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Communication is one of the most important concepts in psychology. Outside of communication, it is impossible to understand and analyze the process of the personal formation of an individual person, it is impossible to trace the laws of all social development. According to G.M. Andreeva, communication acts as a way of cementing individuals and, at the same time, as a way of developing the individuals themselves.

Communication is extremely diverse in its forms and types. You can talk about direct and indirect communication, direct and mediated. At the same time, direct communication is understood as a natural face-to-face contact with the help of verbal (speech) and non-verbal means (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime). Direct communication is historically the first form of communication of people with each other, on its basis and at later stages of the development of civilization, various types of mediated communication arise. Mediated communication can be considered as incomplete psychological contact with the help of written or technical devices that make it difficult or time-separated to receive feedback between the participants in communication. Obviously, the appearance of writing, printing, and then various technical communication devices significantly increased the number of sources for assimilating human experience, many times complicated the system of human communication.

Further, they distinguish between interpersonal and mass communication. The interpersonal is associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs, constant in the composition of the participants. It implies a well-known psychological closeness of partners: knowledge of the individual characteristics of each other, the presence of empathy, understanding, joint experience of activity.

Mass communication is multiple, direct contacts of strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of mass media. The important types of mass communication should also include art as aesthetic communication. Aesthetic communication, on the one hand, unfolds as a kind of mass communication (theatrical performance, literary evenings, and so on), on the other hand, art itself often represents a special artistic modeling of communication between people and is, as it were, a substitute for some of its other forms.

It should also be noted the possibility of distinguishing interpersonal and role communication. In the first case, the participants in communication are specific individuals with unique individual qualities, which are revealed to another in the course of communication and organization of joint actions. In the case of role-based communication, its participants can be considered as carriers of certain social roles (teacher-student, buyer-seller). The role performed at the moment fixes the place that a person occupies in the system of social, social relations. We can say that in role-based communication, a person loses a certain spontaneity of his behavior, since certain of his steps and actions are dictated by the role played. Of course, the social role itself does not determine a person's behavior in detail. Much depends on the understanding of one's role and the roles of other participants in communication, on the attitude of the person himself and his environment to this role, on the established traditions. In addition, each person brings his own uniqueness to the performance of the role.

Thus, in communication, people show, reveal their psychological qualities for themselves and others. But these qualities are not only manifested through communication, they arise and are formed in it. Communicating with other people, a person assimilates common human experience, historically formed social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, is formed as a personality and individuality. That is, communication is the most important factor in the mental development of a person. In the very general view communication can be defined as a universal reality in which mental processes and human behavior arise and exist throughout life.

Types of communication

Business conversation

Business communication is a type of communication, the purpose of which lies outside the communication process and which is subordinated to the solution of a specific task (industrial, scientific, commercial, etc.) based on the common interests and goals of the communicants. Business communication is a communicative subject-target and mainly professional activity in the field of social, legal and economic relations (M. V. Koltunova 2005).

Features of business communication

A partner in business communication always acts as a person who is significant for the subject.
Communicating people are distinguished by good mutual understanding in matters of business.
The main task of business communication is productive cooperation.

Depending on the various characteristics, business communication is divided into:

- in terms of the form of speech:

oral
written;

- in terms of - unidirectional / bidirectional speech between speaker and listener:

dialogical
monologue;

- in terms of the number of participants:

interpersonal
public;

- from the point of view of the absence / presence of a mediating apparatus:

direct
mediated;

- from the point of view of the position of the communicants in space:

contact
distant.

Forms of business communication:

Business conversation- interpersonal verbal communication of several interlocutors in order to resolve certain business problems or establish business relationship... The most common and most commonly used form of business communication.

Business conversation on the phone- a method of operational communication, significantly limited in time, requiring both parties to know the rules of etiquette telephone conversations(greeting, mutual introduction, message and discussion of the subject of the call, summing up, expressions of appreciation, farewell).

Business meeting- exchange of views to achieve a goal, to develop an agreement between the parties.

Service meeting- one of effective ways involving employees in the decision-making process, a tool for managing the involvement of employees in the affairs of their unit or organization as a whole.

Business discussion- exchange of views on a business issue in accordance with more or less defined rules of procedure and with the participation of all or some of its participants.

Press conference- a meeting of officials (leaders, politicians, government officials, public relations specialists, businessmen, etc.) with representatives of the press, television, radio in order to inform the public on topical issues.

Public speech- a monologue oratorical speech addressed to a specific audience, which is delivered with the aim of informing the audience and exerting the desired impact on them (persuasion, suggestion, inspiration, call to action, etc.).

Business correspondence — writing interaction with partners, consisting in the exchange of business letters by mail or e-mail. A business letter is a concise document that serves several functions and addresses one or more related issues. It is used to communicate with external structures, as well as within the organization to transfer information between physical and legal entities on distance.

Also forms of business communication are Public auction and Presentation.

Role-based communication

Role-based communication helps people create and maintain relationships based on business, formal and social contacts. It provides communication in such social tandems as "manager-subordinate," buyer-seller. In such relationships, it is the role, the role expectations of the participants in the communication that determine how the partner will be perceived, how his behavior will be read and his own will be built. In role-based communication, a person is not free in choosing a strategy for his behavior, the perception of the parterre and self-perception.

In role-based communication, a person realizes himself as a member of society, a certain group, an exponent of the interests of certain relations. By participating in such communication, he thereby maintains and develops the system of social, public relations of a certain community. In addition to interpersonal and role communication, there are : ritual, monologic, dialogical.

Ritual communication - a person confirms his existence as a member of society of one or another important group for him. An important feature of ritual relationships is their impersonality. Not only the person considers himself as the bearer of the role, but he perceives the partner formally, as a necessary element of the ritual. Its qualities are not important as long as they do not interfere with the performance of the ritual. In interpersonal relationships, rituals are given little space. Their number increases in situations of emotional tension, psychological flight of partners from each other: emphasized politeness, banal compliments ... Ritual is such a "resource-saving" technology of social confirmation. The ritual style of communication is "object - object" due to the fact that the value of the personality, individuality in it is leveled, it does not have a specific author, there is no focus on a specific person. The participants are equal in their impersonality and in their right to satisfy those important social needs for which they entered the ritual.

Monologue communication - This is a common form of communication that involves positional inequality of partners. There are two types of monologue communication: imperative and manipulation.

Imperative communication it is an authoritarian, directive form of influence on a partner in order to achieve control over his behavior and internal attitudes, coercion into certain actions or decisions. The peculiarity of the imperative is that the ultimate goal of communication - forcing a partner - is not veiled: "You will do as I say." Orders, instructions, instructions and requirements, punishments, incentives are used as means of influencing. It is generally accepted that there are 3 norms of behavior that can be instilled in a baby with the help of a strict imperative: Do not do what is a threat to your life; do not do what is a threat to the life of another person; do not harm the property, values ​​of your family. All other norms of behavior and social values ​​should be instilled in a different way, in the process of cooperation that allows the child to personally

process and internally assimilate the information and requirements of an adult. This will ensure the stability of beliefs and will allow the formation of such personality traits as criticality, independence in actions and assessment of one's own and other people's behavior.

Manipulation- it is a hidden control of the personality, such a psychological impact on a person that ensures the manipulator receives one-sided advantages, but so that the partner retains the illusion of independence of the decisions made. The manipulator exploits psychologically vulnerable spots human traits character, habits, desires, dignity. E. Shostrom, notes that the manipulator is characterized by deceit and primitiveness of feelings, apathy towards life, cynicism and distrust of oneself and others. Relationships built on love, friendship, and mutual affection suffer the most from manipulation. A manipulative attitude towards another leads to the destruction of close, trusting ties between people, be it beloved ones, parents and their children, etc. In any teaching there is always an element of manipulation (to make the lesson more interesting, to motivate children, to attract their attention.) The manipulator lives in every person. E. Shostrom identified 8 types of manipulators, which are united in 4 pairs: dictator-rags: computer-stick: bully-nice guy: judge-defender.

Dictator - Exaggerates its strength. He orders, quotes authorities, authorities and does everything to toughly control his victim.

Rag - a victim of a dictator. Develops great skill in relations with the dictator: he does not hear, is silent, catches on the fly and at a glance. At the right moment, it is easy to change places with the dictator.

Calculator - Exaggerates the possibilities of his control over others. Deceives, evades in order to outwit and lead to clean water. Strives to control everyone and everything.

Stuck - Exaggerates his dependence. Allows others to do their work for themselves.

Hooligan - Exaggerates his aggressiveness, cruelty, ill will, threatens. Thus, he receives conclusions for himself.

Good guy - Exaggerates his care, love, binds to himself with deliberate kindness. Most often wins in a dispute with a bully

Judge - Exaggerates his criticism. He does not trust anyone, is filled with indignation, accusations, with difficulty forgiving.

Defender - The opposite of a judge. Overly forgiving to the mistakes of others. He spoils people by compassion beyond measure, preventing them from becoming

independent and self-critical in their assessments. Assertiveness !!!

Intimate-personal communication

Intimate-personal communication is one of the types of communication based on the personal sympathy of partners in relation to each other, their mutual interest in establishing and maintaining trusting relationships. It assumes I-You-contact, a high degree of trust in a partner, mutual deep self-disclosure.

Intimate-personal communication is realized mainly in friendly or loving relationships. It contributes to the self-actualization of the individual and the maintenance of his mental health. In the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by SI Ozhegov, "intimate" is defined as intimate, intimate, deeply personal, and "intimate" means to treat someone too confidentially, to have intimate conversations.

H. Sullivan believes that psychological intimacy, the presence of confirmation or approval from a communication partner contribute to the discovery for the subject of the true essence of his personality and help to maintain the stability of his Self.

In psychology, various points of view are presented regarding the definition of personal communication:

MI Bobneva proposes to consider it as a substantial form of existence and manifestation of the inner world of the individual. The personal quality that the subject reports is directly manifested in the course of personal communication (for example, a person not only communicates his sincerity, but also manifests it in the process of communication). In this case, the verbal components do not play a primary role. The inner world of a person is not transmitted, but exists.

A. S. Slutsky and V. N. Tsapkin see in personal communication a process of interaction between 2 or more subjects, during which the mutual disclosure of the inner world of each of them is carried out.

EA Rodionova states that in personal communication, it is not so much direct direct information that is important as the attitude of one partner to the point of view of the other, that is, the exchange of "secondary information"; at the same time, personal communication is regulated rather by the image of the interlocutor, and not by the image of the situation.

Following these definitions, we can conclude that personal communication is always mutual and proceeds at a deep value-semantic level, while informational moments are present, but often seem to recede into the background, while the personality of the communication partner is brought to the fore. In the process of intimate-personal communication, there is a mutual transfer of intimate personal information.

I.S.Kon notes that psychologists associate the ability for intimate-personal communication with a high level of development of the identity of boys and girls. The need for intimate and personal communication among girls is formed earlier than among boys. Intimate-personal communication with different partners is also realized at later stages of ontogenesis (for example, intimate-personal communication, friendly, intimate-personal communication, conjugal, intimate-personal communication between children and parents, intimate-personal communication is psychotherapeutic), although at the same time its role and value to personality compared to adolescence decrease slightly.

The need for communication

Communication, as an activity in general, is not only a way of being a developing personality, but also one of the most important ways of mastering human life.

The problem of communication in connection with its determining influence on the process of development and formation of the personality can be considered in two aspects.

On the one hand, communication is a material and practical interaction between individuals and in this sense is woven into the language of real life. People necessarily enter - and cannot but enter into - certain relations with each other already by virtue of the social mode of their existence, in which any relationship of an individual as a person, including to himself, is mediated by his relationship to another person.

Communication is a component, an attribute of activity as a specifically human form of activity. The activity itself contains the objective necessity of communication between individuals in the form of "exchange" (K. Marx) of abilities, knowledge, experience, results of activity, etc. Being directly interwoven into various types of activity as their essential and obligatory moment, communication is necessary included in the process of determining the development of the personality as a subject of activity.

The problem of communication appears in psychology in another aspect. It is connected with the fact that communication as interpersonal interaction acts as the content of one of the fundamental human needs - a person's need for the personality of another individual.

And if, when considering the first of the indicated aspects, the main thing in the development of the personality is the moment of external determination coming from the objective conditions and forms of human life, then when considering the second aspect, the center of gravity shifts towards the personality itself, towards its own activity and capabilities, i.e. . to the internal determinants of development.

This aspect of the problem of communication acts as a strictly psychological aspect, since the subject of consideration is the motivational - incentive sphere of the personality. For psychology dealing with a specific person, it is important, of course, to determine the internal driving forces of the development of the individual as a person, to reveal the real psychological basis of this process.

A person's need for communication, the subject of which is the personality of another person as similar to him, but possessing the wealth of his own subjectivity, is realized primarily as interpersonal interaction. In the process of this interaction, there is an exchange of ideas, thoughts, feelings, reflections, experiences, interests, moods, character traits, etc., that is, everything that is the property of the inner world of communicating individuals and determines the richness of their subjective experience.

In interpersonal interaction, a "dialogical" connection of equal partners is established, in which there are no polarizations of the parties in the sense that one "produces" and the other "consumes". This is always a two-way, mutual enrichment, because by sharing his feelings, thoughts, knowledge with others, “giving” himself to others, a person himself becomes spiritually richer, reaches higher levels of moral and psychological maturity. With all clarity and evidence, this pattern appears in the feelings of love, friendship, comradeship, which represent the most profound and individualized forms of manifestation of a person's need for another person.

In the process of satisfying the need for communication through specific mechanisms of identification, empathy, feeling, synchronization, suggestion, imitation, etc., an opportunity arises, remaining within the framework of your “I”, as if to step into the subjective world of another person, to join the common human experience ( for example, in the process of "consumption" of works of art, literature). That is why the need for communication contains the key to understanding how the transition of a person, a bearer of individual subjectivity, an individual essence, into a person, a bearer of a social essence, is carried out, and vice versa.

Experimental studies of various aspects of the emergence and development of the need for communication on different stages ontogenesis, and especially at its early stages, convincingly show the huge role of the need for communication in the overall progress of the individual - in the development of the most important personal structures and forms of behavior.

The perceptual side of communication

(communication as knowledge and understanding by people of each other)

Social perception concept

The emergence and successful development of the process of interpersonal communication is possible only if there is mutual understanding between its participants. The extent to which people reflect the traits and feelings of each other, perceive and understand others, and through them and themselves, largely determines the process of communication itself, and the relationships that develop between them, and the ways in which people carry out joint activities. Thus, the process of one person's perception of another in the course of communication acts as an obligatory component of communication and can conditionally be called the perceptual side of communication.

Let us consider, using a hypothetical example, how, in general, the process of perception by one person (let's call him an observer) of another (observed) unfolds. In what he observes, only external physical signs are available for perception, among which the most informative are appearance (physical qualities plus appearance) and behavior (performed actions and expressive reactions). Perceiving these qualities, the observer evaluates them in a certain way and makes some conclusions (often unconsciously) about the internal psychological properties of the communication partner. The sum of the properties attributed to the observed, in turn, gives the person the opportunity to form a certain attitude towards him (this attitude is most often emotional in nature and is located within the "like - dislike" continuum). Based on the psychological properties assumed in the observed, the observer makes certain conclusions about what kind of behavior in relation to him, the observer, can be expected from the perceived person, and then, based on these questions, builds his own strategy of behavior in relation to the observed person. Let us explain what has been said with an example. A man standing at a bus stop late in the evening notices an approaching pedestrian. He is dressed in dark clothes, has his hands in his pockets and moves with a quick, decisive march. If the person standing at the bus stop is calm and confident in himself, he may think something like this: “This person, apparently, is frozen and will be very taken aback. Probably late for home or for a date. Now he will walk calmly by. " And having thought in this way, the observer will also calmly continue his expectation.

If a person at a bus stop is anxious or suspicious, he can reason differently: “Why does he have his hands in his pockets? How quickly he is approaching me! He may have bad things on his mind. The sight is painfully suspicious "... And the person will disappear into the shadows (" out of harm's way ").

The entire process of social perception described above can be represented in the form of the following diagram:

Thus, we define social perception as the perception of external signs of a person, their correlation personal characteristics, interpretation and forecasting on this basis of his actions. Social perception cannot be viewed, by analogy with perceptual mental processes, as a purely cognitive, "rational" act of imprinting the external properties of the perceived person. It necessarily includes the assessment of the other and the formation of an attitude towards him in emotional and behavioral terms. On the basis of the external side of behavior, we kind of "read" the inner world of a person, trying to understand it and develop our own emotional attitude to what is perceived. In general, in the course of social perception, an emotional assessment of another is carried out, an attempt to understand the reasons for his actions and to predict his behavior, the creation of his own strategy of behavior.

It is also possible to distinguish four main functions of social perception: knowing oneself, knowing a communication partner, organizing joint activities based on mutual understanding and establishing emotional relationships.

If we turn again to the scheme of social perception, we can see in it the so-called "weak points", that is, those nodal points of the process in which distortions in the objective perception of another person are most likely to occur. It is easy to see that such "weak points" are, first of all, the psychological characteristics and attitudes of the observer himself, the characteristics of the observed, accessible to perception (to what extent they adequately reflect the objective psychological properties of a given person) and the adequacy (legitimacy) of the assessments on which the observer's attitude is built to the object of observation. In other words, there are two main aspects of the study of the process of social perception. One is associated with the study of the psychological and social characteristics of the subject and object of perception, and the second - with the analysis of the mechanisms of interpersonal reflection. Let us dwell on their analysis in more detail.

Study psychological characteristics of the observer,

influencing the process of social perception - a fairly popular and developed area of ​​social psychology. So, in the perception and assessment of each other by people, individual, gender, age, professional and gender-role differences were recorded. So, it was revealed that children first learn to recognize expression by facial expressions, then the analysis of emotions through gestures and relationships of other people becomes available to them. In general, children more than adults are focused on the design of their appearance (clothes, hairstyle, presence distinctive features uniforms, glasses, etc.) than adults. It was noticed that teachers and teachers notice and evaluate in their students different qualities and traits than the same students and students of their teachers. A similar discrepancy occurs in the perception and assessment of subordinates by the leader and vice versa. The profession of an observer significantly influences the process of perception. So, when assessing people, teachers are very strongly focused on the speech of the perceived, and, for example, choreographers, sports coaches, first of all, notice the physical constitution of a person.

Although the above characteristics of the observer play a certain role in shaping the assessment of the communication partner, however highest value have the psychological qualities of a person and the system of settings he has. The internal psychological and social attitudes of the subject of perception "trigger" a certain scheme of social perception. At the same time, sometimes the result of the perception of another person is quite rigidly programmed by this scheme. The work of such attitudes and such perceptual schemes is especially significant in the formation of the first impression of a stranger. This will be discussed in more detail below.

In social psychology, there is a long tradition of research and psychological properties of the object of perception, that is, the observed person. At the same time, most studies are an attempt to answer the question: what psychological and other properties of the observed are the most important and informative for the process of its cognition by the observer, what do people first of all pay attention to when evaluating communication partners?

These most significant properties of the observed person include: the expression of his face (facial expressions), ways of expressing expression (feelings), gestures and postures, gait, appearance (clothing, hairstyle) and especially the voice and speech. At the same time, studies show that it is possible to distinguish both widespread, "international" gestures, postures and other signs that have almost the same interpretation in different cultures, and rather specific means, noticed and evaluated only by people of a certain national or cultural group.

We can give examples of expressive gestures that have a universal interpretation in European culture:

• fingers brought together by the tips - shame, humility, humility
• finger clasped by the palm of the other hand - self-encouragement

various "scratching" of the head - indecision, unwillingness. Thus, being brought up in a certain cultural and national environment, the child learns a set of expressive means with the help of which it is customary among adults to express their states and desires, and at the same time learns to "read" from the behavior and appearance of other people the signs with which they can be understand and appreciate.

At the same time, it is possible to single out a number of universal psychological mechanisms that provide the very process of perception and assessment of another person, allowing for the transition from externally perceived to assessment, attitude and forecast. Let's dwell on the job description mechanisms of social perception.

Social Perception Mechanisms

We can talk about the existence of mechanisms that ensure the knowledge and understanding of another person, himself in the process of communicating with him, and provide predicting the actions of the communication partner.

The mechanisms of cognition and understanding include, first of all, identification, empathy and attraction. Identification is a way of knowing another, in which the assumption about his inner state is based on an attempt to put himself in the place of a communication partner. That is, there is an assimilation of oneself to another. Identifying with another assimilates its norms, values, behavior, tastes and habits. A person behaves as in his opinion this person would build his behavior in a given situation. Identification has a special personal significance at a certain age stage, approximately in older adolescence and adolescence, when it largely determines the nature of the relationship between a young man and significant adults or peers (for example, attitude towards an idol).

Empathy can be defined as emotional empathy or empathy for another. Through emotional response, a person achieves an understanding of the inner state of another. Empathy is based on the ability to correctly imagine what is happening inside another person, what he is experiencing, how he evaluates the world... It is known that empathy is the higher, the better a person is able to imagine how one and the same event will be perceived by different people, and how much he admits the right to exist of these different points vision. Empathy, empathy in relation to a communication partner can be considered as one of the most important professional qualities psychologist, teacher, social worker. In a number of cases, the development of the ability for empathy seems to be a special task for people associated with this kind of activity, and is solved with the help of active self-education, participation in various groups of professional development.

Attraction (literally - attraction) can be considered as a special form of cognition of another person, based on the formation of a stable positive feeling in relation to her. In this case, the understanding of the communication partner arises due to the formation of attachment to him, a friendly or even deeper intimate-personal relationship.

The mechanism of self-knowledge in the process of communication was called social reflection. Social reflection is understood as the ability of a person to imagine how he is perceived by a communication partner. In other words, it is the knowledge of how the other knows me. It is important to emphasize that the completeness of a person's ideas about himself is largely determined by the richness of his ideas in other people, the breadth and variety of his social contacts, which make it possible to analyze the attitude towards himself on the part of various communication partners. In addition, and this is especially important for a psychologist, the key to knowing oneself is openness to other people. This thesis can be clarified by the example of the famous "Yogari window".

Each personality is a set of four psychological spaces:

At the beginning of communication, you can depict the volume of each of the named personal spaces as follows:

However, as a result of the establishment of open, direct relationships, the picture changes:

Thus, revealing our inner world to others in the process of communication, we ourselves get access to the riches of our own soul.

Turning to the third group of social perception mechanisms that provide predicting the behavior of a communication partner, we will single out the most important, one might even say a universal mechanism for interpreting the actions and feelings of another person - the mechanism causal attribution- or the reason for the interpretation.

In the process of communication, a person never or almost never possesses complete information about the reasons for the partner's behavior. In conditions of a shortage of such information, the individual has no choice but to form his forecast on the basis of an assumption about possible causes, in other words, to ascribe to another certain motives and reasons for certain actions and reactions; Despite the fact that such attribution is a purely individual process, its versatile studies have revealed a number of patterns in accordance with which causal attribution unfolds.

Before turning to their presentation, let us give some experimental examples of studying the process of inflicted attribution. The most revealing are the experiments carried out under the direction of A. A. Bodalev. A group of subjects were alternately shown photographs of a young woman and an elderly man. The subjects, examining the photograph for five seconds, had to verbally recreate the appearance of a person. Before each showing of the same photograph, different groups of subjects were given different attitudes. So, one group was told that a photograph of a teacher would be shown, and another - an artist. An elderly man was told to one group that they would see a hero and another a criminal. The results showed that almost half of the subjects described the person according to the information they received at the beginning. You can give the following examples of descriptions of an elderly man: “The person is degraded, very embittered. Unkemptly combed. A very evil look ”, and“ ... Very expressive eyes, which are usually found in intelligent, perceptive people. A person with such eyes must know and love life, people well ”...

In another study, experienced kindergarten teachers were told about a child's misconduct and shown a photo of the toddler, asking for an assessment of the misconduct. But some of the teachers were shown a pretty kid, and others - an ugly one. As a result, those who saw the cute baby turned out to be more indulgent towards him. The unsympathetic were attributed to much more negative personality traits and harsher methods of punishment were proposed.

Now let's turn to the analysis of various aspects of attributive behavior.

It is known that each person has his own "favorite" schemes of causality, that is, the usual ways of explaining someone else's behavior. So, people with personal attribution in any situation tend to find a specific culprit of what happened, attribute the cause of what happened to a specific person. In case of addiction to adverbial attribution, people tend to blame the circumstances first of all, without looking for a specific culprit. Finally, with stimulus attribution, a person sees the cause of what happened in the subject to which the action was directed (the vase fell because it was not standing well) or, for example, to the victim (it is his own fault that he was hit by a car).

When studying the process of causal attribution, many different attribution patterns have been identified. For example, people most often attribute success to themselves, and failure - to circumstances. The nature of the attribution also depends on the degree of participation of a person in the event under discussion. The score will be different in cases if he was a participant (accomplice) or an observer. A special issue is attributing to the observed responsibility for the actions performed. The general pattern is that as the severity of what happened, the subjects are inclined to move from circumstantial and stimulus to personal attribu- tion (that is, to look for the cause of what happened in the conscious actions of the individual).

In general, the study of the phenomenon of causal attribution allows one to better imagine the process of forming an assessment and attitude towards a communication partner.

Typical schemes for the formation of the first impression

Speaking about social perception, it should be noted that this is a fairly developed area of ​​socio-psychological knowledge, especially in matters related to the formation of the first impression of a person. It is known that in the process of long-term communication, people's attitudes become very individual, hardly amenable to some kind of schematization, while at the first stages the main role is assigned to various stable schemes of perception of the actions and feelings of another person, stereotypes formed in past life process.

Let us dwell on the analysis of typical schemes and stereotypes of interpersonal perception.

The literature describes the three most typical schemes for the formation of the first impression of a person. Each scheme is "triggered" by a certain factor, one way or another present in the situation of acquaintance: the factor of superiority, the factor of attractiveness of the partner and the factor of attitude towards the observer. The first scheme of social perception begins to work in a situation of inequality of partners (more precisely, when the observer feels the superiority of the partner in some important parameter for him - intelligence, height, material status, or another). The essence of what happens next is that a person who surpasses the observer in an important parameter is evaluated by him significantly higher in other significant parameters. In other words, his general personal reassessment takes place. Moreover, the more insecure the observer feels at the moment, in this particular situation, the less is needed to launch this scheme. Thus, in extreme situations, people are often ready to trust those whom they would not listen to in a calm environment.

The second scheme is associated with the perception of a partner as extremely attractive in appearance. The mistake of attractiveness is that people also tend to overestimate an outwardly attractive person according to other important psychological and social parameters. So, in the experiments it was shown that people who are more beautiful in photographs are assessed as more confident, happy and sincere, and men were inclined to consider beautiful women more caring and decent.

Finally, the third scheme of the partner's perception is triggered by his attitude towards us. The error of perception in this case is that people who are good about him or share some of his important ideas, the person is inclined to evaluate higher and on other indicators.

The concept of social stereotype

All the typical schemes for the formation of the first impression of a person are based on a social stereotype. A social stereotype is understood as a stable image or a stable idea of ​​any phenomena or people characteristic of representatives of a particular social group. Different social groups, real (nation) or imaginary (professional group), develop stereo types, stable explanations of certain facts, habitual interpretations of things.

The best known are ethnic stereotypes - images of typical representatives of certain nations who hope for fixed features of appearance and character traits (for example, stereotypical ideas about the stiffness and thinness of the British, the frivolity of the French, the eccentricity of Italians, characteristic of domestic culture).

For an individual who has perceived the stereotypes of his group, they perform an important function of simplifying and reducing the process of perception of another person. The stereotype can be considered as a "rough adjustment" tool that allows a person to "save" psychological resources. They have their own "permitted" sphere of social application. For example, stereotypes are actively used in assessing a person's group national or professional affiliation. However, in the case of the active use of the stereotype as a means of cognition and understanding of other people, the emergence of prejudices and significant distortions of the objective situation is inevitable. Let us turn to examples of pedagogical stereotypes and their role in education.

One of the most important results of pedagogical stereotyping is the formation of an ideal student model in the teacher's mind. This is the kind of student who confirms the teacher in his role as a successful teacher and makes his work enjoyable: willing to cooperate, striving for knowledge, disciplined. Children who are similar to this ideal are perceived by the teacher not only as good students, but in general as good people, pleasant to talk to, decent and developed. Children who fit the opposite image of “bad students” are generally perceived as non-different, aggressive, bad people, and are a source of negative emotions for the teacher.

It is very important that the expectations formed by teachers in relation to the child, in fact, determine his real achievements. This is due not only to the bias of teachers who have become a victim of their own stereotypes, but also to the fact that the child's self-perception is formed under the influence of such expectations. As Western psychologist Rist notes, many children are doomed to drag out a miserable existence in school and feel dislike for themselves only because they were labeled as "underdeveloped", "unbalanced", "incapable" from the very beginning. That is, feedback from teachers to a student, in the form of expectations, often works, in the words of R. Burns, as a "self-actualizing prophecy." This is easy to show with examples.

Thus, in one of the experiments, the opinions of first grade teachers about the rates of mastering reading skills in boys and girls were revealed. A group of teachers was singled out who believed that there was no gender difference, and a group of teachers who believed that boys learn such skills worse. Measurements carried out a year later showed that in the classes of teachers of group I there were no differences in the quality of reading between boys and girls, and in the classes of teachers of the second group boys as a whole lagged significantly behind female representatives. The described fact is called the “stereotype of expectation” or “the Pygmalion effect”. It can be formed not only on the basis of the ideal image of the student or theoretical pedagogical concepts of the teacher, but even on the basis of the child's name. Studies have shown that children who have a name that the teacher likes have a more positive internal attitude towards themselves compared to children who have names that are not accepted by the teacher. The name can also influence the teacher's expectations for a given child's academic success.

The "stereotype of expectation" is a really operating factor pedagogical process... This is due to the fact that it manifests itself not only in the attitudes and expectations of the teacher, but also very actively - in his behavior. Let's consider the real manifestations of the stereotype of expectation in teaching practice.

1. 1. The stereotype is manifested in the attitude towards the answers of the pupils. Good students are called in more often and more actively supported. The teacher, through his gestures and phrases, makes it clear to the “bad” student from the very beginning that he does not expect anything good from him. An amazing paradox arises: the teacher objectively spends less time on polling "bad" students than on polling "good" ones, but in the mind of a teacher subject to a "stereotype of expectation" the situation subjectively turns upside down, and he sincerely believes that he spends the lion's share study time for laggards.
2. 2. The stereotype is also on the nature of the help in answering. Unbeknownst to himself, the teacher prompts and helps the “good” to confirm their expectations. However, he is convinced that he is pulling out the bad student.
3. 3. The stereotype generates characteristic statements about successful and unsuccessful students. The bad ones are criticized more and more sharply with the use of generalizations like “I haven’t learned again”, “As always, you ...”, etc.

In general, the stereotype of expectation can also have positive consequences if the teacher has been able to develop positive expectations for a weak child. However, studies show that this stereotype works more efficiently and more consistently at the negative pole.

Thus, we examined the most important aspects of the process of social perception - that is, the knowledge and understanding of each other by people in the course of communication. As already noted, one of the functions of social cognition is the creation of a psychological basis (in the form of mutual understanding) for the organization of joint activities). Below we will focus on the ways of organizing interaction in the process of interpersonal communication.

Interactive side of communication

(organization of interaction in the process of communication)

The interactive side of communication is a conventional term denoting the characteristics of those aspects of interpersonal communication that are primarily associated with the interaction of people. In the course of communication, it is important for its participants not only to exchange information and establish mutual understanding, but also to organize the exchange of actions, plan common activities, develop forms and norms of joint actions.

When characterizing this side of communication, we turn to the analysis of the types of interpersonal interaction, as well as the motivation that can induce the participants in the communication to choose one or another type of interaction.

Characteristics of strategies interpersonal interactions

First of all, we note that in various studies, several most important types of social motives have been identified (that is, the motives with which a person interacts with other people):

1. 1. The motive for maximizing the total gain (otherwise the motive for cooperation).
2. 2. The motive for maximizing your own gain (otherwise, individualism).
3. 3. The motive for maximizing the relative gain (competition).
4. 4. The motive for maximizing the gain of another (altruism).
5. 5. The motive for minimizing the gain of the other (aggression).
6. 6. The motive for minimizing the differences in payoffs (equality).

Obviously, all possible motives that determine the social interaction of people can be included in the framework of this scheme. Naturally, the nature of the social motivation of the participants in the interaction determines both the means of communication, and the result of interaction, and the relationship between communication partners. It can be assumed that the ratio of communication motives available to the interaction participants is especially important: if they coincide or naturally complement each other, one can predict a greater success of their contacts. It is also possible to single out those motives that are likely to lead to “losing” in terms of successful communication strategies of interaction. These include the second and fifth motives, leading to ignoring the interests of the communication partner, which in turn probably activates protective strategies on his part.

What strategies of interaction can be singled out in general, based on the characteristics of motivation that determines the choice of strategy? To answer this question, let us imagine interaction as a process unfolding in the following coordinate system. On the Y-axis, there are interaction strategies aimed at achieving their own goals by its participants. On the X axis - strategies focused on achieving the goals of the communication partner.

Accordingly, on each scale, a minimum point and a maximum point can be distinguished (as extreme forms of manifestation of a particular orientation). And in accordance with the initial social motivation of the participants in communication, it is possible to designate five main strategies of their behavior in the process of interaction:

• . point P corresponds to the motive of maximizing one's own gain and the strategy of behavior, called "counteraction". In this case, the individual demonstrates a complete orientation towards his goals without taking into account the goals of the communication partners.
• . point I - the "avoidance" strategy - corresponds to the moti-wu of minimizing the gain of the other. The meaning of the avoidance strategy is in avoiding contact, true interaction, losing one's own goals for the sake of eliminating the gain of the other.
• . point Y symbolizes the strategy of "compliance", focused on the realization of the motive of altruism. In this case, a person sacrifices his own goals for the sake of achieving a goal by a partner.
• . point K is a "compromise" strategy that allows realizing the motive of minimizing differences in gains. The essence of this strategy is the incomplete achievement of goals by partners for the sake of conditional equality.

• . Finally, point C symbolizes the strategy of "cooperation" aimed at full satisfaction of the participants in the interaction of their social needs. This strategy makes it possible to realize one of two motives of human social behavior - the motive of cooperation or the motive of competition.

The last of the named strategies can be considered as the most productive in terms of the effectiveness of interaction and as the most successful in terms of the well-being of the participants in communication and their relationships. At the same time, it is very difficult to implement, since it requires significant psychological efforts from communication partners to create a positive climate, resolve emerging contradictions in the spirit of mutual understanding, respect for the interests of another. In many cases, teaching people the skills of cooperative behavior is an independent psychological task, which is most often solved by methods of active socio-psychological learning. Collaboration is the most effective strategy for pedagogical interaction. It manifests itself in the fact that the teacher does not consider the child as an obstacle to his successful professional work, but as a person with goals in education. The teacher, without giving up his desire to effectively and with a sense of satisfaction to teach his subject, can find such forms of interaction that would not put the student in a position of humiliation, did not force him to give up his interests and inclinations under pressure, and created conditions for successful implementation and a teacher as a professional, and a child as a person.

The strategy of cooperation should find its expression in the teacher's behavior, his non-verbal reactions and the words with which he addresses the student, in his responses to the student's statements, his ability to listen and answer questions, in the ways of expressing his feelings. Of course, the implementation this method interaction is impossible if the teacher is not inwardly tuned in to a respectful attitude to the interests and views of the student, his needs and desires.

The structure of interpersonal interaction

The issue of the most important characteristics of the interaction process deserves a separate discussion. He always faces a researcher, a practicing psychologist, faced with the need to observe real interpersonal interaction. What characteristics of the observed exchange of actions between communication partners are really important for the analysis of the entire communication process, and which ones play a secondary role? There is no doubt that the answer to this question depends on the type of communication observed, its direction, as well as the goals of observation. At the same time, a number of invariant characteristics of interaction can be distinguished, the fixation and analysis of which are important in a variety of observation situations. The registration scheme for such characteristics was developed, in particular, by R. Bales. In his opinion, the whole spectrum of interpersonal interactions can be described in the interest of study using 4 categories: the area of ​​positive emotions, the area of ​​negative emotions, the area of ​​problem solving and the area of ​​problem statement. In turn, each category is revealed through several most important manifestations, forming the following interaction registration scheme:

By registering the frequency and form of manifestation of certain categories in the course of real interaction, one can understand its features. For example, in which particular area the communication unfolds, what it is directed at, whether the behavior of the participants was constructive or was directed at the emotional rejection of other participants, and so on.

It is also appropriate to give another scheme for registering the characteristics of interaction, developed by N. Flanders for the analysis of pedagogical communication (teacher-student during the lesson). It distinguishes 10 categories, according to which the reactions of teachers and students in the lesson are differentiated:

A. Teacher reaction

1. Accepts the attitude or tone and expression of the student's emotions and clarifies his attitude in a non-threatening manner

2. Approves the student's actions or behavior

3. Develops ideas suggested by the student

4. Asks questions based on his ideas, with the intention of getting an answer from the student

5. Explanation, development of own ideas

6. Commands, instructions to be followed by the student

1. Critical remarks addressed to the student of a directive nature, in a raised tone, an appeal to the authority of the teacher.

B. Student reaction

8. Answer only to the teacher's appeal, the freedom of one's own statements (on the topic of discussion) is limited

1. Expression of your own ideas, questions, suggestions, free development of your own thoughts.

B. Situation of interaction

10. Silence or confusion of those interacting. Pauses, short periods of silence, the meaning of which is incomprehensible to the observer.

We examined the features of interpersonal interaction in the process of communication, described its most important types and characteristics. Let us dwell below on one of the possible consequences of its unproductive development, characterized by the emergence and development of interpersonal conflict.

Socio-psychological characteristics of the conflict

Psychologically, a conflict can be viewed as a collision of incompatible, oppositely directed tendencies in a person's consciousness, in interpersonal or intergroup relationships, associated with acute negative experiences. Let us note the most important points of this definition. Firstly, conflicts are understood as those interactions and relationships that are based on incompatible interests, needs or values ​​and their simultaneous satisfaction, existence is impossible.

Secondly, it is possible to distinguish intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup conflict, depending on the space in which objective contradictions have arisen and are developing.

Thirdly, the conflict in the psychological plan is not accompanied by negative emotional states for its participants, complicating the already difficult situation of objective contradiction.

In social psychology, when analyzing interpersonal conflicts, it is customary to discuss the causes of conflicts, their structure, development dynamics and functions. In addition, we will turn to the study of the problems of conflict prevention and psychological mediation in their resolution.

The communicative side of communication

(communication as exchange of information)

In the process of communication, people exchange various ideas, interests, moods, feelings, etc. All this can be considered as a variety of information, and in this case, communication appears to us as a communicative process. It is important to remember that communication processes between people differ significantly from information exchange in technical devices; interpersonal communication, both in content and in its form, has important specific features. The specificity of interpersonal communication is revealed, first of all, in the following processes and phenomena: the feedback process, the presence of communication barriers, the phenomenon of communicative influence and the existence of different levels of information transfer (verbal and non-verbal). Let's analyze these features in more detail.

Interpersonal feedback

First of all, it should be noted that information in communication is not simply transmitted from one partner to another (the person transmitting the information is usually called the communicator, and the recipient of this information is called the recipient), but is exchanged. Accordingly, the main task of information exchange in communication is not a simple translation of information in the forward or reverse direction, but the development of a common meaning, a single point of view and agreement about a particular situation or communication problem. To solve this problem, within the framework of the general information process, a special mechanism, characteristic exclusively for interpersonal communication, works - the mechanism feedback... The meaning of this mechanism is that in interpersonal communication the process of information exchange doubles, and in addition to content-related aspects, the information coming from the recipient to the communicator contains information about how the recipient perceives and evaluates the behavior of the communicator. Thus, feedback is information containing the recipient's reaction to the behavior of the communicator. The purpose of providing feedback is to help the communication partner understand how his actions are perceived, what feelings they cause in other people. The transmission of feedback to the communicator can be carried out in various ways. First of all, they talk about direct and indirect feedback. In the first case, the information coming from the recipient, in an open and unambiguous form, contains a reaction to the speaker's behavior. These can be open statements such as "I hate what you are saying", "I hardly understand what is being said now," etc., as well as gestures and various manifestations of feelings of annoyance, irritation, joy and other ... Such feedback provides an adequate understanding of it by the communicator, creates conditions for effective communication. Indirect feedback is a veiled form of transferring psychological information to a partner. For this, various rhetorical questions, ridicule, ironic remarks, and unexpected emotional reactions are often used. In this case, the communicator must himself guess what exactly the communication partner wanted to render him, what is, in fact, his reaction and his attitude to the communicator. Naturally, guesses are far from always correct, which greatly complicates both the exchange of information and the entire communication process.

Thus, we named the first distinguishing feature of interpersonal communication - the presence of psychological feedback.

Communication barrier concept

In the process of communication, the participants in communication are faced with the task not only and not so much to exchange information, but to achieve its adequate understanding by partners. That is, in interpersonal communication, the interpretation of the message coming from the communicator to the recipient appears as a special problem. Firstly, the form and content of the message significantly depends on the personality characteristics of the communicator himself, his ideas about the recipient and the attitude towards him, the whole situation in which the communication takes place. Secondly, the message sent by him does not remain unchanged: it transforms, changes under the influence of the individual psychological characteristics of the recipient's personality, the latter's attitude to the author, the text itself, the communication situation. The same words heard by a person from the mouth of the boss and his own son can induce him to completely different psychological reactions: the remark of a high-status person will be listened to with due attention, and the remark of the son, even correct in form, will suddenly cause irritation in his soul. Different people can perceive the same transmission in completely different ways, depending on their political passions, cultural habits and preferences. One student will perceive the same remark of the teacher as an instruction to action, and the second as an unfair nagging, one will take note of it, and the other will not even hear.

What does the adequacy of information perception depend on? There are several reasons, the most important of which is the presence or absence in the process of communication communication barriers... In the most general sense, a communication barrier is a psychological obstacle to the adequate transfer of information between communication partners. In the event of a barrier, information is distorted or loses its original meaning, and in some cases it does not reach the recipient at all. We can talk about the existence of barriers of misunderstanding, socio-cultural differences and barriers to attitude.

Examples of the artificial creation of this kind of barriers can be cited, for example, by children who create their own language on the basis of a common language, which is poorly understood by adults (remember Tosla and Vistula from fairy tales about the Mummy Troll). Removing the background barrier is possible in the case of improving the speech quality of communication participants, teaching them the basics of rhetoric.

There is also a semantic barrier of misunderstanding associated primarily with differences in the systems of meanings (thesauri) of the participants in communication. This is primarily a problem of jargon and slang. It is known that even within the same culture there are many micro-cultures, each of which creates its own "field of meanings", is characterized by its own specific understanding of various concepts, phenomena, expressed by them. So, in different micro-cultures the meaning of such values ​​as “beauty”, “duty”, “nature”, “decency” and so on is not equally understood. In addition, each environment creates its own mini-language of communication, its own slang, each with its own favorite quotes and jokes, expressions and turns of speech. All this together can significantly complicate the communication process, creating a semantic barrier of misunderstanding. For a number of professions, the removal of such barriers is a very urgent problem, since their success is directly related to the creation of adequate interpersonal relationships with other people. This primarily applies to teachers, doctors, psychologists, specialists in the field of management, advertising, and so on. It is important for them to be able to assimilate other people's semantic systems in order to speak with people “in their language” without provoking the emergence of semantic barriers with their own specific speech.

An equally important role in the destruction of normal interpersonal communication can be played by the stylistic barrier that arises when the communicator's speech style and the communication situation or speech style and the actual psychological state of the recipient do not match. since it will be expressed in an inappropriate situation in a pani-brotherly manner, or children will not perceive an interesting story because of the dry, emotionally unsaturated or pseudo-scientific speech of an adult. The communicator needs to subtly feel the state of his recipients, to grasp the shades of the emerging communication situation in order to bring the style of his message into conformity with it.

Finally, we can talk about the existence of a logical barrier of misunderstanding. It arises in cases when the logic of reasoning offered by the communicator is either too difficult for the recipient to perceive, or seems to him to be incorrect, contradicts his inherent manner of proof. Psychologically, we can talk about the existence of many logics and logical systems of evidence. For some people, it is logical and evidential that does not contradict reason, for others, that which corresponds to duty and morality. You can talk about the existence of "female" and "male" psychological logic, about children's "logic", etc. It depends on the recipient's psychological predilections whether he will accept the proposed system of evidence or find it unconvincing. For a communicator, the choice is adequate this moment the evidence system is always an open problem.

As noted above, the cause of the psychological barrier can be socio-cultural differences between communication partners. These can be social, political, religious and professional differences, which lead to different interpretations of certain concepts used in the process of communication. The very perception of a communication partner as a person of a certain profession, a certain nationality, gender and age can act as a barrier. For example, the credibility of the communicator in the eyes of the recipient is of great importance for the emergence of a barrier. The higher the authority, the fewer obstacles to the assimilation of the proposed information. The very unwillingness to listen to the opinion of this or that person is often explained by his low authority (for example, the famous "eggs do not teach a chicken"). This easily explains the thoroughness with which people collect all authoritative opinions that can serve as confirmation of their personal private position (various references to authoritative sources, the well-known formula "have an opinion", citing the classics, and so on).

Relationship barriers are already a purely psychological phenomenon that arises in the process of communication between the communicator and the recipient. We are talking about the emergence of a feeling of hostility, distrust of the communicator himself, which extends to the information transmitted by him.

Considering the essence of the phenomenon of a psychological barrier, one cannot fail to notice that any psychological barrier is, first of all, a defense that the recipient builds on the path of the information offered to him. Before turning to the reasons that induce a person to defend himself from information, let us illustrate the protective work of psychological barriers with the following everyday example. Let us imagine a person, a heavy smoker, who felt bad and turned to his friend, a professional doctor, for advice. A friend, having checked his state of health, declares the need to quit smoking, citing the following argument: "Your breathing becomes hard and your heart is playing pranks." If a person does not want to waste efforts and part with a stable habit, how can he protect himself from such unpleasant and traumatic information? There are several psychological barriers that he can use for this purpose: The first way - distortion and avoidance of information, active attentiveness to all facts that contradict it “Today I feel much lighter, my heart is calm - it was a temporary phenomenon” or “ This post teaches that smoking can help cope with stress ”). The second way is to reduce the authority of the source of information: “Of course he is a doctor, but for many years he has been retraining as a gastroenterologist. He understands a lot about heart diseases! " Finally, the third possibility is protection through misunderstanding, for example, logical: “If he knew what really bad breath is! Here is my neighbor, for example! And nothing, smokes. "

Impact in the communication process

The study of the simple example described above makes it possible to understand what makes a person defend himself from other people's information. The fact is that any information coming to the recipient carries one or another element of influence on his behavior, opinions, attitudes, desires with the aim of their partial or complete change. That is, interpersonal communication always involves communicative influence and an attempt to influence the behavior of a communication partner. In this sense, the communicative barrier is a form of psychological protection against foreign psychic influence carried out in the process of information exchange between participants in communication.

Let us turn to the analysis of the forms and conditions of communicative influence. It is customary to distinguish two types of communicative influence, which differ significantly both in tasks and in the means of influence of the communicator on the recipient - authoritarian and dialogical communication. It is advisable to consider them in the form of a comparison for a number of important parameters. Brief results of such a comparative analysis are shown in the table below.

First of all, these two types of communication differ in the nature of the psychological attitude that arises in the communicator in relation to the recipients. This attitude in the overwhelming majority of cases is not realized by the author of the message, but it determines the style of his communicative impact. In the case of authoritarian influence, this is a “top-down” attitude, in the case of a dialogical one - equal rights. The “top-down” attitude presupposes not only the subordinate position of the recipient, but also his perception by the communicator as a passive object of influence: the communicator broadcasts, the listener listens and uncritically accepts information. It is assumed that the recipient does not have a stable opinion on a certain issue, and if there is, he can change it in the direction necessary for the communicator. In the case of an equal attitude, the listener is perceived as an active participant in the communicative process, who has the right to defend or form his own opinion in the process of communication. Accordingly, the positions of the recipients in communicative acts of an authoritarian and dialogical type also differ. In the first, the listener acts as a passive contemplator, in the second, he is forced to engage in an active internal search for his own position on the issue under discussion.

This difference in the position of the recipient is largely due not only to the position of the communicator, but also to the nature of the text itself, the construction of utterances. So, in the case of authoritarian communication, the text often has an impersonal, “general” character (“it is considered”, “there is an opinion”, “it is known that” ...), the problem is presented one-sidedly, in an axiomatic form, the author's view is the only correct one. It is not the text that is oriented towards the listener, but the listener is made dependent on the text and its content. Dialogic communication presupposes the rejection of the impersonal theist, his active personification, broadcasting on his own behalf. The communicator does not hide his true feelings about this or that message content. The listener is made aware that the communicator expresses his personal point of view, trying to substantiate it convincingly.

The message is presented not as an axiom and dogma, but as a specific problem that has various solutions, including the author's approach. That is, the content of the text is controversial. The text is oriented towards the listener, in whom the so-called "You-attitude" is formed: "As you know" ..., "It will be interesting for you to know" ..., "Let's consider" ... etc.

Further, the authoritarian act of communication will be formed according to the principle of monophony (one opinion - one voice). Listeners are ordered to be silent. Dialogue communication initially presupposes the possibility of participation of listeners in the discussion of the problem.

Significant differences are also found when considering the typical ways of organizing space. In authoritarian communication, it is assumed that all participants can only see the lecturer:

In dialogic communication, it is preferable to organize the space in which all participants see both the communicator and each other:

Finally, significant differences are found in the postures and gestures used by the communicator. In an authoritarian position, it is closed poses and gestures, taking such a physical position that would provide pressure and status impact on the recipients (broadcasting from the pulpit, standing, using stands and microphones). The dialogue position is the opposite - open gestures, free postures, sitting conversation, at the same spatial level.

When comparing these types of communication, the reader may get the impression that dialogical communication should be considered as a more perfect and modern form of communicative influence. This is not entirely true. Rather, we must talk about the limited spheres of application of authoritarian communication, which works effectively only in those cases when an immediate unification of individual efforts is required to solve emergency problems, in extreme or military conditions. This is due to the fact that authoritarian influence can have a strong, but short-lived effect, as a rule does not have a significant impact on the fundamental attitudes and opinions of people. At the same time, the dialogical influence, not being significant immediately after communication, has a large effect of consequences, can have a strong influence on the personality structures of the listeners.

Levels of information exchange in the process of communication

In the end, let us dwell on the analysis of another important specific property of interpersonal communication - its two-level organization. In the process of communication, the exchange of information between its participants is carried out both at the verbal and non-verbal non-verbal levels.

At the main, verbal level, human speech is used as a means of transmitting information. However, in addition to this universal sign means, communication includes other sign systems, generally referred to as non-verbal communication.

First of all, let us note the role of optical-kinesthetic and acoustic systems. The optical-kinesthetic system includes the perceived appearance and expressive movements of a person - gestures, facial expressions, postures, gait, and so on. They are in many ways mirrors projecting the emotional reactions of a person, which we, as it were, “read” in the process of communication, trying to understand how the other perceives what is happening. This also includes such a specific form of human non-verbal communication as eye contact. The role of all these non-verbal signs in communication is extremely important. We can say that a significant part of human communication unfolds in the underwater part of the "communicative iceberg" - in the field of non-verbal communication. In particular, it is these means that a person most often resorts to when transmitting feedback to a communication partner. Through the system of non-verbal means, information is also transmitted about the feelings experienced by people in the process of communication. We resort to non-verbal analysis when we do not trust the words of our partners. Then gestures, facial expressions and eye contact help determine the sincerity of the other.

All of the above applies to both the optical-kinesthetic and acoustic systems. It should include the quality of the communicator's voice (timbre, pitch, loudness), intonation, speech rate, phrasal and logical stresses preferred by him. Of no less importance are various impregnations in speech - pauses, coughs, laughter, and more.

Among non-verbal systems, the organization of space and time of the communicative process also plays an important role. So, for example, placing partners face to face contributes to the emergence of contact, and a shout in the back will most likely cause a negative defensive reaction of a person.

A special place can be occupied by situations characterized by a constant specific combination of space-time coordinates, the so-called "chronotopes". Described, for example, the chronotope "carriage companion". The specific situation of close, in spatial terms, communication of two strangers for quite a long time leads to unexpected psychological effects. This is how you can explain the amazing frankness that people admit in relation to themselves in communicating with the "carriage fellow traveler." The literature also describes the chronotope of the "hospital ward".

Non-verbal means are an important addition to verbal communication, naturally woven into the fabric of interpersonal communication. Their role is determined not only by the fact that they are able to enhance or weaken the speech influence of the communicator, but also in that they help to reveal to the participants of communication the intentions of each other, thereby making the communication process more open.

Thus, we discussed the most important specific features of interpersonal communication, described its most important types. Some important conditions for effective communication were also named. These include the presence of effective feedback, the correspondence of the type of communicative influence to the goals and objectives of communication, the absence of communication barriers. It can be noted that the expanded non-verbal communication is also a prerequisite for a successful communication exchange. In addition, it is necessary to name and reveal the content of another psychological condition for adequate interpersonal communication: this is the possession of the communication participants by the techniques of effective listening.

In the process of human communication, the difference between two seemingly close concepts is clearly manifested: "listen" and "hear". Unfortunately, quite often people, while listening, do not hear each other. Scientifically, we can talk about effective and ineffective listening. Listening is ineffective in those cases when it does not provide the correct understanding of the words and feelings of the interlocutor, creates in the speaker the feeling that he is not being heard, replace his problem with another, more convenient for the interlocutor, consider his experiences funny, insignificant. Listening is also ineffective in cases when it does not ensure the promotion of communication partners in understanding the problem under discussion, does not lead to its solution or correct formulation, and does not contribute to the establishment of trusting relations between communication partners.

Effective listening, which ensures the correct flow of the above processes, is a complex volitional act that requires constant attention, interest, readiness to break away from one's own tasks and delve into the problems of another from the listener. There are two types of effective listening, differing in the situation of their use.

Non-reflective listening - or attentive silence - is used at the stages of posing a problem, when it is just being formulated by the speaker, as well as in a situation when the purpose of the conversation on the part of the speaker is “outpouring the soul,” emotional release. Mindful silence is listening with the active use of non-verbal means - nods, facial expressions, eye contact, and postures of attentive interest. Also used are speech techniques such as repetition of the last words of the speaker "Zer-kalo"), interjections ("Ugu-poddakivaniya").

Reflexive listening is used in situations where the speaker needs not so much emotional support as help in solving certain problems. In this case, feedback is given to the listener in a speech form through the following techniques: asking open and closed questions on the topic of the conversation, paraphrasing the interlocutor's words, allowing you to express the same idea in other words (paraphrase), summarizing and presenting intermediate conclusions from the conversation.

Verbal and non-verbal communication

Verbal communication uses human speech as a sign system, natural sound language, i.e. system of phonetic signs, which includes two principles: lexical and syntactic. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since the meaning of the message is least lost when transmitting information using speech. True, this should be accompanied by a high degree of common understanding of the situation by all participants in the communicative process, which was discussed above.

With the help of speech, information is encoded and decoded: the communicator encodes in the process of speaking, and the recipient in the process of listening decodes this information. The terms “speaking” and “listening” were introduced by I.A. Winter as a designation of the psychological components of verbal communication (Winter, 1991).

The sequence of actions of the speaker and the listener has been investigated in sufficient detail. From the point of view of transmission and perception of the meaning of a message, the K - C - R scheme (communicator - message - recipient) is asymmetric.

Non-verbal communication

Another type of communication includes the following basic sign systems:

1. 1) optical-kinetic,
2. 2) para- and extralinguistic,
3. 3) the organization of space and time of the communication process,
4. 4) visual contact (Labunskaya, 1989).

The combination of these means is designed to perform the following functions: speech addition, speech replacement, representation of the emotional states of partners in the communicative process.

Optical-kinetic system of signs includes gestures, facial expressions, pantomime... In general, the optical-kinetic system appears as a more or less clearly perceived property of the general motor skills of various parts of the body (hands, and then we have gestures; faces, and then we have facial expressions; postures, and then we have pantomime). Initially, research in this area was carried out by Charles Darwin, who studied the expression of emotions in humans and animals. It is the general motor skills of various parts of the body that reflects the emotional reactions of a person, therefore, the inclusion of an optical-kinetic system of signs in a communication situation gives nuances to communication. These nuances turn out to be ambiguous when using the same gestures, for example, in different national cultures. (Everyone knows the misunderstandings that sometimes arise when communicating between a Russian and a Bulgarian, if an affirmative or negative nod of the head is used, since the movement of the head perceived by the Russian from top to bottom is interpreted as agreement, while for the Bulgarian "speech" this is a negation, and vice versa ). The importance of the optical-kinetic system of signs in communication is so great that at present a special area of ​​research has emerged - kinesics, which specifically deals with these problems. So, for example, in the studies of M. Argyll, the frequency and strength of gestures in different cultures were studied (within one hour, the Finns gestured 1 time, Italians - 80, French - 20, Mexicans - 180).

Paralinguistic and extralinguistic systems of signs are also "additions" to verbal communication. The paralinguistic system is a vocalization system, i.e. the quality of the voice, its range, tonality. Extra-linguistic system - the inclusion of pauses, other inclusions in speech, for example, coughing, crying, laughing, and finally, the very pace of speech. All these additions increase the semantically significant information, but not by means of additional speech inclusions, but by "near-speech" techniques.

The organization of space and time of the communicative process also acts as a special sign system, carries a semantic load as a component of the communicative situation. So, for example, placing partners facing each other contributes to the emergence of contact, symbolizes attention to the speaker, while shouting in the back can also have a certain negative value. The advantage of some spatial forms of organizing communication has been experimentally proven both for two partners in the communication process and in mass audiences.

In the same way, some standards developed in various subcultures regarding the temporal characteristics of communication act as a kind of addition to semantically significant information. Arriving on time for the start of diplomatic negotiations symbolizes politeness towards the interlocutor, on the contrary, being late is interpreted as a manifestation of disrespect. In some special areas (primarily in diplomacy), various possible tolerances for delays with their corresponding meanings have been developed in detail.

Communication barriers

"Barrier" of communication- a mental state, manifested in the inadequate passivity of the subject, which prevents him from performing certain actions. The barrier is the strengthening of negative experiences and attitudes - shame, guilt, fear, anxiety, low self-esteem associated with the task.

In psychology, conflict is defined as a collision of oppositely directed, incompatible tendencies in the consciousness of a single individual, in interpersonal interactions or interpersonal relationships of individuals or groups of people, associated with negative emotional experiences.

A person, as an element of communication, is a complex and sensitive "recipient" of information with his feelings and desires, life experience. The information he receives can cause an internal reaction of any kind, which may strengthen, distort or completely block the information sent to him.

The adequacy of the perception of information largely depends on the presence or absence of communication barriers in the communication process. In the event of a barrier, information is distorted or loses its original meaning, and in some cases it does not reach the recipient at all.

Communication barriers to communication

A mechanical interruption of information and hence its distortion can be communicative hindrances; the ambiguity of the transmitted information, due to which the stated and transmitted thought is distorted; these options can be denoted asinformation deficit barrier.

It happens that the recipients clearly hear the transmitted words, but give them a different meaning (the problem is that the transmitter may not even detect that his signal has caused an incorrect reaction). Here you can talk aboutsubstitute-distorting barrier.The distortion of information passing through one person may be negligible. But when it passes through several human repeaters, the distortion can be significant. This barrier is also called the "reflection barrier".

Significantly greater potential for distortion is associated with emotions -emotional barriers.This happens when people, having received any information, are more busy with their feelings, assumptions than real facts. Words have a strong emotional charge, and not so much the words (symbols) themselves, but the associations that they generate in a person. Words have a primary (literal) meaning and a secondary (emotional) meaning.

There is alsosemantic barrier of misunderstanding,associated, first of all, with differences in the systems of meanings (thesauri) of the participants in communication. This is, first of all, the problem of jargons and slangs. It is known that even within the framework of one and the same culture there are many microcultures, each of which creates its own "field of meanings", is characterized by its own understanding of various concepts, phenomena, expressed by them. So, in different microcultures the meaning of such values ​​as "beauty", "duty", "nature", "decency", etc. is not equally understood. In addition, each environment creates its own mini-language of communication, its own slang, each with its own favorite quotes and jokes, expressions and turns of speech. All this together can significantly complicate the communication process, creating a semantic barrier of misunderstanding.

An equally important role in the destruction of normal interpersonal communication can playstylistic barrier,arising from a discrepancy between the communicator's speech style and the communication situation or speech style and the actual psychological state of the recipient, etc. for dry, emotionally not saturated or pseudo-scientific speech of an adult. The communicator needs to subtly feel the state of his recipients, to catch the shades of the emerging communication situation in order to bring the style of his message in line with it.

Finally, we can talk about the existencelogical barriermisunderstanding. It arises in cases when the logic of reasoning proposed by the communicator is either too complicated for the recipient to perceive, or seems to him to be incorrect, contradicts his inherent manner of proof. Psychologically, we can talk about the existence of many logics and logical systems of evidence. For some people, it is logical and evidential that does not contradict reason, for others, that which corresponds to duty and morality. We can talk about the existence of "female" and "male" psychological logic, about "child" logic, etc. The recipient's psychological preferences determine whether he will accept the proposed system of evidence or find it unconvincing. For a communicator, the choice of a system of evidence adequate to a given moment is always an open problem.

Psychological barriers to communication

The reason for the psychological barrier may be socio-cultural differences between communication partners. These can be social, political, religious and professional differences, which lead to different interpretations of certain concepts used in the process of communication. The very perception of a communication partner as a person of a certain profession, a certain nationality, gender and age can act as a barrier. For example, the credibility of the communicator in the eyes of the recipient is of great importance for the emergence of a barrier. The higher the authority, the fewer obstacles to assimilating the proposed information. The very unwillingness to listen to the opinion of this or that person is often explained by his low authority.

Communication is an invariable component of a person's social life, not always amenable to conscious control. This can be learned, but to a much lesser extent than communication techniques and techniques. Means of communication are understood as how a person realizes a certain content and goals of communication. They depend on the culture of a person, the level of development, upbringing and education. When they talk about the development of a person's abilities, skills and communication skills, first of all, they mean the technique and means of communication.

Psychological barriers in communication arise imperceptibly and subjectively, often they are not felt by the person himself, but are immediately perceived by others. The person ceases to feel the incorrectness of his behavior and is sure that he is communicating normally. If he discovers inconsistencies, complexes begin to develop.

Let's list the psychological barriers that arise in the process of communication between people.

First impression
is considered one of the barriers that can contribute to the misperception of a communication partner. Why? The first impression, in fact, is not always the first, since both visual and auditory memory influence the formation of an image. Consequently, it can be relatively adequate, correspond to character traits, or it can be erroneous.

Barrier to bias and causeless negative attitudes.It is expressed in the following: outwardly, for no reason, a person begins to negatively relate to this or that person as a result of the first impression or for some hidden reasons. Possible motives for the emergence of such an attitude should be established and overcome.

A barrier to a negative attitude introduced into a person's experience by someone else.You were told negative information about someone, and a negative attitude develops towards a person about whom you know little, there is no experience of personal interaction with him. Such negative attitudes, introduced from the outside, should be avoided before your personal experience of communicating with a specific person. New people with whom you have to communicate should be approached with an optimistic hypothesis. Do not be guided in the final assessment of a person only by the opinion of others. a person only on the opinion of others.

Barrier of "fear" of human contact.It happens that you need to come into direct contact with a person, but it's somehow awkward. What to do? Try calmly, without emotion, to analyze what is holding you back in communication, and you will see that these emotional layers are either subjective or too secondary. After the conversation, be sure to analyze the success of the conversation and fix your own attention on the fact that nothing terrible has happened. Typically, such a barrier is typical for people who have difficulty in communicating, having a generally low level of sociability.

Barrier of “waiting for misunderstanding”.You should enter into direct interaction with a person in business or personal communication, but you are worried about the question: will your partner understand you correctly? And here it is often assumed that the partner must necessarily misunderstand. They begin to predict the consequences of this misunderstanding, to anticipate unpleasant sensations. It is necessary to calmly and thoroughly analyze the content of the conversation you are planning and, if possible, eliminate from it those moments or emotional aspects that may cause an inadequate interpretation of your intentions. After that, feel free to make contact.

Age barrier - typical in the system of everyday communication. It arises in a wide variety of spheres of human interaction: between adults and children (an adult does not understand how a child lives, which is the cause of many conflicts), between people of different generations. Older people often condemn the behavior of young people, as if forgetting themselves at this age. Young people get irritated and laugh. Interpersonal complications arise. The age barrier in communication is dangerous both in family relations and in the system of service interaction. Therefore, it was the “age” barrier that became the topic of my research.

Conclusions: Communication barriers refer to the many factors that cause or contribute to conflict. Communication barriers are multifaceted, varied and require some resolution. There are communication barriers (when a person does not understand the interlocutor's speech for one reason or another, for example, if speech is distorted or people speak in different languages) and psychological barriers (for example, if people do not understand each other due to age difference or "first impression" had too much of an impact).

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abstract

Communication as activespine

Introduction

communication psychological communicative perceptual

Historically, communication between people arose and developed primarily directly in joint labor activities. To combine efforts and organize joint activities, people needed to understand its meaning, their place and their role in it, as well as skillfully cooperate with other participants. And this was possible only through communication with partners using words, gestures, facial expressions and other verbal and non-verbal means.

In most cases, interpersonal communication turns out to be woven into one or another activity, acts as an essential and integral attribute of it, an important condition for its success. Outside the communication of people with each other, not only work processes are unthinkable, but also learning, play and many other activities. The type and nature of the activity that communication serves have a certain impact on the content, form and characteristics of the flow of the very process of communication between its participants.

1 . Bythe notion of communication. Communication functions

Communication concept

Communication is a complex multidimensional process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities.

In its most general form, communication can be viewed as a form of life. It acts as one of the most important conditions for identifying and revealing the best sides of a personality, the formation of its consciousness and self-awareness, a stimulator of its development. Communicating with other people, analyzing the attitude of other people to oneself, reflecting, a person reveals the need for self-improvement and realizes it in the process of self-education.

Communicative. Revealing the specifics of the information process between people as active subjects (taking into account the relationship between partners, their attitudes and intentions).

Interactive. Interaction of partners in the organization and implementation of joint activities.

Perceptual. Formation of the image of another person, by correlating physical characteristics with psychological properties and behavioral features.

Communication functions

Emotive. Excitation in a partner of the necessary emotional experiences, as well as changing with his help his experiences and states.

Informational. Exchange of messages, opinions, ideas, solutions, etc.

Contact. Establishing contact as a state of mutual readiness to receive and transmit messages and maintain interconnection in the form of constant mutual orientation.

Understanding. Adequate perception and understanding of the meaning of the message and mutual understanding of intentions, attitudes, experiences, states.

Coordination. Mutual orientation and coordination of actions when organizing joint activities.

Incentive. Stimulating the activity of the partner to direct him to perform certain actions.

Establishing relationships. Awareness and fixation of one's place in the system of role, status, business, interpersonal and other connections of the community in which the individual acts.

Influence. Change in the state, behavior, personal and semantic formations of the partner.

2 . Aboutcommunication and communicationflaccidity. Communication and activities

Communication, along with activities aimed at cognition and transformation of the surrounding world, is one of the main forms of human social activity. In communication, people make each other's property what they themselves possess. As a result of communication, the knowledge, skills, and skills of one person become common for many people (hence, probably, the name of this form of social activity).

Since any activity presupposes a specific distribution of roles between the participants, endowing them with certain rights and responsibilities, the communication of a particular teacher with his pupils will differ significantly from the communication of this teacher in a circle of peers in play activities at leisure. So, in the classroom, business communication will prevail, which is aimed at helping students learn new concepts, master more complex skills and abilities. The teacher here acts as a competent specialist and organizer of students' activities, responsible by law to his students, their parents and society for the quality of his work. Along with this, communication can proceed as an independent process that does not serve any activity. Through this communication, a person's need for contact with other people is satisfied, as a result of which conditions are created under which the inner world of one person opens up to another.

Activity and communication can be viewed as two roughly equivalent categories, reflecting the two sides of a person's social life. Communication can be presented as a side of activity, acting as its prerequisite, condition, internal or external factor... But the opposite is also true: activity can serve as a prerequisite, condition or factor of communication. Consequently, communication can be considered as a special kind activity and as one of attributes this or that activity. At the same time, along with material communication, which stipulates that the subject's spiritual activity is aimed only at managing his practical actions, there is also spiritual communication, the purpose of which is the spiritual unity of partners, the achievement of their spiritual community.

3. Types and levels of communication

In social psychology, there are many typologies of communication, using a variety of reasons - duration, positions of participants, peculiarities of their interaction, etc. It will be optimal to highlight the most common everyday situations: business communication, educational impact, diagnostic conversation and intimate and personal communication.

Business communication is a situation where the goal of interaction is to reach some kind of clear agreement or agreement. Most often, such interaction occurs between people who are not in close interpersonal relationships with each other (between colleagues, two businessmen, a boss and a subordinate, etc.), and the status of each of the partners in relation to the other is clearly defined. In such situations, the subject or reason that led to communication is important, without which a business conversation cannot take place.

Educational communication is a situation in which one of the participants purposefully affects the other, clearly enough to imagine the desired result, that is, knowing what he wants to convince the interlocutor of, what he wants to teach him, etc. Such conversations are possible when the trainer has situational or permanent authority and knowledge.

Diagnostic communication, the purpose of which is to form a certain idea of ​​the interlocutor or to obtain any information from him (such is the communication of a doctor with a patient, etc.). Partners are in different positions: one asks, the other answers. To get a full-fledged answer, the questioner must ask the questions correctly, taking into account his own status and the status of the respondent, his willingness to give answers, etc.

Intimate-personal communication is in many ways unique and specific. It is possible only when the partners feel equal within the situation that has arisen, are equally interested in establishing and maintaining trusting and deep contact. Most often, such communication occurs between close people and is largely the result of previous relationships.

Depending on the content, goals and means of communication, there are several types of it.

In material communication, the subjects, being engaged in individual activity, exchange its products, which, in turn, serve as a means of satisfying their actual needs.

In conditioned communication, people influence each other, calculated to bring each other into a certain physical or mental state.

Motivational communication has as its content the transmission to each other of certain motives, attitudes or readiness to act in a certain direction.

Cognitive communication - the exchange of knowledge, activity communication - the exchange of actions, operations, skills and abilities. Communication associated with cognitive or educational activities can serve as an illustration of these types.

By goals, communication is divided into biological and social.

Biological communication is communication necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the organism, it is associated with the satisfaction of basic organic needs.

Social communication pursues the goal of expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, personal growth the individual.

By means of communication, communication can be direct and mediated, direct and indirect.

Direct communication is carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature (organs of hearing, sight, speech, etc.).

Mediated communication is associated with the use of special means and tools for organizing communication and exchange of information (sign systems, print, radio, television).

Direct communication involves personal contacts and direct perception of people communicating with each other in the very act of communication.

Indirect communication is carried out through intermediaries who can be other people.

In terms of duration, short-term and long-term communication is distinguished. The time during which communication takes place influences its character.

Short-term communication - communication within one topic and a period of time of several hours. Short-term communication with an unfamiliar person unfolds in two planes: on the one hand, it is aimed at solving the problem at hand, on the other, at cognizing this person. It is not possible to get to know a person in detail in a short time, but an attempt to comprehend the basic personal qualities constantly exists.

Long-term communication (within one or several topics, intermittent or continuous) presupposes not only the solution of the tasks at hand, but also the self-identification of each of the parties and, thus, the knowledge of each other. A long period of communication creates a prerequisite either for the emergence and strengthening of positive business and friendly relationships and, consequently, psychological compatibility, or for the emergence of confrontation, opposition, i.e. psychological incompatibility.

Among the types of communication, one can also distinguish business and personal, instrumental and targeted.

Business communication is usually included as a private moment in any joint activity of people and serves as a means of improving the quality of this activity. Its content is what people are doing, not the problems that affect their inner world.

Personal communication is concentrated mainly around psychological problems of an internal nature, those interests and needs that deeply and intimately affect a person's personality (search for the meaning of life, resolution of any internal conflict, etc.).

Instrumental communication is communication that is not an end in itself, is not stimulated by an independent need, but pursues some other goal other than getting satisfaction from the very act of communication.

Targeted communication is communication that itself serves as a means of satisfying a specific need - the need for communication.

The most important types of communication in humans are verbal and non-verbal.

Verbal communication is inherent only in humans and requires language acquisition as a prerequisite.

Non-verbal communication does not imply the use of sound speech, natural language as a means of communication. This is communication using facial expressions, gestures and pantomime, through direct sensory or bodily contacts.

4 . Baryers in communication

Communication barriers. Psychological barriers

In this work, we will adhere to the following definition. "Barrier" of communication is a mental state that manifests itself in the inadequate passivity of the subject, which prevents him from performing certain actions. The barrier consists in the strengthening of negative experiences and attitudes - shame, guilt, fear, anxiety, low self-esteem associated with the task.

In psychology, conflict is defined as a collision of oppositely directed, incompatible tendencies in the consciousness of a single individual, in interpersonal interactions or interpersonal relationships of individuals or groups of people, associated with negative emotional experiences.

A person, as an element of communication, is a complex and sensitive “recipient” of information with his feelings and desires, life experience. The information he receives can cause an internal reaction of any kind, which may strengthen, distort or completely block the information sent to him.

The adequacy of the perception of information largely depends on the presence or absence of communication barriers in the communication process. In the event of a barrier, information is distorted or loses its original meaning, and in some cases it does not reach the recipient at all.

Communication barriers to communication

A mechanical interruption of information and hence its distortion can be communicative hindrances; the ambiguity of the transmitted information, due to which the stated and transmitted thought is distorted; these options can be described as an information-deficit barrier.

It happens that the recipients clearly hear the transmitted words, but give them a different meaning (the problem is that the transmitter may not even detect that his signal has caused an incorrect reaction). Here we can talk about a substitute-distorting barrier. The distortion of information passing through one person may be negligible. But when it passes through several human repeaters, the distortion can be significant. This barrier is also called the "reflection barrier".

A significantly greater potential for distortion is associated with emotions - emotional barriers. This happens when people, having received any information, are more busy with their feelings, assumptions than real facts. Words have a strong emotional charge, and not so much the words (symbols) themselves, but the associations that they generate in a person. Words have a primary (literal) meaning and a secondary (emotional) meaning.

There is also a semantic barrier of misunderstanding associated, first of all, with differences in the systems of meanings (thesauri) of the participants in communication. An equally important role in the destruction of normal interpersonal communication can be played by the stylistic barrier that arises when the communicator's speech style and the communication situation or speech style and the actual psychological state of the recipient do not match. inappropriate to the situation in a familiar manner, or children will not perceive an interesting story because of the dry, emotionally unsaturated or pseudo-scientific speech of an adult. The communicator needs to subtly feel the state of his recipients, to catch the shades of the emerging communication situation in order to bring the style of his message in line with it.

Finally, we can talk about the existence of a logical barrier of misunderstanding. It arises in cases when the logic of reasoning proposed by the communicator is either too complicated for the recipient to perceive, or seems to him to be incorrect, contradicts his inherent manner of proof. Psychologically, we can talk about the existence of many logics and logical systems of evidence. For some people, it is logical and evidential that does not contradict reason, for others, that which corresponds to duty and morality. We can talk about the existence of “female” and “male” psychological logic, about “childish” logic, and so on. It depends on the recipient's psychological preferences whether he accepts the proposed system of evidence or finds it unconvincing. For a communicator, the choice of a system of evidence adequate to a given moment is always an open problem.

Psychological barriers to communication

The reason for the psychological barrier may be socio-cultural differences between communication partners. These can be social, political, religious and professional differences, which lead to different interpretations of certain concepts used in the process of communication. The very perception of a communication partner as a person of a certain profession, a certain nationality, gender and age can act as a barrier. For example, the credibility of the communicator in the eyes of the recipient is of great importance for the emergence of a barrier. The higher the authority, the fewer obstacles to assimilating the proposed information. The very unwillingness to listen to the opinion of this or that person is often explained by his low authority.

Psychological barriers in communication arise imperceptibly and subjectively, often they are not felt by the person himself, but are immediately perceived by others. The person ceases to feel the incorrectness of his behavior and is sure that he is communicating normally. If he discovers inconsistencies, complexes begin to develop. Let's list the psychological barriers that arise in the process of communication between people.

First impression is considered one of the barriers that can contribute to misperceptions of a communication partner. Why? The first impression, in fact, is not always the first, since both visual and auditory memory influence the formation of an image. Consequently, it can be relatively adequate, correspond to character traits, or it can be erroneous.

Barrier to bias and causeless negative attitudes. It is expressed in the following: outwardly, for no reason, a person begins to negatively relate to this or that person as a result of the first impression or for some hidden reasons. Possible motives for the emergence of such an attitude should be established and overcome.

A barrier to a negative attitude introduced into a person's experience by any of the other people. You have been told negative information about someone, and a negative attitude is formed towards a person about whom you know little, there is no experience of personal interaction with him. Such negative attitudes, introduced from the outside, should be avoided before your personal experience of communicating with a specific person. New people with whom to communicate must be approached with an optimistic hypothesis. Do not be guided in the final assessment of a person only by the opinion of others. a person only on the opinion of others.

Barrier of "fear" of human contact. It happens that you need to come into direct contact with a person, but somehow awkward. What to do? Try calmly, without emotion, to analyze what is holding you back in communication, and you will see that these emotional layers are either subjective or too secondary. After the conversation, be sure to analyze the success of the conversation and fix your own attention on the fact that nothing terrible has happened. Typically, such a barrier is typical for people who have difficulty in communicating, having a generally low level of sociability.

Barrier of “waiting for misunderstanding”. You should enter into direct interaction with a person in business or personal communication, but you are worried about the question: will your partner understand you correctly? And here it is often assumed that the partner must necessarily misunderstand. They begin to predict the consequences of this misunderstanding, to anticipate unpleasant sensations. It is necessary to calmly and thoroughly analyze the content of the conversation you are planning and, if possible, eliminate from it those moments or emotional aspects that may cause an inadequate interpretation of your intentions. After that, feel free to make contact.

Age barrier - typical in the system of everyday communication. It arises in a wide variety of spheres of human interaction: between adults and children (an adult does not understand how a child lives, which is the cause of many conflicts), between people of different generations. Older people often condemn the behavior of young people, as if forgetting themselves at this age. Young people get irritated and laugh. Interpersonal complications arise. The age barrier in communication is dangerous both in family relations and in the system of service interaction. (4) Therefore, it was the “age” barrier that became the topic of my research.

Thus, communication barriers refer to the many factors that cause or contribute to conflicts. Communication barriers are multifaceted, varied and require some resolution. There are communication barriers (when a person does not understand the interlocutor's speech for one reason or another, for example, if speech is distorted or people speak in different languages) and psychological barriers (for example, if people do not understand each other due to age difference or "first impression" had too much of an impact).

5. Communication structure

Given the complexity of communication, it is necessary to somehow designate its structure, so that later the analysis of each element is possible. The structure of communication can be approached in different ways, as well as the definition of its functions. In Russian social psychology, the structure of communication is characterized by identifying three interrelated aspects in it: communicative, interactive and perceptual.

Consider the characteristics of each of the highlighted sides of communication.

a). The communicative side of communication

When they talk about communication in the narrow sense of the word, they first of all mean the fact that in the course of joint activities, people exchange various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc. between themselves. All this can be considered as information, and then the communication process itself can be understood as a process of information exchange. From here one can take the next tempting step and interpret the whole process of human communication in terms of information theory. However, this approach cannot be regarded as methodologically correct, because it omits some of the most important characteristics of human communication, which is not limited to the process of transferring information. Not to mention the fact that with such an approach only one direction of information flow is recorded, namely from the communicator to the recipient (the introduction of the concept of “feedback” does not change the essence of the matter), here there is another significant omission. In any consideration of human communication from the point of view of information theory, only the formal side of the matter is fixed: how information is transmitted, while in the conditions of human communication, information is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, and developed.

Therefore, without excluding the possibility of applying some provisions of information theory when describing the communicative side of communication, it is necessary to clearly place all the accents and identify the specifics even in the very process of information exchange, which, indeed, takes place in the case of communication between two people.

First, communication cannot be viewed as sending information by some transmitting system or as receiving it by another system, because, in contrast to the simple "movement of information" between two devices, here we are dealing with the relationship of two individuals, each of which is an active subject : mutual informing of them involves the establishment of joint activities. This means that each participant in the communicative process assumes activity in his partner as well, he cannot consider him as an object. Another participant also appears as a subject, and from this it follows that, when sending information to him, it is necessary to be guided by him, that is, to analyze his motives, goals, attitudes (except, of course, analysis and his own goals, motives, attitudes). But in this case, one must assume that in response to the information sent, new information will be received, coming from another partner. Therefore, in the communicative process, there is not a simple "movement of information". But at least an active exchange of it. Second, the nature of the exchange of information between people, and not between, say, cybernetic devices is determined by the fact that partners can influence each other through a system of signs. In other words, the exchange of such information necessarily involves the impact on the behavior of the partner, that is, the sign changes the state of the participants in the communication process. The communication influence that arises here is nothing more than the psychological influence of one communicant on another in order to change his behavior. The effectiveness of communication is measured precisely by how successful this impact was. Thirdly, communicative influence as a result of information exchange is possible only when the person sending the information (communicator) and the person receiving it (recipient) have a single or similar system of codification and decodification. In ordinary language, this rule is expressed in the words: "everyone should speak the same language." This is especially important because the communicator and the recipient are constantly changing places in the communicative process. Any exchange of information between them is possible only on condition that the signs, and, most importantly, the meanings assigned to them are known to all participants in the communicative process. Only the adoption of a single system of meanings provides the partners with the ability to understand each other.

Fourth, in the conditions of human communication, completely specific communication barriers can arise. These barriers are not related to vulnerabilities in any communication channel or to encoding and decoding errors. They are social or psychological. On the one hand, such barriers may arise due to the fact that there is no common understanding of the communication situation, caused not only by the different “language” spoken by the participants in the communication process, but by the deeper differences that exist between the partners. These can be social, political, religious, professional differences, which not only give rise to different interpretations of the same concepts used in the process of communication, but also generally different outlook, worldview, and worldview. Barriers of this kind are generated by objective social reasons, the affiliation of communication partners to different social groups, and when they are manifested, the involvement of communication in a wider system of social relations is especially pronounced. Communication in this case demonstrates its characteristic that it is only a side of communication. Naturally, the communication process is carried out and in the presence of these barriers, even military opponents negotiate. But the whole situation of the communicative act becomes much more complicated due to their presence.

It should be added that the information itself, emanating from the communicator, can be of two types: incentive and ascertaining.

Incentive information is expressed in an order, advice, request. It is designed to stimulate some kind of action. Stimulation, in turn, can be different. First of all, it can be activation, that is, an incentive to act in a given direction. Further, it can be interdict, that is, also an urge, but an urge that, on the contrary, does not allow certain actions, the prohibition of unwanted activities. Finally, it can be destabilization - a mismatch or violation of some autonomous forms of behavior or activity.

The transmission of any information is possible only through signs, more precisely, sign systems. There are several sign systems that are used in the communication process, respectively, they can build a classification of communication processes. In a rough division, verbal communication is distinguished (speech is used as a sign system) and non-verbal communication (various non-speech sign systems are used).

Verbal communication, as already mentioned, uses human speech, natural sound language, that is, a system of phonetic signs, which includes two principles: lexical and syntactic, as a sign system. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since the meaning of the message is least lost when transmitting information using speech. True, this should correspond to a high degree of common understanding of the situation by all participants in the communicative process, which was discussed above.

With the help of speech, information is encoded and decoded: the communicator encodes in the process of speaking, and the recipient in the process of listening decodes this information. For the communicator, the meaning of information precedes the coding process (utterance), since he first has a certain idea, and then embodies it into a system of signs. For the "listening", the meaning of the received message is revealed simultaneously with decoding. In this latter case, the meaning of the situation of joint activity is clearly manifested: its awareness is included in the decoding process itself, the disclosure of the meaning of the message is unthinkable outside this situation.

The accuracy of the listener's understanding of the meaning of the utterance can become obvious to the communicator only when there is a change in the "communicative roles" (a conventional term denoting "speaker" and "listener"), that is, when the recipient turns into a communicator and with his utterance will let you know how he revealed the meaning of the information received. However, the communicative process turns out to be incomplete if we are distracted from its non-verbal means.

Paralinguistic and extralinguistic systems of signs are also "additions" to verbal communication. The paralinguistic system is a vocalization system, that is, the quality of the voice, its range of tonality. Extra-linguistic system - the inclusion of pauses in speech, other inclusions, for example, coughing, crying, laughing, and finally, the very pace of speech.

The space and time of the organization of the communicative process also act as a special sign system, carry a semantic load as components of communicative situations. So, for example, placing partners facing each other contributes to the emergence of contact, symbolizes attention to the speaker, while shouting in the back can also have a certain negative value. The advantage of some spatial forms of organizing communication, both of two partners in the communication process, and in mass audiences, has been experimentally proven. In general, all non-verbal communication systems undoubtedly play a large auxiliary (and sometimes independent) role in the communicative process. Together with the verbal communication system, these systems provide the exchange of information that people need to organize joint activities.

b). Interactive side of communication

The interactive side of communication is a conventional term denoting the characteristics of those communication components that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities.

The central idea of ​​the interactionist concept is that the personality is formed in interaction with other personalities, and the mechanism of this process is the establishment of control over the actions of the personality by the idea of ​​it that develops among others. Despite the importance of posing such a problem, Mead's theory contains significant methodological errors. The main ones are two.

First, disproportionate emphasis is placed on the role of symbols in this concept. The entire canvas of interaction outlined above is determined by the system of symbols, i.e. human activity and behavior in situations of interaction are ultimately conditioned by the symbolic interpretation of these situations. A person appears as a creature inhabiting the world of symbols, included in symbolic situations. And although to a certain extent one can agree with this statement, since to a certain extent society really regulates the actions of individuals with the help of symbols, Mead's excessive categoricality leads to the fact that the entire set of social relations, culture - everything is reduced only to symbols. Hence, the second important miscalculation of the concept of symbolic interactionism follows: the interactive aspect of communication here again breaks away from the content of objective activity, as a result of which the entire wealth of the person's macrosocial relations is essentially ignored. The only "representative" of social relations is only the relations of direct interaction. Since the symbol remains the “last” social determinant interaction, for analysis it is sufficient only to describe the given field of interactions without involving broad social ties within which this act of interaction takes place. A well-known "closure" of the interaction to a given group takes place. Of course, even such an analysis is insufficient.

v). The perceptual side of communication

As noted above, in the process of communication, there must be mutual understanding between the participants in this process. Mutual understanding itself can be interpreted here in different ways: either as an understanding of the goals, motives, attitudes of the interaction partner, or as not only understanding, but acceptance, separation of these goals, motives, attitudes, which allows not only "coordinating actions", but also establish a special kind of relationship: intimacy, affection, expressed in feelings of friendship, sympathy, love. In any case, the fact how the communication partner is perceived is of great importance, in other words, the process of one person's perception of another acts as an obligatory component of communication and can be conditionally called the perceptual side of communication. In order to more accurately designate what is at stake in the plan of interest to us, it is advisable to talk not in general about social perception, but about interpersonal perception, or interpersonal perception. It is these processes that are directly involved in communication in the sense in which it is considered here. But besides this, there is a need for one more comment. The perception of social objects has such numerous specific features that the very use of the word "perception" seems to be not entirely accurate here. In any case, a number of phenomena that take place in the formation of an idea of ​​another person do not fit into the traditional description of the perceptual process, as it is given in general psychology. In Russian literature, quite often the expression “cognition of another person” is used as a synonym for “perception of another person”. Another attempt to construct the structure of interaction is associated with the description of the stages of its development. In this case, the interaction is divided not into elementary acts, but at the stages that it passes through. This approach was proposed, in particular, by the Polish researcher J. Szczepanski. For Shchepansky, the central concept in describing social behavior is the concept of social connection. It can be represented as a sequential implementation of: a) spatial contact, b) mental contact (according to Schepansky, this is mutual interest), c) social contact (here it is a joint activity), d) interaction (which is defined as “systematic, constant implementation actions aimed at causing a corresponding reaction from the partner ... "), finally, e) social relations (mutually conjugated systems of actions). Although all that has been said refers to the characteristic of "social connection", such a kind of it as "interaction" is presented most fully. Alignment in a series of steps preceding interaction is not too strict: spatial and mental contacts in this scheme act as prerequisites for an individual act of interaction, and therefore the scheme does not remove the errors of the previous attempt. But the inclusion of “social contact”, understood as joint activity, among the prerequisites for interaction, in many respects changes the picture: if interaction arises as the realization of joint activity, then the road to studying its content side remains open. However, the laxity of the scheme reduces its ability to understand the structure of interaction. Practically in experiments, researchers are still dealing with the phenomenon of interaction as such, without satisfactory attempts to find its anatomy.

Thus, for social psychology, it is very important to study not only the cooperative form of interaction.

6.Polcommunication in the mental development of a person

And in conclusion, I would like to say a few words about the role of communication itself in human life.

Saint-Exupéry said of communication that it is "the only luxury that a person has." In communication, all aspects of a person's relations are realized - both interpersonal and social. Outside of communication, human society is simply unthinkable. Communication appears in him as a way of cementing individuals and at the same time as a way of developing these individuals themselves.

List of used literature

Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. Moscow: Aspect press, 1998.

Volkova A.A., Dimitrova L.V. Psychology and pedagogy for university students. Series "Cribs", Rostov - on - Don; PHOENIX, 2004 .-- 256 p. Chapter "Psychology of Communication".

Nemov R.S., Altutina I.R. Social psychology: study guides.-SPb: Peter 2008.-432s

Obozov N.N. Interpersonal relationships. Leningrad: LSU publishing house, 1979.

6. Communication and optimization of joint activities. Edited by Andreeva G.M., Yanoushek J. Moscow, Moscow State University Publishing House, 1987.

7. Modern Western Social Psychology: Texts. Ed. Andreeva G.M., Bogomolova N.N., Petrovskaya L.A. Moscow: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1984.

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In its forms and types, communication is extremely diverse. The methods, spheres and dynamics of communication are determined by the social functions of the people entering it, their position in the system of social relations, belonging to a particular community. Communication is regulated by factors related to production, exchange and needs, as well as the laws, rules, norms, social institutions, prevailing in society, etc. Based on this, there are several grounds for separation different types communication.

1.The sign systems used are distinguished:

VERBAL (speech) communication,which, in turn, is divided into oral and written speech;

Non-verbal (wordless) communication,playing an extremely important role in our life. According to some reports, we receive from 60 to 80% of the information from the interlocutor through the non-verbal channel.

2.Distinguish by nature and content:

FUNCTIONAL ROLE communication, which presupposes connections between its participants performing certain social roles at time intervals of varying duration. The partners in this communication are bound by mutual obligations in relation to each other: the doctor is the patient, the leader is the subordinate, the lecturer is the listener, the teacher is the student. Basically, functional-role communication is conditioned by the official positions of its participants. So, in production, the foreman fulfills the order of the head of the shop and executes social role subordinate, and, having returned home, in a father-child relationship, he already takes a leading position.

Business conversation- this is a situation when the goal of interaction is to reach a clear agreement or agreement. Most often, such interaction occurs between people who are not in close interpersonal relationships with each other (between colleagues, two businessmen, a boss and a subordinate, etc.), and the status of each of the partners in relation to the other is clearly defined. In such situations, the subject or reason that led to communication is important, without which a business conversation cannot take place.

ANONYMOUS communication is the interaction between unfamiliar or unrelated personal relationships of people. These can be temporary connections between subjects, in which they act as citizens, residents of one microdistrict, passengers of transport, spectators of one hall. They meet, come into contact with each other and disperse. Communication partners remain anonymous.

INFORMAL communication is all kinds of personal contacts outside of formal relationships. This is, for example, communication between friends. Its peculiarity is selectivity in relation to a partner.

INTIMATE-PERSONAL communication is in many ways unique and specific. It is possible only when the partners feel equal within the situation that has arisen, are equally interested in establishing and maintaining trusting and deep contact. Most often, such communication occurs between close people and is largely the result of previous relationships.

3. There are such activities where communication takes a leading, targeted, professionally significant position and goes into the functional category.

In such cases, a distinction is made between:

Diagnostic communication, the purpose of which is to form a certain idea about the interlocutor or to obtain any information from him (such is the communication of a doctor with a patient, etc.). Partners are in different positions: one asks, the other answers. To get a full-fledged answer, the questioner must ask the questions correctly, taking into account his own status and the status of the respondent, his willingness to give answers, etc.

Pedagogical communication – integral system(techniques and skills) of socio-psychological interaction between the teacher and the educated, containing the exchange of information, educational influences and the organization of relationships with the help of communicative means.

Educational communication is a situation in which one of the participants purposefully affects the other, quite clearly imagines the desired result, that is, he knows what he wants to convince the interlocutor of, what he wants to teach him, etc. Such conversations are possible when the trainer has situational or permanent authority and knowledge.

Distinguish between communication of the first and second kind. In joint activities, a person establishes two-way contact with other people: transfers information, receives it from a partner, achieves mutual understanding. This is communication of the first kind, acting as communication, as a side of joint activities.

A person is not limited in joint activities only by establishing contact. Having produced a material or ideal product (a built building, a grown plant, a thought expressed, a song composed and sung), a person through it conveys his individuality to other people, consolidates and continues himself in other people. Relations between people are mediated by this product, communication arises as the production of common things, equally belonging to both those who produce and those who consume this product. Here joint activity is already a side of communication. Communication, as a continuation of oneself in others, is communication of the second kind. So communication – part of the activity, and the activity – part of the communication. In all cases, they form a unity.

The following aspects are highlighted in communication: content, purpose and means.

Communication content -information that is transmitted from one living being to another in interindividual contacts. The content of communication can be information about the internal motivational or emotional state of a living being. One person can transfer information to another about existing needs, counting on potential participation in their satisfaction. Through communication, data on their emotional states (satisfaction, joy, anger, sadness, suffering, etc.) can be transmitted from one living being to another, oriented towards attuning a living being to contacts in a certain way. The same information is transmitted from person to person and serves as a means of interpersonal adjustment. For example, we behave differently with an angry or suffering person than with someone who is sympathetic and joyful. The content of communication can be information about the state of the external environment, transmitted from one creature to another, for example, signals about danger or about the presence somewhere nearby of positive, biologically significant factors, say, food. In humans, the content of communication is much wider than in animals. People exchange information with each other, representing knowledge about the world, acquired experience, abilities, skills and abilities. Human communication is multidimensional, it is the most diverse in its inner content.

The purpose of communication is this is what a person has for given view activity. In animals, the purpose of communication may be to induce another living creature to take certain actions, to warn that it is necessary to refrain from any action. The mother, for example, by voice or movement, warns the cub of the danger; some animals in the herd can warn others that vital signals are being sensed by them.

For a person, the number of communication goals increases. In addition to those listed above, they include the transfer and acquisition of knowledge about the world, training and education, the coordination of reasonable actions of people in their joint activities, the establishment and clarification of personal and business relationships, and much more. If in animals the goals of communication usually do not go beyond the satisfaction of biological needs that are relevant to them, then in humans they represent a means of satisfying many diverse needs: social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, needs of intellectual growth, moral development and a number of others. Based on this, the main goals of communication are highlighted:

contact, the purpose of which is to establish contact as a state of mutual readiness to receive and transmit a message and maintain interconnection in the form of constant mutual orientation;

information exchange of messages,that is, receiving and transmitting any information in response to a request, as well as exchange of views, ideas, decisions, etc .;

incentive stimulationthe activity of the communication partner, directing him to perform certain actions;

coordination - mutual orientation and coordination of actions when organizing joint activities;

understanding - not only an adequate perception of the meaning of the message, but the partners' understanding of each other (their intentions, attitudes, experiences, states, etc.);

emotive - arousal in the partner of the necessary emotional experiences ("exchange of emotions"), as well as changing with his help his own experiences and states;

establishing relationships- awareness and forcing their place in the system of role, status, business.

influence - a change in the state, behavior, personal and semantic formations of a partner, including his intentions, attitudes, opinions, decisions, ideas, needs, actions, activity, etc.

Means of communication are what people use to interact with each other or exchange information. Means of communication can be facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, various signs depicted on something and perceived visually, speech sounds, other sounds that carry any information and much more. The means of communication also include the behavior of a person with which he accompanies his speech. This acts as a kind of background for communication: touching, shaking hands, position, person's appearance (facial expression, demeanor, tone of voice), etc.

• -material (exchange of objects and products of activity)
• -cognitive (knowledge sharing)
• -conventional (exchange of mental or physiological states)
• -motivational (exchange of motives, goals, interests, motives, needs)
• -active (exchange of actions, skills, abilities)

By goals:

• - biological (necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the body)
• -social (expansion and strengthening of interpersonal contacts, personal growth of the individual)

Affordable:

• -direct (with the help of natural human organs: head, hands ...)
• -mediated (using special means and tools:
• a) natural: stick, flower, footprint on the ground ...
• b) cultural: writing, radio, television, print, computer ...)

By focus:

• -direct (personal contacts: bodily, verbal, pantomimic)
• - indirect (through intermediaries)

By the nature of the connections:

• -business (in joint productive activities)
• - intimate and personal (between individuals)

By the nature of the subjects:

• -interpersonal (between individuals)
• -personal-group (between an individual and a group)
• -intergroup (between groups)

By time:

• - short-term) Technological features of the organization of communication action:
• -long-term

By instrument:

• -verbal (using speech)
• -nonverbal (using facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, bodily contacts)

COMMUNICATION AS AN ACTIVITY IS A SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY ACTS.

EACH ACT IS DEFINED:

• a) the subject - the initiator of communication
• b) the subject to whom the initiative is addressed
• c) the norms by which communication is organized
• d) the goals pursued by the participants in communication
• e) the situation in which "the interaction takes place

EACH ACT OF COMMUNICATION CONSISTS OF A CHAIN ​​OF RELATED COMMUNICATIVE ACTIONS:

1. entry of the subject of communication into a communicative situation
2. recognition by the subject of communication of the nature of the communicative situation (favorable, unfavorable, etc.)
3. orientation in a communicative situation
4. choosing another subject for possible interaction
5. setting a communication task based on the characteristics of the communication situation
6. approach to the subject of interaction
7. attachment to the subject-partner for interaction
8. attraction by the subject-partner (initiator) of the attention of the subject-partner
9. assessment of the emotional and psychological state of the subject - partner and identification of his readiness to enter into interaction
10. attitude
11. as the subject - partner (initiator) on the emotional and psychological state of the subject partner
12. alignment of emotional and psychological states of subjects of communication, the formation of a general emotional background
13. the communicative influence of the subject - the initiator of communication on the partner subject
14. assessment by the subject-initiator of the reaction of the subject-partner to the impact
15. stimulation of the "reciprocal move" of the subject - partner
16. "reciprocal move" of the subject-partner in communication

KEY FEATURES OF COMMUNICATION

• - transfer of information from person to person
• -perception by communication partners of each other
• -mutual assessment by partners in communication of each other
• -influence of communication partners on each other
• -interaction of partners with each other
• - management of group or mass activities, etc.

2. Communication functions:

• - instrumental - communication as a social mechanism for managing and transmitting information necessary for the execution of the case
• -integrative - reveals communication as a means of bringing people together
• - self-expression - a form of mutual understanding of the psychological context
• -translational - the transmission of specific methods, activities, assessments, etc.
• -expressive - understanding and experiencing emotional states
• -social control - regulation of behavior and activities
• -socialization - the formation of interaction skills in society in accordance with accepted norms and rules, etc.

3. Sides of communication:

• EXTERNAL, which is actually recorded in the behavior of those communicating, is expressed in communicative actions.
• INTERNAL the communication side reflects the subjective perception of the interaction situation, reactions to real or expected contact, motives and the goal with which a person enters into communication

4. Manners of communication:

It is defined:

1. - communication tone
2. -distance in communication

5. Communication style:

These are individual-typological features of interaction between people. The following are expressed in the communication style:

• - features of human communication capabilities
• - the prevailing nature of relations "with specific people or groups
• - psychological or social personality of a person
• - features of a communication partner

Rudensky E.N. Basics of psychotechnology communication