aloud, and then to himself. The reverse process, when any difficulties arise in the performance of activities and internal actions are transferred to the external plan, is called exteriorization.

2. Voluntary (volitional) - involuntary (impulsive). Involuntary actions are carried out under the influence of strong, often unexpected stimuli, strong feelings. Voluntary actions are thought out in advance and performed with the help of volitional efforts.

Activity stages

1. Setting a goal.

This stage can be complicated if, in the process of setting a goal, a person must make a choice between several motives. In this case, there is a struggle of motives: for example, to go for a walk or prepare for an exam.

2. Planning of work.

At this stage, the optimal operations and means are selected to help achieve the goal.

Operation is a way of performing an activity, which is determined by the presence of certain skills and abilities in a person, as well as the conditions in which this activity is performed.

The means of performing an activity are those objects that are designed to help in the performance of an activity: for example, lecture notes.

3. Performing activities.

Here, the previously found optimal means and operations are used.

4. Control part - the results are checked, errors are corrected, the results are summed up, conclusions are drawn. Modern man performs a large number of the most different types activities depending on their needs. The types of activity are communication, play, learning, work.

Communication- the type of activity that first arises in the course of human ontogenetic development.

Its main purpose is the exchange of information between people.

A game- an activity in the course of which a material or ideal product appears (with the exception of business and design games).

Work- an activity in the course of which objects of spiritual and material culture are produced, tools of labor are improved, living conditions are improved, science, technology, production, and creativity are developing.

Skills- individual elements of activities that allow you to perform activities with high level quality.

Skill- this is such an action, the individual operations of which, as a result of training, became automatic and are carried out without the participation of consciousness.

Habit- the irresistible desire of a person to perform certain actions.

Work Is an activity aimed at human development and transformation of natural resources into material, intellectual and spiritual benefits. Such activity can be carried out either under duress, or on an inner urge, or both.

Sociological functions of labor:

Socio-economic function consists in the impact of subjects of labor (workers) on objects and elements of the natural environment (resources) in order to transform them into items to meet the needs of members of society, that is, into material goods and services.

Productive function is to meet the needs of people in creativity and self-expression. Thanks to this function of labor, new objects and technologies are created.

Social structuring function labor is to differentiate and integrate the efforts of people involved in the labor process. On the one hand, securing different categories participants in the labor process of various functions leads to differentiation and the creation of specialized types of labor. On the other hand, the exchange of work results leads to the establishment certain links between different categories of participants in the labor process. Thus, this function of labor contributes to the creation of socio-economic ties between various groups of people.

Social control function labor is due to the fact that labor organizes a complex system social relations regulated by values, norms of behavior, standards, sanctions, etc., which constitute a system of social control labor relations... It includes labor legislation, economic and technical standards, charters of organizations, job descriptions, informal norms, a certain organizational culture.

Socializing function labor is associated with the fact that labor activity expands and enriches the composition social roles, patterns of behavior, norms and values of employees, which allows people to feel like full participants in public life. This function gives people the opportunity to acquire a certain status, to feel social belonging and identity.

Social developmental function labor is manifested in the impact of the content of labor on workers, collectives and society as a whole. This is due to the fact that as the means of labor develop and improve, the complexity and renewal of the content of labor occurs. This process is due to the creative nature of man. Thus, there is an increase in requirements for the level of knowledge and qualifications of employees in almost all sectors of the modern economy. The function of training employees is one of the priority functions of personnel management in a modern organization.

Socio-stratification function labor is a derivative of socially structuring and is associated with the fact that the results of various types of labor are rewarded and evaluated in different ways by society. Accordingly, some types of labor activity are recognized more, while others are less important and prestigious. Thus, labor activity contributes to the formation and maintenance of the dominant system of values in society and performs the function of ranking the participants in labor activity by ranks - the steps of the stratification pyramid and the ladder of prestige.

Based on the foregoing, it can be concluded that labor activity determines a number of interrelated social and economic phenomena and processes in modern society... The study allows you to identify the most effective ways to manage the organization.

Main categories of labor science

the complexity of labor;
professional suitability of the employee;
the degree of independence of the employee.

The first sign of the content of labor is complexity... It is clear that the work of a scientist is more difficult than that of a turner, and that of a store director is more difficult than that of a cashier. But to justify the measure of remuneration of different types of labor, their comparison is required. To compare complex and simple labor, the concept of "labor reduction" is used. Labor reduction Is the process of reducing complex labor to simple one to determine the measure of remuneration for labor of varying complexity. With the development of society, the share of complex labor increases., which is explained by the increase in the level of technical equipment of enterprises and the requirements for the education of workers.

Differences between complex and simple labor:

performance by the employee of such mental work functions as planning, analysis, control and coordination of actions;
concentration of active thinking and purposeful concentration of the employee;
consistency in making decisions and actions;
accuracy and adequate response of the employee's body to external stimuli;
fast, dexterous and varied labor movements;
responsibility for the results of work.

The second sign of the content of labor is professional suitability... Its influence on the results of labor is due to a person's abilities, the formation and development of his genetic inclinations, a successful choice of profession, conditions for the development and selection of personnel. Special methods for determining professional suitability play an essential role in professional selection.

The third sign of the content of labor is the degree of independence of the employee- depends both on external restrictions associated with the form of ownership, and internal, dictated by the scale and level of complexity of the work. Reducing constraints in decision-making while increasing responsibility means more freedom of action, creativity and the possibility of an informal approach to solving problems. The independence of an employee is a criterion of the level of self-awareness of a developed personality, its measure of responsibility for the results of work.

The nature of work as a category of the science of labor, it represents the relationship between the participants in the labor process, which affect both the employee's attitude to work and labor productivity. From the point of view of the nature of labor, one distinguishes between, on the one hand, the work of an entrepreneur and, on the other hand, wage, collective or individual labor. Entrepreneurial labor is distinguished by a high degree of independence in decision-making and its implementation, as well as a high degree of responsibility for results. Wage labor- this is the work of an employee who, under the terms of the agreement, is called upon to fulfill his job duties in relation to the employer

Modern labor science

Modern labor science includes a number of core disciplines:

traditionally includes problems of productivity and labor efficiency, labor resources, labor market and employment, income and wages, planning the number, the problem of labor rationing.
Personnel economics examines the behavior of employees when they perform job responsibilities... The discipline examines the influence of various factors on labor productivity.
Occupational medicine- examines labor-related factors that can cause injury, illness or other harm to the health of an employee.
Physiology of work explores the functions of the human body in the process of labor: the physiology of the locomotor system, the development and training of labor skills, performance and its regulation, sanitary and hygienic working conditions, the severity of labor.
Work psychology explores the requirements for the human psyche associated with his attitude to work.
Personnel Management studies the problems of planning the number, selection, training and certification of personnel, labor motivation, management styles, relationships in work collectives, management procedures.
Sociology of Labor studies the impact of workers on society and vice versa - society on the worker.
Labor pedagogy how science considers the issues of employee training.
Ergonomics studies the organization of the process of adaptation of the means of labor to the characteristics, capabilities and limits of the human body.
Labor management studies the basics of designing work processes of workplaces. Issues such as identifying the need for personnel, recruiting and selecting personnel, employing employees, releasing them, developing, controlling personnel, i.e. management, coordination and communication work structuring, remuneration policy, participation in success, personnel cost management and employee management.
Safety explores the complex of problems associated with ensuring safe work.
Labor law analyzes the complex of legal aspects of labor and management. This is especially important when hiring and firing, developing reward and punishment systems, solving property problems, and managing social conflicts.

Fundamentals of Modern Labor Economics

Labor economics- studies economic patterns in the field of labor relations, including specific forms of manifestation of the essence of labor, such as organization, pay, efficiency and employment.

Object studying labor economics is labor - an expedient human activity aimed at creating material goods and providing services.

Labor Economics Subject- socio-economic relations that develop in the labor process under the influence of various factors - technical, organizational, personnel and other nature.

The purpose Labor economics are studies in the field of human resource management.

the main a task economics of labor - the study of the essence and mechanisms of economic processes in the world of work in the context of the life of a person and society.

Ways to improve labor efficiency

One of the most important elements increasing the efficiency of human labor activity - improving skills and abilities as a result of labor training. From a psychophysical point of view, industrial training is a process of adaptation and a corresponding change in the physiological functions of the human body for the most effective performance of a specific job. As a result of training, muscle strength and endurance increase, the accuracy and speed of working movements increase, and physiological functions are restored faster after the end of work.

Rational organization of the workplace

Rational organization (ensuring a comfortable posture and freedom of labor movements, using equipment that meets the requirements of ergonomics and engineering psychology) provides the most effective, reduces fatigue and prevents the risk of occupational diseases. Besides, workplace must meet the following requirements: availability of sufficient work space; sufficient physical, auditory and visual connections between human and machine; optimal placement of the workplace in space; permissible level of action of harmful production factors; availability of protective equipment against hazardous production factors.

Comfortable working position

A comfortable working posture of a person in the process of labor activity ensures high efficiency and labor productivity. A comfortable working position should be considered one in which the employee does not need to lean forward more than 10-15 degrees; tilts back and to the sides are undesirable; the main requirement for a working posture is an upright posture.

The formation of a working posture in the "sitting" position is influenced by the height of the working surface, which is determined by the distance from the floor to the horizontal surface on which the labor process takes place. The height of the working surface is set depending on the nature, severity and accuracy of the work. A comfortable working posture when working “sitting” is also ensured by the design of the chair (size, shape, seat area and tilt, height adjustment).

High efficiency and vital functions of the organism are supported by a rational alternation of periods of work and rest.

Rational mode of work and rest

Rational mode of work and rest- this is such a ratio and content of periods of work and rest, in which high labor productivity is combined with a high and stable working capacity of a person without signs of excessive fatigue for a long time. This alternation of periods of work and rest is observed in different periods of time: during work shift, days, weeks, years in accordance with the operating mode of the enterprise.

The duration of rest during the shift (regulated breaks) depends mainly on the severity of the work and the conditions for its implementation. When determining the duration of rest during working hours, it is necessary to take into account the following production factors that cause fatigue: physical effort, nervous tension, pace of work, working position, monotony of work, microclimate, air pollution, air ionic composition of the air, industrial noise, vibration, lighting. Depending on the strength of the influence of each of these factors on the human body, the time for rest is set.

The intrashift work and rest schedule should include a lunch break and short rest breaks, which should be regulated, as it is more effective than breaks that occur irregularly at the discretion of the employee.

Short rest breaks are intended to reduce fatigue during work.... The number and duration of short breaks is determined based on the nature of the labor process, the degree of intensity and severity of labor. The moments of decreased performance serve as a guideline for establishing the beginning of rest breaks. To prevent its decline, a rest break is prescribed before the onset of fatigue of the body. In the second half of the working day, due to deeper fatigue, the number of rest breaks should be greater than in the first half of the shift. Physiologists have found that for most types of work, the optimal break duration is 5-10 minutes.... It is this break that allows you to restore physiological functions, reduce fatigue and maintain a working mindset. With deep fatigue, it is necessary to go both along the line of increasing the number of breaks and increasing their duration. But short breaks lasting more than 20 minutes violate the already established state of activation.

Rest can be active and passive... Active rest is recommended at work taking place in unfavorable working conditions. The most effective form of active recreation is industrial gymnastics. Active rest accelerates the recovery of strength, since when the activity changes, the energy expended by the working organ is restored faster. As a result of industrial gymnastics, the vital capacity of the lungs increases, the activity of the cardiovascular system improves, muscle strength and endurance increase.

4. How the meaning of human life and the meaning of life are interconnected

5. What goals does a person set for himself in the course of his life path? What goals are relevant to you at the moment?

6. What is the problem of extending human life? Is it necessary? Why?

7. Using the example of specific individuals, describe the problems of goals

and the meaning of life, the time required to achieve these goals.

8. Read the statement of Leo Tolstoy: “A person can view himself as an animal among animals living today, he can consider himself both as a member of a family and as a member of society, a people living for centuries, can and even certainly must (because by this irresistibly attracts his mind) to consider himself as a part of the whole infinite world, living infinite time. And therefore, a rational person had to do and always did in relation to infinitely small life phenomena that could influence his actions, what is called integration in mathematics, i.e. to establish, in addition to the relationship to the closest phenomena of life, their relationship to the entire world, infinite in time and space, understanding it as a whole. Understand that life is a stupid joke played on me, and still live, wash, dress, dine, talk and even write books. It was disgusting for me ... I will die just like everyone else ... but my life and death will make sense for me and for everyone ... the person died, but his attitude to the world continues to affect people, not even as during life, and in a huge number of times stronger, and this action increases and grows as rationality and love, like everything alive, never ceasing and without knowing interruptions. "

Explain how he sees the meaning of life.

9. Describe the words of the poet V. A. Zhukovsky from the point of view of the meaning of life:

About the dear companions who made our light alive for us by their companionship, Do not speak with longing: they are not there; But with gratitude: there were.

2.4. WORK AND GAME

X J Work is an activity that distinguishes a person from a living

votnyh. It was labor, according to F. Engels, that contributed to the formation of man as a social being.

Labor activity manifests itself in various spheres of human life. He works at work, at home, at his summer cottage, etc. Depending on the result, labor is divided into productive and unproductive. Productive labor associated with the creation of a variety of material objects. For example, a person works in a factory, makes parts, from which then

collect any product (TV, vacuum cleaner, car, etc.) - At the end of the working day, he comes home, prepares food and devotes his free time to his favorite business (hobby), for example, assembles a radio, carves figurines from wood, etc. In you-

running in the summer at the dacha, he cultivates a vegetable garden and in the fall harvests. These are all examples of productive labor.

Unproductive labor is aimed not at creating, but at serving material objects. In the economic sphere, unproductive labor is associated with the provision of services: transportation of goods, their loading, warranty service, etc. In the household sphere, unproductive labor includes cleaning an apartment, washing dishes, renovating a house, etc.

Both productive and unproductive labor are equally important. If there was only the production of industrial products, but there were no services for its repair, then the dumps would be filled with broken household appliances, cars, furniture, etc. Why buy a new thing if it is more expedient to fix the old one?

But humanity creates not only material objects. It has accumulated a huge cultural experience in literature, science and art. How to classify this type of labor? In this case, they talk about intellectual work or spiritual production. To distinguish this type of labor, a special classification was required, namely, the division of labor into mental and physical

For many centuries of its history, mankind has known mainly only physical labor. Much work was done with the help of human muscular strength. Sometimes humans were replaced by animals. Mental labor was the prerogative of monarchs, priests and philosophers.

With the development of science and technology, the emergence of machines in industrial production physical labor was increasingly being replaced by mental labor. The proportion of workers engaged in mental work has steadily increased. These are scientists, engineers, managers, etc. In the XX century. not without reason they started talking about the objective fusion of mental and physical labor. After all, even the simplest work now requires a certain amount of knowledge.

In finished form, nature gives us very little. Even mushrooms and berries in the forest cannot be picked without labor. In most cases, natural materials are difficult to process. Thus, labor activity is necessary in order to adapt the products of nature to human needs.

Satisfaction of needs is the goal of work. It is necessary to realize not only the need itself, but also to comprehend the ways to satisfy it and the efforts that need to be made for this.

To achieve the goals of work, a variety of means are used. These are various tools of labor, adapted to perform a particular job. Starting any work, you need to know exactly what tools are needed at the moment. You can dig up a garden in the country with a shovel, but the field cannot be plowed without the use of special equipment. You can dig a hole for a long time with the same shovel, or you can do it within a few minutes with an excavator. Thus, it is necessary to know the most effective methods of influencing the object of labor, i.e. on what is being transformed in the process of labor activity. Such methods of influencing the object of labor are called technologies, and the set of operations for transforming the initial product into the final one - technological process.

The more advanced tools and the more correct technology are used, the higher will be labor productivity. It is expressed in the amount of products produced per unit of time.

Each type of work activity consists of separate operations, actions, movements. Their nature depends on the technical equipment of the labor process, the qualifications of the employee, and in a broad sense, on the level of development of science and technology. In our time of scientific and technological progress, the level of technical equipment of labor is constantly increasing, but this does not exclude the use of human physical labor in some cases. The fact is that not all labor operations can be mechanized. Technique is not always applicable when loading and unloading goods, during construction, assembling the final product, etc.

Labor activity, depending on its nature, goals, expenditure of effort and energy, can be individual and collective. The work of a craftsman, housewife, writer and artist is individual. They independently perform all labor operations until the final result is obtained. In most cases, labor operations, one way or another, are divided between individual subjects of the labor process: workers at a factory, builders at the construction of a house, scientists at a research institute, etc. Even initially seemingly individual, work activity can be part of the totality of the work operations of many people. For example, a farmer buys fertilizers produced by other people to improve the land, and then sells the crop through wholesalers. Such a position

living is called specialization, or division of labor. For bo-

More effective organization of the labor process requires communication between its participants. Through communication, information is transmitted, coordination of joint activities occurs.

The concept of "work" is synonymous with the concept of "work". In a broad sense, they do coincide. However, if by work we can

to name any activity to transform the surrounding reality and satisfy needs, then work is most often called an activity that is carried out for a fee. Thus, work is a kind of work activity.

The complication of labor activity, the development of new types of it led to the emergence of many professions. Their number is increasing more and more with the development of science and technology. A profession is a type of work activity with a specific nature and purpose of work functions, for example, a doctor, teacher, lawyer. The presence of special, more in-depth skills and knowledge in a given profession is called a specialty. Even at the stage of training in a specialty, specialization can be carried out, for example, a surgeon or a general practitioner, a physics teacher or a mathematics teacher, etc.

But it is not enough to have a certain specialty. You need to get the skills of practical work on it. The level of training, experience, knowledge in this specialty is called a qualification. It is determined by rank or rank. Grades exist among industrial workers and school teachers. The titles are awarded to scientists and higher education workers.

The higher the qualifications of the employee, the higher the remuneration for his work. In the event of a job change, it is easier for him to find a better job. If they say about a person: “This is a highly qualified worker, a professional in his field,” they mean the high quality of the work he does. Professionalism requires an employee to do more than just mechanical execution of the manager's instructions. Having received an order, a person must think about how best to carry it out. It is impossible to foresee all situations that arise in the labor process in the rules, orders, instructions. The employee must find the optimal solution that allows him to carry out the assignment given to him in a quality manner and on time. Such a creative approach to completing assignments is called yutin-

initiative.

Any labor activity, whether it is chopping firewood in the country or performing complex production processes at a factory, requires special rules. Some of them are related to the technological process, i.e. the consistency and correctness of all work performed by the employee. Others are based on compliance with safety regulations. Everyone knows that you cannot disassemble electrical appliances if they are not disconnected from the mains, make fires near wooden buildings, drive a car with a faulty engine cooling system, etc. Failure to comply with such rules can lead both to the breakdown of a thing that was improperly exploited, and to harm to human life and health. But labor

human activities often take place in a team, and non-observance of equipment operation and safety rules can harm the health of other people.

Working conditions play an important role in the process of labor activity. These include workplace equipment, noise level, temperature, vibration, room ventilation, etc. Particularly harmful, extreme working conditions cause serious occupational diseases, major accidents, serious injuries and even death.

During the formation and development of industrial production, the worker began to be considered, along with machines, as part of the production process. This approach excluded initiative in the performance of work duties. The workers felt that they were dominated by machines as individuals. They developed a negative attitude towards work as something forced, performed only when necessary. This phenomenon of industrial production has received the name

manization of labor.

There is currently a problem humanization of labor, those. his humanization. It is necessary to eliminate the factors that threaten human health. First of all, it is necessary to replace heavy monotonous physical labor with the work of machines. It is necessary to prepare educated, comprehensively developed workers capable of creatively approaching the work functions they perform; to raise the level of work culture, i.e. improve all components of the labor process (working conditions, relationships between people in a team, etc.). An employee should not be confined to a narrow sphere of labor functions performed by him. He should know the content of the labor process of the entire team, understand the features of production at the theoretical and technological level. Only in this case labor activity will become the basis for a person's self-realization.

The opposite of work is leisure activities. Lawyers call all free time from work a time of rest. This does not mean that during such periods a person does nothing. He can work, doing housework, he can go for a walk or travel. All these ways of spending free time involve taking action. One such action is the game.

Proponents of the theory of the biological origin of play believe that games are inherent in many animals and are based on instincts. For example, during play, baby animals learn patterns of behavior of representatives of their own species, and mating games help to attract a partner. The opposite point of view is that play is a specific human activity.

If we consider play as a kind of human activity, then we can say that it is more inherent in children. With the help of games, children learn, communicate, learn something new, develop their mental and physical abilities. There are many types of games: with objects, story games, role-playing games, outdoor games, educational games, sports games, etc. As a person grows up, the number of games in his life decreases. Some disappear altogether, remaining as childhood memories, others are replaced by sports and art. New types of "adult" games appear, primarily gambling: cards, slot machines, casinos, etc. Excessive hobby for them often leads to serious consequences: a player can lose all his property, leave his family without a livelihood, and even end his life.

The originality of play activities, especially in childhood, most manifested in its two-planarity. The player performs real actions, although they are conditional, allowing him to act in an imaginary setting. It is no coincidence that in the process of playing children say the words “as if”, emphasizing that the situation is fictitious.

The distribution of roles plays an important role in the game. Each of the players strives to take the main, best role for himself. These roles may not be enough for all participants. Therefore, the game teaches loyalty and compromise even at the stage of its preparation.

The implementation of role-playing functions is associated with the transformation of the player into an imaginary hero. Moreover, the entire course of the game is based on the implementation of certain rules that are the same for all participants. Various objects, symbols, gestures, conventional signs can be used in the game. Often, specific situations are modeled, which contributes to the inclusion of the child in the world of human relations, teaches adult life. Some types of games develop mental activity, instill perseverance, patience, i.e. those qualities that are useful during study, and then in the process of work.

No doubt interconnection of labor and games. Some, especially educational, games are associated with the need to apply certain efforts, and in work you can find elements of the game. “He does it playfully,” they say about the masters of their craft, that is, makes it easy, at ease, highly professional.

Questions and tasks

1. How has labor influenced the processes of anthropo- and sociogenesis?

2. In what spheres of human life and how is labor activity manifested?

3. What are the differences between productive and unproductive labor?

4. What is intellectual work? What is the relationship between mental and physical labor?

5. What are the goals of work? How are subject, object and tools interconnected?

6. What role does specialization play in work?

7. Explain the concepts of profession, specialty, qualifications.

8. Who are called professionals? What is meant by professional nalism? Give examples of professionalism.

9. What rules must be followed in the course of work? Why is their implementation necessary?

10. What is the problem of humanizing labor?

11. What are the differences between work and play? What role does the game play

In human life?

12. What questions of labor are raised in the following statements: A. P. Chekhov: “We must put our life in such conditions that labor

was needed. There can be no pure and joyful life without labor. " F.W. Taylor: “Everyone must learn to give up their

individual methods of work, adapt them to a number of newly introduced forms and get used to accept and execute directives concerning all small and large methods of work, which were previously left to his personal discretion. "

JW Goethe: “Every life, every activity, every art must be preceded by a craft that can be mastered only with a certain specialization. The acquisition of complete knowledge, complete skill in the field of one any subject gives more education than the assimilation of half a hundred different subjects. "

Leo Tolstoy: "Physical labor not only does not exclude the possibility of mental activity, not only does it not humiliate its dignity, but also encourages it."

IP Pavlov: “All my life I have loved and love mental work and physical, and, perhaps, even more than the second. I felt especially satisfied when I made a good guess in the latter, i.e. connected the "head with hands" ".

2.5. COMMUNICATION

v / Man is a social being and cannot live outside of society. Life in a society involves interaction between its members, which is called communication.1

Communication as a process of interaction between two or more people has a lot of manifestations, depending on how and under what circumstances it takes place. So, distinguish between speech and non-verbal communication. Speech is the most important social property of a person. Often short phrase we can express what cannot be shown with the help of facial expressions and gestures. However, non-verbal communication is just as important as verbal communication. Road signs, signs, plates, fencing tapes - all of this carries certain information. Forms of non-verbal communication are also such methods of transferring information as semaphore, Morse code, flag signaling. At the junction of verbal and non-verbal communication is the transmission of written information.

Depending on the methods of interaction, perceptual, verbal and interactive communication are distinguished. Perceptual communication associated with a person's ability to catch mental condition interlocutor, feel him. Such communication is more often possible between close people - parents and children, lovers, spouses, old good friends. They say about such people: “they understand each other perfectly”. Verbal communication- This is communication with the help of words, i.e. verbal communication. Its varieties include monologue (transfer of information from the speaker to listeners), exchange of remarks (verbal clarification of the actions performed) and dialogue (conversation between two or more persons).

Dialogue is the most common form verbal communication... It assumes the independence and activity of its participants, recognition of the importance of the point of view of each of the participants

in dialogue of the parties. Dialogue presupposes an exchange of views, waiting for an answer, and a willingness to explain one's position. Discussions, conferences and negotiations take place in the form of a dialogue. Dialogue is the main way of transferring information between people and in everyday life.

Interactive communication occurs when people interact

in the process of joint activities: at work, study, with joint leisure activities, etc. In the process interactive communication people adapt to each other, sympathy and mutual understanding arise between them. There is also healthy competition here; the occurrence and conflict situations... Work in labor collective, games with friends, firefighters extinguishing the fire together with residents of neighboring houses - all these are types of interactive communication.

IN In connection with the development of means of information transmission, the species diversity of communication increases. Communication via the Internet, telephone communication, SMS-communication. This raised the issue of interrelation of communication and communication with particular urgency. Both of these phenomena involve the exchange of information, the content of which may be the same. The difference is as follows. When communicating, as is known

but, the subjects are equal, active, the exchange of information leads to its addition, change, clarification. Thus, the formation of new information takes place, the owners of which become all participants in communication. Communication presupposes the transfer of information from one subject to another without feedback. Only the recipient receives new information. Therefore, it is not updated and refined. Examples of communication media are radio and television.

Communication serves several important functions, depending on the purpose of the interaction between people. Firstly, information function. Communication serves as a means of conveying information. Secondly, teaching function. Receiving new information, people enrich their knowledge. Thirdly, educational function. When communicating, one person can influence another in order to instill in him certain patterns of behavior. Finally, communication does support function

the joint activities of people and the inclusion of a person in the

society as an equal member.

Depending on the content and the sphere in which it is carried out, several forms of communication are distinguished: everyday, business, persuasive, educational, cultural, scientific, intercultural, ritual, etc.

Everyday (everyday) communication - this communication between close

people (relatives, friends, acquaintances) in everyday life.

Business (office) communication carried out at work, in the course of work. It has the character of orders, instructions, instructions and is aimed at achieving positive results of labor activity. Within the framework of business communication the leader acts as an active subject that influences the subordinate. The latter must follow the instructions, but he has the right to express his point of view on the task (problem, situation), especially if this can help to improve the quality of work.

Persuasive communication manifests itself in the influence of one person on another in order to change his views and behavior. Thus, parents can persuade a child to devote more time to study, a candidate for deputy calls on to vote for him in elections, the fire service authorities recommend that the population carefully deal with fire. With such communication, the persuading subject gives arguments that help to persuade the persuaded to side with his point of view. These can be advantageous prospects, the threat of punishment, etc.

Educational communication is the influence of the teacher on the student in order to instill in him a certain set of knowledge, abilities and skills. It is carried out both within the framework of educational institutions -

niy, and in the process of mastering the knowledge necessary in everyday life.

Cultural communication connected with the interaction of people in the process of familiarizing with cultural values. This can be visiting exhibitions, excursions, theaters, cinema, joint creativity in the framework of musical, art and other groups, membership in various clubs, organizations, etc.

Scientific communication accompanies research activities. Science does not stand still. In order not to “reinvent the wheel,” a scientist must monitor the results of his colleagues' work. Scientific communication takes place both at the interpersonal level and at various scientific conferences, disputes, symposia.

Intercultural communication carried out between people sharing different cultural values... This can be the interaction of representatives of different trends in music, art, literature, communication between "fathers" and "children" or representatives of different nationalities. Such communication can proceed on the basis of cooperation and cultural mutual enrichment, or it can create conflict situations.

Ritual communication- This is the implementation of pre-prescribed rules of conduct. It is constantly encountered in everyday life. Acquaintances greet each other when they meet, shake hands, the military salutes. The students stand up to greet the teacher as they enter the classroom. Ritual communication plays a leading role in performing religious rituals, observing national and other customs, such as the marriage procedure, accepting an invitation and coming to visit, visiting public places, etc.

One of the varieties of ritual communication is etiquette, which translated from Greek means custom. Etiquette is called a set of rules of conduct related to the external manifestation of relations to others. This includes behavior in public places, forms of address, greetings, manners, clothing provided, etc.

The most common rule in our life is greeting. It should never be noisy and unrestrained. The junior should be the first to greet the senior, and the subordinate should be the first to greet the boss. Anyone entering the room should also greet those present first. When greeting a person, you must look him in the eye kindly. You cannot stretch your hand across the table when greeting. Not accepting the outstretched handshake is considered an insult.

There are rules for dating. The younger one should be introduced to the elder, the man - to the woman, the employee - to the leader. The individual is introduced to the group.

You must arrive on time for your appointment. If you are late, you should apologize and explain the reasons for the delay.

The goals of work are immensely varied; they can be reduced to six large groups: gnostic (cognitive), transformative (four groups), exploratory.

Gnostic professions. "The Gnostic professions are characterized by following features... Any specialist from a group of professions does not participate in the production of new products, but mainly evaluates existing products (which were made by other specialists), or evaluates individual parameters of any products. A distinctive feature of these specialists is a keen interest in the characteristics, properties of certain objects or products and in their comparison.

Gnostic professions are so diverse that among them there is also a group of leading actions to achieve gnostic goals: classification - sorting, checking according to previously known qualities; research - deepening into complex connections of hidden, non-obvious processes, phenomena. ".

"Professions of the described class impose certain requirements on the employee. It is important to have a pronounced cognitive activity, observation, stability of attention, high efficiency, indefatigability of the corresponding senses. it is important to show firmness of position, adherence to principles in conclusions. "

Transforming professions. Transformation means any impact of a specialist on the subject of labor with the aim of actively changing or maintaining its properties, states within certain limits. To preserve, to guard means to actively fight against unwanted spontaneous, spontaneous changes in the object, with interference, with deviations.

Transformative activities can be directed not only to things, but also to types of energy (heating engineer, operator of the reactor department), to information (telegraphist, bibliographer, accountant, archivist), to processes (photographic assistant, dispatcher, gas rescuer, kindergarten teacher) , for the organization of social life (lawyer, station attendant, notary). For professionals engaged in transformation, both the process and the results of the influences on it are extremely important. Sometimes the transformation takes place right at hand, such as in the work of a locksmith, draftsman-cartographer or stone carver. And sometimes the work comes down to creating conditions for changes in the subject of attention (I sowed the grain today, but how will it sprout? This will become known only in a few days).

The number of transformative professions is also large and varied. There are three more groups:

· Professions associated with the organization and ordering of information, human relations, with improving health, finalizing products, products;

· Professions in which the leading goals of labor are to influence, influence, processing;

· Professions with leading purposes of travel, service.

Prospecting professions. The specificity of prospecting professions lies in the fact that a specialist is obliged to find best option, a sample solution of a complex practical task in the course of an operational search with a limited time.

A manufacturer of art objects made of metal first develops sketches and drawings of future products during the implementation of the conceived idea, then, according to his own compositions, he makes original and unique things.

Anyone with a prospecting profession should always be ready to abandon the old, familiar solution in favor of a new, original one. Examples of exploration professions are: livestock breeder, furrier, woodwork modeller, professional psychologist, architect, screenwriter, fashion designer, design engineer, biologist, painter, etc.