What is the internal labor market. Internal labor markets and employment of the organization's personnel. Unemployment in market and command and control economies

Education is one of the most important factors in improving the quality of the labor force and the quality of the country's human potential.

Education is understood as the process and result of improving the abilities and behavior of an individual, in which he reaches social maturity and individual growth.

Education is a process and result of assimilation of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities. In the process of education, there is a transfer from generation to generation of knowledge of all those spiritual riches that humanity has accumulated as a result of social and historical knowledge reflected in the sciences of nature, society, technology and art, as well as in labor skills and abilities.

The growth in the level of education of the population serves as the basis for the development of the economy of any country. Accelerated growth of education is a stable, pivotal pattern of economic and social development based on scientific and technological progress, on an innovative type of economic growth. In the long term, spending on education grows faster than GDP in all developed countries. At the same time, the level of development of the education system is not a consequence, but a cause of the country's economic success.

It follows that education and economics are two sides of the same coin: education creates an economy, economics develops education. As a result, market connections are formed educational services with adjacent markets.

In law Russian Federation dated 10.07.1992 No. 3266-1 (revised 03.12.2011) "On education" the following definition of education is given - "a purposeful process of upbringing and education in the interests of a person, society, state, accompanied by a statement of achievement by a citizen (student) of educational levels established by the state ( educational qualifications) ".

By its socio-economic nature, education is a public commodity and, along with science, culture and health care, belongs to the mixed sector of the national economy. It has a positive impact on the socio-economic processes in the general public: it contributes to an increase in the overall efficiency of labor resources, the growth of their competitiveness.

In the education market, an educational service is a commodity. Before defining the term educational service, let us briefly outline the essence of the concepts of service and education.

According to F. Kotler's definition, a service is any measure or benefit that one party can offer to the other and which are mostly intangible and do not lead to the seizure of anything. According to classical marketing theory, services have a number of specific characteristics that distinguish them from a product, such as:

intangibility;
inseparability from the source, its implementation is possible only in the presence of the manufacturer;
inconsistency of quality. The quality of services varies widely depending on their producers, as well as on the time and place of their provision;
non-preservation. - The service cannot be stored for later sale or use.

At present, discussions about the essence of educational services are ongoing.

In today's economic conditions, it is impossible to give an unambiguous definition of the concept of educational services. Analysis of domestic literature and periodicals showed that there is no consensus on what should be considered an educational service. A generalized definition is presented in the following interpretation: an educational service is an economic good in the form of a spiritual product that is able to satisfy the human need for acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities, that is, it is a product that can be available for these purposes.

An educational service is also understood as a system of knowledge, information, skills and abilities that are used to meet the many-sided needs of a person, society and the state.

An educational service is a set of teachers' work aimed at increasing knowledge, skills, and abilities of the end user /

An educational service is the process of transferring an intellectual product by using innovative approaches, in order to form a certain level professional competence human capital of society.

An interesting position of EI Skripak, who believes that the "economic category" educational services ", which includes the condition, desire, basis and responsibility for their production and consumption by economic entities (households, firms, the state) is replaced by a narrower concept" paid educational services ". He explains this situation by the specifics of modern Russian conditions: the absence of fully-fledged subjects of investment in human capital mechanisms for the implementation of economic responsibility for its formation and accumulation, reduction budget expenditures on education without revising the social obligations of the state, lack of full financial market and lending mechanisms, etc.

According to another approach, the service of education in the process of consumption is transformed into a labor force, the quality of which depends not only on the totality of consumed educational services, but also on the quantity and quality of personal labor expended in the process of consuming these services, personal abilities, the degree of their implementation and other subjective factors. . "Therefore, within the framework of this approach, one should distinguish the set of knowledge, skills, and abilities, which is the product of the joint labor of the teacher and the student, from educational services consumed by the students, which are the product of the labor of teachers. work of teachers ^ can be considered as commercial products educational institution.

It can be concluded that an educational program is a complex of educational services aimed at changing the educational level or professional training of the consumer and provided with the appropriate resources of the educational organization.

In this regard, A. Pankrukhin identifies a number of features of educational services as such:

They are not tangible until they are acquired. Services have to be purchased by taking their word for it. To convince the client to do this, service providers try to formalize the parameters of the service that are most significant for the buyer and present them as clearly as possible. In education, these goals are served by: curricula and programs; information on methods, forms and conditions for the provision of services; certificates, licenses, diplomas.
Services are inseparable from the entities (specific employees) providing them. The property of inseparability from the source in relation to an educational service means that as a result of the sale and purchase of such a service, the seller loses the ownership of his specific product, but the buyer does not acquire such a right: this product itself disappears, since it is consumed at the same moment as it is produced and transmitted. " At the same time, any replacement of a teacher can change the process and result of the provision of educational services, and, consequently, the demand. An educational service is inseparable from its consumers. The final result of training depends not only on the teacher, but also on the student himself. In addition, the peculiarity of educational services is manifested in the fact that the beginning of their consumption occurs simultaneously with the beginning of their provision.
Services are inconsistent in quality. The ego is connected, first of all, with their inseparability from the performers, as well as with the impossibility and inexpediency of defining strict standards for the processes and results of the provision of services. The variability of the educational service has another reason - the variability of the "source material" - the student.
Services are unsustainable. For educational services, the property of non-persistence is dualistic. On the one hand, this is the impossibility of preparing services in full in advance and storing them as tangible goods in anticipation of an increase in demand. However, for educational services, this feature seems to be softened, since at least training information can be fixed on tangible media. But for them the other side of non-persistence is at work - it is natural for a person to forget the information and knowledge received. In education, scientific and technological progress is operating along the same lines, leading to the rapid obsolescence of knowledge. Social upoipecc also contributes to the obsolescence of knowledge in a number of disciplines, especially in a rapidly changing society during periods of transition.
The educational service is stationary. Basically, it is tied to the location of the educational institution and rarely leaves its walls.

Let's analyze the distinctive features of educational services:

1. The specificity of educational services lies in the fact that, according to many researchers, they belong to the category of public goods (goods). The provision of public goods, and, therefore, payment and responsibility for their production is assumed by the state. But still, most experts classify these services as a quasi-public good (goods or services that, strictly speaking, by their nature and purpose are not public, but provide such great benefits of capital outflow that the government encourages their production in order to prevent the occurrence of deficit financial resources.). For example, S. Fisher emphasizes that the state's concern for the consumption of vital goods does not exclude cooperation with the business sector. J. Stiglitz classifies part of educational services (primary, secondary education) as public, and the other part (higher, postgraduate, professional) to quasi-public goods.

In other words, the structure of the products of the modern educational system is heterogeneous and includes at least two parts unequal in volume:

public goods provided by the main body of educational institutions;
non-public, individually oriented product / service, the existence of which is provided for by art. 45-47 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education". 3
2. A peculiar feature of educational services is the impossibility of their direct monetary measurement. The pricing mechanism is often unable to capture the full cost of producing educational services. If in the material sphere they are relatively easy to measure quantitatively per unit of production, then in relation to educational services it is difficult to implement. The useful result of such a service can only appear after a long time, and it can practically be measured only with the help of indirect indicators.
3. Another distinctive feature educational services - the ambiguity of the goals set for the producers of these services. As a rule, the activities of an educational institution are not explicitly aimed at achieving profit. But, on the other hand, his interests are connected with the growth of well-being, which implies the receipt of the profit necessary to ensure expanded reproduction. Thus, profit is not initially a forbidden guideline for an educational institution, but, of course, it is not limited to it.
4. The peculiarity of educational services is also manifested in the fact that they are, as a rule, in combination with the creation of spiritual values, the transformation and development of the student's personality. These services ensure the realization of the cognitive interests of students, satisfy the needs of the individual in spiritual and intellectual development, contribute to the creation of conditions for their self-determination and self-realization, participate in the formation, preservation and development of various human abilities for work, in specialization, professionalization and growth of his qualifications.

A. Pankrukhin in his works main feature the provision of educational services calls the co-creation of a teacher and a listener. In the field of education, where the personality of the client is being transformed, he, not being a professional, claims to be the most active role in the process of production and the provision of educational services. It is also important that the provision of educational services, which presupposes a pronounced openness of this sphere for information, personnel and other exchanges, sets the priority for cooperation and limits the effectiveness of competition between manufacturers of educational services.

In addition, we note a number of specific features of educational services that distinguish them from other types of services:

seasonality;
high price;
the relative duration of rendering;
the delay in identifying effectiveness;
the need for further maintenance of services;
the dependence of the acceptability of services on the place of their provision and the place of residence of potential students;
the need for licensing (clause 2 of article 33 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" states: "Licensing is subject to educational activities educational institutions, scientific organizations or other organizations for educational programs ";"
competitive nature (this feature is mainly manifested in most state higher educational institutions);
relatively young age of consumers of educational services and others.

Educational services, like any product, are sold on the market, which is understood as a set of existing and potential buyers and sellers of the product. The market of educational services, in this case, is a market in which the demand for educational services from the main economic entities (individuals, households, enterprises and organizations, the state) and their supply by various educational institutions... In addition to producers and consumers of educational services, participants in market relations in this area include a wide range of intermediaries, including employment services, stock exchanges, registration, licensing and accreditation bodies of educational institutions and enterprises, educational foundations, associations, specialized educational centers, etc. 3

The peculiarity of the educational services market is also in the significant influence of the state and its governing bodies on it. In particular to their specific functions in the field of education include:

creating, maintaining and strengthening favorable public opinion, a positive image of educational institutions;
financing education and providing guarantees for long-term investments of other entities in this area;
the use of tax incentives and other forms of market regulation in order to develop priority specialties, forms and methods of training specialists, as well as education in general;
licensing and certification of educational institutions, monitoring the quality of services;
Information Support educational institutions, etc.

Thus, we can conclude that the market of educational services itself has a number of features, and not only in connection with the uniqueness of the goods being carried out - educational services.

In our study, the concept of "educational services market" will be considered as a market where the demand for educational services from the main economic entities (individuals, households, enterprises and organizations, the state) and their supply by various educational institutions interact.

In addition to producers and consumers of educational services, participants in market relations in this area include a wide range of intermediaries, including employment services, labor exchanges, registration, licensing and accreditation bodies of educational institutions, educational funds, associations of educational institutions and enterprises, specialized educational centers, etc. All of these actors contribute to effective promotion educational services on the market and can perform functions such as informing, consulting, participating in organizing the marketing of educational services and resource support for education.

Education is a process and result of assimilation of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities. In the process of education, there is a transfer from generation to generation of knowledge of all those spiritual riches that humanity has developed, the assimilation of the results of social and historical knowledge reflected in the sciences of nature, society, technology and art, as well as the mastery of labor skills and abilities.

The Law of the Russian Federation of 10.07.1992 No. 3266-1 (revised on 03.12.2011) "On education" gives the following definition of education - "a purposeful process of upbringing and education in the interests of a person, society, state, accompanied by a statement of achievement by a citizen (student) established by the state educational levels (educational qualifications) ". This definition provides a more detailed assessment, but not complete.

By its socio-economic nature, education is a public commodity and, along with science, culture and health care, belongs to the mixed sector of the national economy. It has a positive effect on socio-economic processes in society: contributes to an increase in the overall efficiency of the country's labor resources, an increase in their competitiveness. At present, discussions about the essence of educational services are ongoing.

As S.A. Kartashov and Yu.G. Odegov, market relations in the education system are very specific. Their object is an educational product. The subjects of economic relations in the market of educational services include their producers, consumers and intermediaries.

Producers of educational services are individuals or legal entities licensed for given view activities. For the manufacturer of educational services, the fundamental characteristics of the consumer-client, as you know, are age and level basic education... It should be noted that the absence of a license does not mean that there are no such producers at all or they are absent (for example, private tutoring).

A consumer-buyer is an entity that makes a purchase decision and makes payments for an educational service to its manufacturer. At the same time, the individual in the labor market forms the supply, and in the field of vocational education - the demand.

Individuals and legal entities act as intermediaries in the educational services market, assuming, in part or in full, marketing functions to generate demand for certain educational services offered by manufacturers. The state is not only an integral participant in relations in the educational services market as a regulatory and supervisory body, but also as an interested party - the customer and the consumer.

Thus, the subjects are:

firstly, educational institutions (manufacturers of educational goods);
secondly, individuals (direct consumers of educational goods) who receive knowledge in order to successful implementation them labor activity;
thirdly, the state, enterprises, employment services, etc., which act as intermediaries and at the same time as subjects making demand for educational services.

The author agrees with S.A. Kartashov and Yu.G. Odegov is that the education market model has the character of imperfect (monopolistic) competition, which stems from the strategy of differentiation of educational goods based on external competitive advantage, which, in turn, should be based on the interaction of the heap and education markets, which, when the interests of consumers coincide educational products and employers, will determine the level of requirements for the manufacturer of these products. "

Rice. 3.1.

Over a relatively short historical period in Russia, one can observe a change in several models of interaction between the labor market and the personnel training system.

Soviet model. State planning the volume and quality of professional training for the national economy at the state level according to the sectoral principle. Institute of Basic Enterprises for Primary Vocational Education Institutions.

Vocational education in the USSR was formed under the conditions of centralization of state power, and all types of educational institutions had the status of state ones. The state carried out its functions through a rigid planning system: it made the education system a planned order for the release of personnel in certain professions and in certain quantities.

State distribution was the link between the structures of the real sector of the economy and the education sector, which largely determined the content of educational programs.

The modern model of the transition period (crisis model). Regulation of the situation on the labor market mainly through the authorities

FGSZN. Orientation of the personnel training system to the effective demand of the population in conditions of insufficient financing, the development of paid forms of education.

A model of interaction between the labor market and the regional system of vocational education, based on program-targeted management methods.
A model of interaction based on targeted contract training (including in the mode of educational loans and educational "vouchers").
A model of regulation through forecasting staffing needs at the level of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Forecasting staffing needs in the context of professions and specialties. Budgetary provision of training in demanded specialties. Stimulating links between educational institutions and (potential) employers by analyzing the market segment of a particular educational institution.

The executive authorities of all levels made certain attempts to regulate supply and demand in the labor market. Thus, in accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of August 21, 2002 No. 606 "On the competitive procedure for placing a state assignment for the training of specialists with higher professional education", forecasts of specialists with higher education began to be developed in the federal center. In the first two years, they consisted of projected estimates of staffing needs, which federal bodies were requested from the subjects of the Russian Federation and further generalized. However, the level of validity and the degree of realism of these forecasts, obviously, were not high, because the overwhelming number of regions, lacking the tools for developing medium-term personnel forecasts and trained specialists, in turn, requested forecast estimates from the universities located in the regions. Thus, the practice of forming admission plans by the service providers themselves has been implemented and is still being implemented (with rare exceptions). The Research Institute of Higher Education of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, which has accumulated in previous years experience in the formation of inertial extrapolation forecasts of personnel needs for specialists with higher and secondary vocational education, developed forecasts based on the principle “from what has been achieved”. Thus, from year to year, admission to higher educational institutions has increased, which has led today to a pronounced imbalance of personnel in the context of professions / specialties and skill levels.

The global processes and restructuring of the economy, taking place in Russia in the past 20 years, have made their own adjustments to the structural changes in the educational services market. The structure of training graduates in higher educational institutions has become less and less consistent with the structure of the needs of the labor market, which leads to ineffective use labor potential. In this situation, the emphasis in training is shifting from indicators of education accessibility to indicators of its quality and equality of access to quality education.

The Russian government is fully aware of these problems, with the exception, perhaps, of issues of interregional differentiation of the quality of education. In the documents developed and approved by the government of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, large-scale steps are planned, which are supposed to radically change the situation by 2020.

Today, in the direction of equalizing access to quality education, certain positive shifts have been outlined, although not for all indicators. At the same time, the quality of education demonstrates negative dynamics. In these conditions, the problems of leveling the quality of general secondary education from modern trends, correspondence of the content and quality of vocational education to the demand of the labor market and the modern economy.

The ILO reports everywhere indicate that the level of youth employment in the Russian Federation is low. Although the monitoring of applications of graduates of educational institutions of all levels - primary, secondary and higher - to the State Employment Service on employment issues for 2009-10-11 and 2012 shows a tendency towards a decrease in these applications.

According to the State Gruda, there are 117 thousand graduates registered with the employment service as of December 1, 2012 vocational training this year and 35% of them are graduates of higher educational institutions. In SD, this figure is 54%. Here is an indicator of the work that is not being trained by those specialists who are in demand in the pile market.

Currently, there is redundancy in training specialists in specialty groups " Humanitarian sciences", "Economics and Management". According to the forecast of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia, the redundancy of training specialists with higher professional education in 2015 (1.6 times) will occur at the expense of precisely these groups of specialties.

By 2015, there will be an especially acute shortage of personnel with secondary vocational education in the enlarged groups of specialties: "Metallurgy, mechanical engineering and metalworking", "Service industry", "Energy, power engineering and electrical engineering", "Chemical engineering and biotechnology", "Construction and architecture ".

To solve the problem of imbalance between the education market and the labor market, the Republican target program"Development of primary and secondary vocational education in the SD for 2015-2019" Working shift "". The main goals, objectives and expected results of solving the problem through the implementation of this target program are presented in table. 3.1.

Table 3.1

Republican target program "Development of primary and secondary vocational education of the SD for 2015-2019. "Work force""

Characteristics of the problem solved through the implementation of the republican target program

Intended goals and objectives of the program

Expected results of solving the problem through the implementation of the program

- imbalance between the education market and the labor market;
- Insufficient provision of qualified personnel due to the reduction in the number of students in institutions of primary vocational education and secondary vocational education;
- low prestige of blue-collar occupations among young people;
- weak link between vocational education and the labor market.

Purpose: maintaining the availability of primary, secondary vocational education. Tasks:

the formation of a system of social partnership and public administration in the training of workers and specialists; development of the system of continuous education;

improving the structure and content of primary, secondary prof. education in accordance with the requirements of the labor market; and etc.

S an increase in the proportion of graduates of GOU NGOs who were employed in their profession in the first year after graduation from 66% to 75%;

S an increase in the proportion of GOU VET graduates who found a job in their profession in the first year after graduation from 74% to 80%;

S an increase in the coefficient of compliance of the admission structure at GOU NPO with the forecast needs of the regional economy from 80% to 100%;

S an increase in the proportion of graduates of GOU NPO with a higher grade from 51% to 60%;

S an increase in the proportion of graduates of GOU NGOs who have received 2 or more professions from 75% to 85%;

S an increase in the share of autonomous educational institutions of NGOs and vocational schools from 30% to 50%;

S share growth government agencies implementing programs of three levels: secondary complete general education; NGO and SPE from 605 to 80%;

S an increase in the share of people studying at GOU NGOs at the expense of employers from 46% to 50%;

S an increase in the share of people studying at GOU SPE at the expense of employers from 6% to 20%.

Improvement of education can be carried out by influencing various processes and factors involved in the functioning of the educational system. These can be economic, political and managerial levers. First of all, they lend themselves to scientific analysis. management decisions, the adoption of which can be based on the theory of modern management. The most important in this case is objective information about the quality of the education received, both in relation to who provides educational services (university or teacher), as well as the subject.

To reduce interregional differentiation in the quality of education, it is necessary, in particular, changes in budgetary legislation, which would allow the implementation of the target financial support regional and municipal educational systems from the federal budget.

In all likelihood, the State Labor Committee, together with the Ministry of Education, and with the participation of other structures at the level of subjects, should revise the topics and directions of professional orientation of young people in terms of choosing their profession and professional development in future. In 1996-1999 Moscow initiated the creation of vocational guidance centers. Although in a number of regions today special vocational guidance centers are being recreated.

The analysis carried out by the author revealed that schoolchildren have a need for professional advice by the specialists of the employment service. So 46% of all graduates of schools of the Udmurt Republic in 2012 answered that they received advice on vocational guidance in the employment service, and 66% believe that this service is simply necessary, 52% of all respondents answered that they are planning their professional career in the Udmurt Republic, 26% undecided, 22% are planning their professional career outside the region.

The data obtained indicate a direct relationship between vocational guidance work carried out by specialists from employment centers and the professional intentions of school graduates.

Of course, vocational guidance work should not be done only with high school students. In our opinion, vocational guidance should cover all periods of the child's development at school, become the same full-fledged discipline in educational process like mathematics, literature, chemistry.

In addition to the “graduate questionnaire”, in addition to the question: did you receive advice on vocational guidance from a professional consultant of the employment service? It is necessary to include the question: Do you associate your professional career with SD?

Thus, it is possible to reduce the risks of professional self-determination only through a purposeful, systematic irof- consulting work with students and increasing the role of the employment service in the implementation of the preventive shaping of the labor supply for the labor market.

In the context of the current situation in the SD, it is necessary to talk about streamlining the processes of training and employment of personnel. Today, in all regions of Russia, there is an increase in the number of educational institutions, this is the response of the educational services market to the increased demand for education.

The demand was primarily due to economic and social reasons. The Russian educational system has been preparing specialists for many years without taking into account the conjuncture of the labor market. Therefore, the main task today is to train highly-demanded wide-profile specialists. In this regard, it is necessary to note the role of regional educational programs, since they should be engaged in the training of specialists, taking into account the specific characteristics of the region.

In 2002-2003. The Ministry of Labor of Russia at the level of the Russian Federation made an attempt to develop a comprehensive mechanism for the interaction of all stakeholders in market relations in order to create conditions for the timely provision of business entities with personnel of the appropriate profile and skill level, and to increase the level of socially useful return of the vocational education system. The proposed mechanism included a list of specific activities to improve communication for three levels:

the level of the business entity;
the level of the subject of the Russian Federation;
federal level.

This set of program activities proposed by the Office of Vocational Training and Development human resources Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation, was considered at one of the meetings of the Collegium of the Ministry of Labor of Russia in the first quarter of 2003 "On measures to improve the mechanism of interaction between the labor market and the market of educational services, taking into account the satisfaction of the demand of organizations for skilled labor in vocational qualification section ". The decision of the Board included a proposal on such a method of institutionalizing the mechanism of interaction between the labor market and vocational education, as the Coordinating Committee for promoting employment of the population (at two levels: the Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation) with the following functions:

coordination of training programs for organizations;
development of forecasts of personnel needs of organizations in the medium term;
preparation of proposals for optimizing the structure of professional educational institutions of various types (at the regional and federal levels);
coordination of vocational guidance programs for young people.

However, the specified action program, initiated by the Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation, was not implemented, since in the structure of the Russian Government since 2003 there was no labor body (some functions of this department were transferred to the Ministry of Health and Social Development). Thus, it can be stated that the level of institutionalization (and hence stability and efficiency) of the mechanism for organizing the interaction of labor markets and vocational education in modern Russia dropped significantly.

Its decline was also facilitated by the closure federal Centers vocational guidance of youth and adult population of the Ministry of Labor of Russia.

In the project of the European Education Fund "Reforms of vocational education and training in the North-West region of Russia" one of the tasks (successfully implemented in the course of the project) was to involve employers in the tourism, woodworking and hotel sectors in the development of professional standards for relevant professions and specialties, updating the content of training, taking into account the identified requirements of employers for the quality of vocational training. During the implementation of the project, it was shown that for the organization of sustainable interaction between the labor market and education "... more specific organizational forms are needed than just" round tables"". One of the results of the project was the creation of institutionalized structures - Advisory Boards, whose mission was defined as “... coordination of the interests of all sides of economic life, primarily employers, as subjects of the formation of demand for labor, and educational institutions, as a party that satisfies this demand".

Today, the main provisions of the Regional Programs for the Development of Education is the implementation of the National Doctrine of Education within the competence of the authorities local government including:

implementation of the legal rights of residents of the city and region to all types of education
improvement of the system of continuing education "college-university";
overcoming structural imbalances in the field of secondary vocational and higher education;
creation of a unified regional system for monitoring the state of education.

The essence of these and other activities of the educational program is reduced to only one thing - training of personnel for the industry of the region, designed to develop the country's economy. This program should be implemented taking into account the mentality of each region and the development plans set for it.

One of the main goals that any region in market conditions should strive for in its socio-economic development is to achieve a positive financial balance with the external environment.

Summarizing the above, it is important to note the following distinctive features of the Russian model of interaction between the labor market and the vocational education system:

low level of institutionalization of the labor market and vocational education system;
the presence of non-core disciplines in educational programs, which, on the one hand, reduces the time for students practical lessons, but on the other hand, in the future it gives more opportunities for retraining;
active development and implementation of programs that promote effective interaction between the labor market and the market of educational services (program-targeted methods, design methods, etc.);
the presence of a large number of vocational education centers;
high level of cross-sectoral migration.

In fig. 3.2 and the appendix present the author's vision of the problem of cooperation between the employment service and educational institutions in the region.

Volkova, M.M., Zvezdova A.B. Marketing research in the field of educational services - Marketing / M.M. Volkova // - 2009. - No. 6.

Skripak E.I. "On the question of the concept of" educational service "", website

Kemerovo State University www.history.kemsu.ru Volkova, M.M., Zvezdova A.B. Marketing research in the field of educational services - Marketing / M.M. Volkova // - 2009. - No. 6.

In the same place.

The labor market is a diverse phenomenon with different aspects. There are models or types of labor markets, its types and varieties, as well as segments. It is important to understand what is meant by this. Are common to any market conditions characteristics of labor markets, but each regional or national labor market has its own characteristics.

Among the types, the external, or professional, labor market and the internal - intrafirm market are distinguished. Open and hidden labor markets stand out among the varieties. Each of the markets is subdivided into parts called segments.

With all the similarities in the development of economies and social spheres developed countries, employment policies in each of these countries have led to the formation of different models of the labor market. This variety of models can be reduced to 2 main types: external (or professional) and internal labor markets.

External - the professional labor market characterizes the relationship between sellers and buyers of labor on the scale of the country, region, industry. It assumes the primary distribution of workers by areas of employment and their movement between enterprises. For this, it is necessary that those offering labor services have the presence of professions and specialties that many enterprises need.

The external labor market implies labor mobility between firms. The external labor market presupposes that workers have professions that can be used by different firms... The profession and qualifications of workers focused on the domestic labor market are more difficult to use in other enterprises, because they are specific in nature, due to the work in the given firm.

At the enterprises themselves, vocational training takes place in the form of apprenticeships, when part of the training costs are paid by the students themselves, who are set low rates wages... In the external market, there are branch trade unions that unite workers in certain branches. There are also trade unions that unite workers by profession.

Thus, the external labor market is characterized by a higher turnover of personnel compared to the internal labor market, where the movement of personnel is carried out mainly within the enterprise.

Internal labor market - a labor market with a focus on the internal professional movement of workers. Personnel training, the formation of a structure by professions and qualifications takes place within the organization in accordance with the structure of jobs, the prospects for the development of the organization.

The internal labor market at the enterprise has its own characteristics. The main one is that the supply-demand relationship is realized within the team, i.e. from the number of already hired and, of course, employed workers, and applicants for a new workplace(as well as any vacancy in general) can be from the number of released workers from other areas of production, as well as from among those who continue to work, but who have expressed a desire to change their jobs on their own initiative.

The redistribution of labor within the enterprise (change of workplace, profession, qualification), called the intra-factory movement of labor, contributes, on the one hand, to the satisfaction of the needs of the enterprise in labor of a certain quality, and, on the other hand, to the realization of the employee's personal aspirations. Through such a redistribution, the employee is retained in the enterprise. In addition, in the context of competitive selection, there is more confidence that the job will be occupied by a really worthy employee in terms of his professional qualities. Of course, it should be borne in mind that the filling of vacancies by the company's own employees, who are not scheduled for release, requires corresponding costs associated with retraining and adaptation of a person to a new workplace.

Thus, the internal labor market at the enterprise is a field of collision of strategies of employers (administration) and employees of the enterprise, defending their interests. The labor market of this type is characterized by both the demand for labor and the supply coming from its own workers. Here, its own level of wages is formed for various categories of workers, depending on their need and usefulness for the enterprise, there is a regulation of the ratio of supply and demand. With a decrease in demand, there may be a variant of underemployment of an employee at the initiative of the administration, which from the standpoint of society (or the federal labor market) is considered as hidden unemployment.

Western economists, on the basis of the flexible employment strategy applied by firms, distinguish two components in the intra-factory (intra-firm) labor market: the primary and secondary markets.

The primary labor market includes jobs that provide an employee with high wages, good conditions labor, stable employment, chances of promotion, etc. and intended for the so-called "core" of the workforce of the enterprise, as the most qualified, valuable and necessary for him.

The secondary market creates jobs with low wages and related benefits, poor working conditions, higher turnover, less chance of promotion. Participants in the secondary labor market are, as a rule, workers of less importance for the enterprise or workers of such professions, which have an abundance of the territorial labor market.

The enterprise carries out the movement of labor between the primary and secondary markets, taking into account the results of the work of the applicants, their attitude to work and their enterprise, and necessarily through professional education or advanced training.

In practice, the external and internal labor markets are closely interrelated, and their division is conditional. But in specific national labor markets, you can definitely see which of the markets - external or internal, prevails there. For example, the example of Japan shows that there is a well-organized internal labor market, and the experience of the United States speaks of the prevalence of the external labor market there.

A relatively new manifestation of market relations in the labor sphere is the emergence and development of a flexible labor market, which can be characterized as a form of adaptation of the labor market to the structural restructuring of the economy in industrialized countries, which led to a reduction in the share of people employed in the production sector and an increase in the share of those employed in the service sector. This turned out to be possible due to a significant increase in labor productivity in industry, construction, in agriculture based on scientific and technological progress, technological revolution, the use of achievements scientific organization labor and production. The rigid regulation of working hours that prevailed in industry was replaced by flexible forms of employment and flexible working hours, which are widespread in the service sector. Their use has led to an increase in production efficiency, since they allow the rational use of opportunities different categories workers, such as women with children, the elderly, people with disabilities, immigrants, etc.

Flexible forms of employment are achieved by the introduction of part-time (reduced working hours), home-based work, call work, flexible regimes working hours, as well as reception temporary workers, the promotion of the so-called self-employment, when people themselves, at their own expense and at their own risk, organize their work and the work of their family members to produce goods and services.

The open labor market covers all able-bodied population represented on the labor market. This contingent, in turn, is divided into:

Organized, or official, part of the open market, which is closed to the state employment service and includes also graduates of the official or public service vocational education.

The unofficial part - those citizens who are engaged in their employment through direct contacts with enterprises or non-state structures of employment and vocational education.

The hidden labor market consists of workers employed in enterprises and organizations, but who are more likely to lose their jobs and find themselves out of work. This type of labor market can also include workers who are formally registered in enterprises, but do not work and do not receive wages. This situation is observed today in the Russian economy on a large scale. It is caused by the elimination of the previous system of economic relations and production relationships, the loss of traditional suppliers or consumers and the insufficient efforts being made to reorient production, its conversion, and the withdrawal of enterprises from a crisis state.

In the territorial context, the labor market is subdivided into: federal (at the country level) labor market, regional (at the level of an autonomous republic, region, region, city), as well as the labor market at the level of an enterprise, firm (corporate or, in other words, intrafactory, intrafirm). ). The federal market can be integrated into the international market in accordance with the established international division of labor.

The federal labor market characterizes the employment situation of the Russian population as a whole. It is the object of detailed consideration and analysis in conjunction with other macroeconomic processes taking place on a national scale.

Until recently, the federal labor market was closed: the population of the country was its participant, and balancing the demand and supply of labor was decided only in relation to the entire national economy.

In recent years, the relationship between the federal and international markets labor. The degree of this relationship is largely governed by the country's emigration policy.

The adoption of the law on the procedure for leaving and entering Russia marked the beginning of the active participation of our country in international labor exchange, in connection with which the task arose of developing a policy of such participation.

Encouraging the export of labor by legislation and public authorities should be built taking into account both positive and negative aspects.

In particular, the positive aspects include the possibility of the country receiving foreign exchange income through:

taxes on the profits of intermediary firms;

direct money transfers of emigrants to their homeland to support families and relatives;

personal investment of emigrants (bringing home means of production and durable goods, buying land, real estate, purchasing securities);

capital from countries - importers of labor, partly going to the reproduction of labor resources, to the social sphere;

direct compensation from countries - importers of labor. The export of labor makes it possible to partially alleviate the tense situation with employment in the domestic labor market in the country. It can also be considered as a factor in advanced training, especially in the case of commercial business trips abroad of specialists, scientists, etc.

The analysis of the federal labor market is aimed at identifying employment problems in the country as a whole and ways to solve them on a national scale. However, it is no less useful to analyze employment in a territorial context. Each region, district of the region, city, as an independent economic entity, has its own problems with the employment of the population, depending on the demographic situation, the development of productive forces, the sectoral structure of production, the development of social infrastructure, natural conditions that affect the possibility of attracting additional labor resources or, conversely, curbing their outflow from a given territory. The development of the transport system, which contributes to the pendulum migration of the population ( permanent residence a person in one administrative region and employment in another).

When characterizing the internal structure of the territorial labor market, such subspecies as the primary labor market are distinguished, the subjects of which are persons entering labor life for the first time, having the appropriate special (professional) training, and the secondary one. Between the primary and secondary labor markets is the retraining of personnel (in accordance with the recommendations of the employment service, as well as on the employee's own initiative) who already have vocational training, but are experiencing difficulties in finding a job in their initially chosen profession.

The sectoral labor market is characterized by the ratio of demand and supply of labor for the totality of professions characteristic of a given industry, and the professional one is characterized by the situation prevailing in a particular profession.

Such specialized labor markets are of great interest.

First, the general employment situation in the territorial labor market is a reflection of the peculiarities prevailing in the sectoral or professional markets... They should include both an excess of supply from workers of certain professions with a limited number of jobs, and, conversely, the lack of supply from specialists of a particular profile with a large number of vacant jobs, even if such specialists in the country (region, city ) there is.

Consequently, to assess the possibility of solving the problem of employment, it is not enough just to compare the number of vacant jobs and the number of unemployed population (or unemployed). You need to know what kind of jobs they are and what unemployed persons are (for example, what kind of vocational training they have).

Secondly, a detailed analysis of the situation in the sectoral and professional labor markets allows us to reveal the nature of a possible discrepancy between the demand and supply of labor and to specify as much as possible measures to change the situation in them in the right direction. Reconciliation of supply and demand always requires linking the workplace with a certain industry, profession, and the latter determines the requirements for the professional training of an employee.

The internal labor market (ART) in economic theory is called the intra-firm movement of labor within the same enterprise, in which the wages and placement of workers are largely determined by rules and procedures. The internal labor market is contrasted with the external labor market, where there is inter-firm labor mobility, and wages and labor distribution are the result of market forces.

Domestic labor markets have whole line distinctive features. First of all, these include the following:

o the relative independence of the wage rate of some ART workers depends on the ratio of supply and demand for a similar type of labor in the external market (wages depend on the length of service and official position employee at the enterprise);
o filling of vacancies occurs, first of all, by promoting personnel in career ladder(an employee, as a rule, first enters one of the lower stages of ART, and then gradually moves to higher levels);
o there is a long-term relationship between employers and employees;
o there is a relative independence of employees of the enterprise from external competition, protection from fluctuations in wages and the threat of unemployment;
o there is a relatively small number of agents on ART and limited places of employment;
o there is a slight variability of mobility with rapid horizontal and vertical movement of workers without high costs;
o administrative methods of regulating relations on ART are of great importance;
o the presence of a significant amount of poorly formalized information inaccessible to external economic entities when making decisions;
o internal labor markets are usually isolated from each other.

The main reasons for the formation and development of ART are the following:

1) specific vocational training based on the uniqueness of the technologies used at the enterprise and the specificity of existing jobs;
2) the complexity and high costs of obtaining information about the potential productivity of an employee hired from the external market;
3) on-the-job training and on-the-job training with incentives for both trainers and trainees.

The interaction of ART with the external labor market is limited and comes down mainly to those vacancies for which enterprises are hiring new workers in the external labor market. Typically, these workers are hired at the lowest job levels, which correspond to relatively low qualifications. Only if the company does not find worthy applicants for vacancies of a higher level, the company replaces them with the help of the external labor market.

From the employer's point of view, workers employed in the enterprise and those outside it differ significantly, even if they have the same skill level and other objective characteristics. This is due to the fact that the most important features of labor behavior cannot be clearly defined until the employee has completed at least a few production tasks. However, in accordance with the norms labor law this involves establishing an employment relationship. This circumstance makes it preferable for the employer to use the labor services of already hired workers, rather than look for them on the side. This desire can be fully realized if we consider the demand for labor in the form of man-hours.

It is known that employers often have a need for a relatively small and (which is very important) short-term increase in the use of human resources. This can be achieved by involving the employees of the enterprise in overtime work... If a more stable need for additional work arises, a temporary internal part-time job can be issued.

A similar situation exists when considering the features of the supply of labor, primarily in the form of man-hours. If the employer has a need to perform additional work, then employed workers periodically have a desire to obtain additional Money... Often this need becomes so acute that they are ready to do additional work to satisfy it, which means nothing more than an offer of man-hours of labor. All other things being equal, the employed worker in most cases prefers the additional work load in his enterprise to work on the side.

From the point of view of modern economics, supply and demand must be considered in unity with the so-called transaction costs. These costs include the time and money spent by the employer and the employee to meet their demand for labor (to implement the supply of labor). It should be noted that in the case of the formation of employment relations within the enterprise, they will be minimal.

So, the components of the labor market associated with the demand and supply of labor in the form of man-hours are closely related to the enterprise where they operate.

The demand for labor, expressed in terms of employees, arises when it is necessary to find a replacement for a resigned employee. To satisfy it, the employer can go outside the enterprise. However, it is profitable for him to use the services of his own employees, filling vacancies with them and achieving the solution of three tasks at once:

o reduced losses caused by the absence of employees in important positions (they are replaced by less significant losses due to the vacancy of less important vacancies);
o opportunities to stimulate employed workers are significantly expanded;
o the costs of searching, attracting and selecting employees are falling, since with this approach it is required to fill less important positions.

The practical implementation of these tasks requires the formation of a system of permanent employment at the enterprise. This is achieved, firstly, by stimulating the retention of workers, and, secondly, by considering them as top-priority candidates for filling vacant jobs at a higher level. At the same time, the desire of the employee to occupy a certain position can be considered as an offer of his labor within of this enterprise... Thus, the demand for labor in the form of workers is also largely carried out within a given enterprise.

All this contributes to the transformation of the labor behavior of employed people, since it becomes more profitable for them to make efforts to advance in office, rather than to search for new jobs outside the enterprise.

Thus, both the demand for labor, expressed in man-hours, and the demand for labor, expressed in workers, are largely met within the enterprise. The same applies to the supply of labor.

Note that all employed people are personally free people. Therefore, any change in the market situation may lead them to a decision to change their place of work. The management of the enterprise has to spend significant funds to attract employees to low-prestigious positions.

In some cases, the dismissal of certain categories of employees entails such high social costs that it makes it beneficial to provide them with job security. Thus, a significant part of the labor force cannot be excluded from the production process without serious costs in the current and future periods. There is a mutual desire of employers and employees to ensure the permanent assignment of these workers to the given enterprise. At the same time, changes taking place in the labor market outside the enterprise must be neutralized in such a way as to prevent their release.

Each internal labor market can be described as some combination of employment guarantees for employees of an enterprise and mechanisms for their gradual promotion. Both employment guarantees and mechanisms for promoting workers have a clearly expressed institutional nature, which consists in the presence of a large number of formal and informal rules and restrictions. They, and not the actual economic factors, determine, first of all, the nature of the decisions made in this area.

The traditional form of ART is the gradual replacement of more and more highly paid and attractive positions by employees who are hired at the lowest level of the hierarchy. At the same time, only the lowest positions can be occupied by persons who were not previously within the external labor market or who did not participate at all in social production... All others require more or less long-term employment in less attractive positions as a precondition.

Assessing the impact of domestic labor markets on labor and production efficiency, one cannot fail to note some contradictory points. On the one hand, they reduce the costs of the enterprise for the search, selection, recruitment and training of labor; reduce labor turnover, which leads to higher and sustainable productivity of human labor and more efficient use of basic and revolving funds; contribute to the development of the labor motivation system, the creative abilities of workers and activate their own investments in education (advanced training, obtaining a second profession, specialty).

On the other hand, the internal labor market is inseparable from the monopoly position of its subjects. The negative consequence of this is, in particular, the difficulty of replacing workers even in the case when applicants for their positions from outside have much more high level professionalism.

The main functions of the internal labor market include:

o ensuring differentiated social protection workers;
o special training and the development of the skills of the employed;
o preserving the most valuable part of the labor potential;
o maintaining the social stability of the team.

These are all very important functions, the implementation of which is a matter of public interest. Therefore, the state exerts an important, although not decisive, influence on the functioning of domestic labor markets by regulating the framework labor relations, implementation of social protection programs for certain groups of the population, creation of general and special employment programs and anti-discrimination policy.

Another feature of the internal labor market is that enterprises, in order to stimulate the labor efforts of workers and minimize the costs of control, can pay them wages higher than the equilibrium wages (i.e., more than is required to ensure a certain amount of labor in a competitive foreign market). Such wages are called effective (optimal).

For what reasons are enterprises forced to stimulate the labor efforts of workers e, setting above the equilibrium effective wages? First, in the process of fulfilling the employment agreement, one of the parties (employee or employer) may evade the fulfillment of the terms of the employment agreement. An employee can reduce labor efforts, provide less or less labor services. The reaction of the employer in this case can be different - from strengthening control over the work of the employee (if shirking is found) to his dismissal. In the latter case, the dismissed employee can immediately find a job for the same salary in a competitive equilibrium labor market, and for this reason such an employee is difficult to punish. The employer can only constantly monitor the employee, while incurring large costs, or he can increase the salary of such an employee (as an alternative solution). In this case, employees, receiving wages higher than in other firms, will fear losing them when they are fired. In addition, turnover costs will be reduced; the firm will be able to select the best employees when hiring. Thus, higher wages reduce control costs and ultimately increase profits.

A typical dependence of an employee's labor efforts on wages (Solow condition) is shown in Fig. 2.14. Wages are marked on the vertical axis, so the curve depicts the inverse relationship between wages and labor efforts w (e).

Rice. 2.14.

If we assume that the employer chooses the wage wv, then this will lead to the emergence of costs per unit of labor efficiency w1 / e1 (on the graph, their value is shown by the slope of the ray OA). At point A, the "effort - wages" curve has a slope

The employer can reduce costs by choosing w * wages. The increase in wages gives a relatively larger increase in e * efforts. At w *, the FB ray reaches the last bend of the curve and coincides with the slope of this curve. The first circumstance means that w / e are the costs of a unit of labor efficiency, which reach a minimum at w *; the second that is at the point. The same result is obtained by combining the two first order conditions obtained. With dQ / dL = dQ / dw we get:

(2.17)

In other words, with an optimal (effective) wage that minimizes costs, the elasticity of wage efforts will be unitary. This means that with effective wages, a certain relative change in wages will lead to the same relative change in labor effort. This condition is called the "Solow condition". It follows from this that effective wages depend only on the ratio "wages - efforts". Therefore, when the factors affecting the demand for labor change (the price of the product, the price of capital, etc.), the effective wages will not change, remaining rigid, but only the amount of hired labor will change. The firm will hire more workers without seeking more effort from the already hired workers by raising wages. The change in the level of wages will occur only when the firm is faced with a limited supply of labor. Wage rigidity will also lead to unemployment in equilibrium. If the effective wage is greater than the wage level at which the labor market is equalized, firms will not cut wages, taking advantage of the excess labor supply.

The reasons why the administration of enterprises makes decisions on the establishment of effective wages for certain categories of workers can be different - the facts of shirking from work, the turnover of the most valuable workers, unfavorable conditions for the selection and hiring of new workers, revealed on the basis of sociological research.

Currently, in countries with developed market economies, within the framework of the national economy, there are two interconnected, interdependent and continuously interacting labor markets - internal and external.

The internal labor market is a market that functions within the framework of large enterprises (firms, corporations, concerns). It can also be called the intra-firm labor market. Formally, any enterprise can have its own labor market where there is a trade union acting in the interests of the labor collective in solving vital issues for it, including issues of employment and unemployment. However, the main role belongs to large enterprises and firms. It is they who act as material, territorial and organizational framework formation and functioning of internal labor markets. Consequently, the “internal market” is a collective concept, since in reality there is not one, but many internal markets. Each has its own domestic market. large enterprise or a firm.

Internal labor markets are relatively isolated markets, enclosed by the boundaries of the enterprises and firms in which they operate. What they have in common is the very content of the labor market as an economic category, namely, the sale and purchase of labor. At the same time, each of them is autonomous, has its own specifics, its own "rules of the game", its own standards for hiring and firing workers, remuneration, professional internal training of workers; their customs and norms of behavior, often unwritten, but strictly observed.

Let us consider the functioning of domestic markets from the point of view of the main content of the very concept of the "labor market" - the sale and purchase of goods, labor. Hired workers employed at the enterprises of this company do not sell their labor on the intra-firm labor market, in our opinion, not every day, not continuously, but only with the onset of a new collective agreement (agreement) between the trade union uniting the given labor collective, and the owners of the company - employers, buyers of labor.

Thus, one of the most important directions in the formation of market relations is their development at the micro level or at internal labor market (within the enterprise).

Often when there is overtime or filling a vacant position the employer solves the problem of choosing between an already hired employee and a person from outside... And other things being equal it seems preferable for the employer to attract an already hired employee... In favor this decision say the following provisions:

- knowledge of the most important characteristics of labor behavior, abilities and capabilities of the employee;

- minimal risk of making a mistake when filling vacancies;

- creating an incentive to promote their employees;

- insignificant costs of attracting;

- knowledge of the applicant of the given enterprise;

- providing opportunities for growth;

- increasing attachment to the enterprise;

- freeing vacancies for younger workers;

- reducing the employer's losses due to the absence of employees in more important positions, replacing them with less significant losses due to the absence of employees in less important positions;

- the possibility of faster filling of vacancies;

- reducing the costs of searching, attracting and selecting employees, since in this case it is necessary to search for people to fill less responsible and significant positions.

At the same time, the employee often works at the same enterprise for a rather long time throughout his career, moves for various reasons to new jobs and does not look for work on the side. This is due to the following reasons:

- relative independence from competition;

- knowledge of the labor process and the team;

- stability of wages;

- job security;

- the ability to move up the career ladder within the enterprise;

- the cost of finding a new job.

That is, other things being equal, it seems preferable for the employee to offer his services to the employer, to make efforts to advance within the enterprise, rather than to look for work on the side.

It is necessary to take into account and savings on the so-called transaction costs in the labor market... These are the costs of hiring and firing, for information about vacancies and employees, for job search and mobility, for the selection of candidates, for monitoring the implementation of an employment agreement.

So, within the majority of enterprises (organizations), a relatively isolated subsystem of the labor market is formed, for the analysis of which the term "internal labor market" (ART) is used in the economic literature. The internal labor market is a system of social and labor relations linked by the framework of one enterprise (organization ), within which the purpose of wages of workers and their placement is determined by administrative rules and procedures.

Among the reasons for the formation and formation of internal labor markets are the following:

- special vocational training, qualification of workers, which is associated with the peculiarities of the use of technologies and existing jobs;

- imperfection of information about the potential performance of a potential employee;

- vocational training in the workplace, characterized by non-formal learning-by-doing.

Internal labor markets of various enterprises are isolated from each other, but at the same time are characterized by common features:

1) the internal labor market has a hierarchical structure, in which a number of levels can be distinguished. The processes that characterize the functioning of the internal labor market are shown in Fig. eight;

2) the employee, as a rule, first gets to one of the lower levels of the internal labor market, and then moves to higher levels. Examples of the movement of workers within the internal labor market are shown in Fig. nine;

3) workers on the domestic labor market are largely protected from fluctuations in wages and the threat of unemployment.

The specificity of the internal labor market is determined by the fact that there is:

- the relative independence of the wage rate of workers from the ratio of supply and demand in the external labor market;

- relative independence of employees from external competition;

- a relatively small number of agents on the market;

- great importance of administrative methods of regulation;

- a positive relationship between wages and working hours at the enterprise as an expression of the system of remuneration in accordance with the age and position of the employee;

- fast movement of workers with low costs;

- establishing a long-term relationship between the employer and

The internal labor market (ART) in economic theory is the intra-firm movement of labor within the same enterprise, in which wages and placement of workers are largely determined by rules and procedures. The internal labor market is contrasted with the external labor market, where there is inter-firm labor mobility, and wages and labor distribution are the result of market forces.

Domestic labor markets have a number of distinctive features. First of all, these include the following:

- the relative independence of the wage rate of some ART workers depends on the ratio of supply and demand for a similar type of labor in the external market (wages depend on the length of service and the employee's position at the enterprise);

- vacancies are filled, first of all, by promoting personnel up the career ladder (an employee, as a rule, first gets to one of the lower stages of ART, and then gradually moves to higher levels);

- there is a long-term relationship between employers and employees;

- there is a relative independence of employees of the enterprise from external competition, protection from fluctuations in wages and the threat of unemployment;

- there is a relatively small number of agents on ART and limited places of employment;

- there is an insignificant variability of mobility with rapid horizontal and vertical movement of workers without high costs;

- administrative methods of regulating relations on ART are of great importance;

- the presence of a significant amount of poorly formalized information inaccessible to external economic entities when making decisions;

- internal labor markets are usually isolated from each other.

The main reasons for the formation and development of ART are the following:

1) specific vocational training based on the uniqueness of the technologies used at the enterprise and the specificity of existing jobs;

2) the complexity and high costs of obtaining information about the potential productivity of an employee hired from the external market;

3) on-the-job training and on-the-job training with incentives for both trainers and trainees.

From the employer's point of view, workers employed in the enterprise and those outside it differ significantly, even if they have the same skill level and other objective characteristics. This is due to the fact that the most important features of labor behavior cannot be clearly defined until the employee has completed at least a few production tasks. However, in accordance with labor law, this involves the establishment of an employment relationship. This circumstance makes it preferable for the employer to use the labor services of already hired workers, rather than look for them on the side.

This desire can be fully realized if we consider the demand for labor in the form of man-hours.

It is known that employers often have a need for a relatively small and (which is very important) short-term increase in the use of human resources. This can be achieved by involving the workers of the enterprise in overtime work. If a more stable need for additional work arises, a temporary internal part-time job can be issued.

A similar situation exists when considering the specifics of the supply of labor, primarily in the form of man-hours. If the employer has a need to perform additional work, then employed workers periodically have a desire to receive additional funds. Often this need becomes so acute that they are ready to do additional work to satisfy it, which means nothing more than an offer of man-hours of labor. All other things being equal, the employed worker in most cases prefers the additional work load in his enterprise to work on the side.

So, the components of the labor market associated with the demand and supply of labor in the form of man-hours are closely related to the enterprise where they operate.

- losses caused by the absence of employees in important positions are reduced (they are replaced by less significant losses due to the vacancy of less significant vacancies);

- opportunities for stimulating employed workers are significantly expanded;

- the costs of searching, attracting and selecting employees are falling, since with this approach it is required to fill less important positions.

The practical implementation of these tasks requires the formation of a system of permanent employment at the enterprise. This is achieved, firstly, by stimulating the retention of workers, and, secondly, by considering them as top-priority candidates for filling vacant jobs at a higher level. At the same time, the desire of an employee to take a certain position can be considered as an offer of his labor within the framework of a given enterprise. Thus, the demand for labor in the form of workers is also largely carried out within a given enterprise.

Thus, both the demand for labor, expressed in man-hours, and the demand for labor, expressed in workers, are largely met within the enterprise. The same applies to the supply of labor.

The traditional form of ART is the gradual replacement of more and more highly paid and attractive positions by employees who are hired at the lowest level of the hierarchy. Moreover, only the lowest positions can be occupied by persons who were not previously within the external labor market or who did not participate at all in social production. All others require more or less long-term employment in less attractive positions as a precondition.

Assessing the impact of domestic labor markets on labor and production efficiency, one cannot fail to note some contradictory points. On the one hand, they reduce the costs of the enterprise for the search, selection, recruitment and training of labor; reduce labor turnover, which leads to higher and sustainable productivity of living labor and more efficient use of fixed and circulating assets; contribute to the development of the labor motivation system, the creative abilities of workers and activate their own investments in education (advanced training, obtaining a second profession, specialty).

The main functions of the internal labor market include:

- provision of differentiated social protection of employees;

- special training and development of skills of the employed;

- preservation of the most valuable part of the labor potential;

- maintaining the social stability of the team.

These are all very important functions, the implementation of which is a matter of public interest. Therefore, the state exerts an important, although not decisive, influence on the functioning of internal labor markets by regulating the fundamentals of labor relations, implementing social protection programs for certain groups of the population, creating general and special employment programs and pursuing anti-discrimination policies.

Another feature of the internal labor market is that enterprises, in order to stimulate labor efforts of workers and minimize control costs, can pay them wages higher than the equilibrium one (i.e., more than is required to provide a certain amount of labor in a competitive external market). Such wages are called effective (optimal).

For what reasons are enterprises forced to stimulate the labor efforts of workers e, setting above the equilibrium effective wages? Firstly, in the process of fulfilling the employment agreement, one of the parties (employee or employer) may evade the fulfillment of the terms of the employment agreement. An employee can reduce labor efforts, provide less or less labor services. The reaction of the employer in this case can be different - from strengthening control over the work of the employee (if shirking is found) to his dismissal. In the latter case, the dismissed employee can immediately find a job for the same salary in a competitive equilibrium labor market, and for this reason such an employee is difficult to punish. The employer can only constantly monitor the employee, while incurring large costs, or he can increase the salary of such an employee (as an alternative solution). In this case, employees, receiving wages higher than in other firms, will fear losing them when they are fired. In addition, turnover costs will be reduced; the firm will be able to select the best employees when hiring. Thus, higher wages reduce control costs and ultimately increase profits.

A typical dependence of an employee's labor efforts on wages (Solow condition) is shown in Figure 2.14. Wages are marked on the vertical axis, so the curve depicts the inverse relationship between wages and labor efforts w (e).

Figure 2.14 - Solow condition

The employer can reduce costs by choosing w * wages. The increase in wages gives a relatively larger increase in e * efforts. At w *, the FB ray reaches the last bend of the curve and coincides with the slope of this curve. The first circumstance means that w / e - costs per unit of labor efficiency, which reach a minimum at w *; the second that at the point

... The same result is obtained by combining the two obtained first-order conditions. With dQ / dL = dQ / dw we get:

In other words, with an optimal (effective) wage that minimizes costs, the elasticity of wage efforts will be unitary. This means that with effective wages, a certain relative change in wages will lead to the same relative change in labor effort. This condition is called the "Solow condition". It follows from it that effective wages depend only on the ratio of "wages - efforts". Therefore, when the factors affecting the demand for labor change (the price of the product, the price of capital, etc.), the effective wages will not change, remaining rigid, but only the amount of hired labor will change. The firm will hire more workers without seeking more effort from the already hired workers by raising wages. The change in the level of wages will occur only when the firm is faced with a limited supply of labor. Wage rigidity will also lead to unemployment in equilibrium. If the effective wage is greater than the wage level at which the labor market is equalized, firms will not cut wages, taking advantage of the excess labor supply.