1. Introduction

2. Main part

3. Conclusion

1. Introduction

The relevance of the topic of the work lies in the fact that the Jewish press as a media and as a social phenomenon is of interest for research from a historical and journalistic point of view.

Features of the development of the Jewish periodicals caused by the fragmentation of the Jewish communities of the world and the multilingualism associated with it. Appeals from the rabbinical colleges of Wa hell of four lands. These proclamations were brought to general information various decrees or announcements of events that deserved the attention of the Jewish population.

Regarding the Jewish press, there are many reports and studies that are far from professional research in journalism, moreover, biased, which closes entire periods of the development of the Jewish press due to the inaccessibility of language and direct study.

It should be noted that the use of a text on a material medium as a means of news information of general civil significance arose among Jews in antiquity. Conventionally, this can be attributed to the copper scroll of the community of therapists (Essenes), which can be considered an analogue of an information publication. The first Jewish newspaper in its modern form was the Gazeta di Amsterdam (1675-1690).

The following stages can be distinguished in the history of the Jewish press proper.

First stage The development of the Jewish press was characterized by the publication of newspapers and their predecessors, which disseminated the appeals of the rabbinical colleges, the Vaad (committee). The function of these early editions was to bring to the general attention the decrees and information about the events, which for the Jews in the diaspora served as a vehicle for the national idea and determined the national community. It has already been noted that the first Jewish media outlet was the Gazette di Amsterdam, which was published in the Ladino language in 1675-1690 by the printer David de Castro. Also in Amsterdam was published "Distangishe Courant" in Yiddish (1687). The next stage was the development of the ideas of enlightenment and the beginning of emancipation (Haskala - a change in the diaspora mentality). At that time, Kochelet Musar (1750, Germany) and Ha-Meassef (1883, Konigsberg) were published. The first political newspapers within the framework of the Jewish press were published in 1848 in Lvov (Austria) in Yiddish "Lemberger Yiddish Zeitung", also in 1841 - "Juish Chronicle" (England).

The aim of the work is to analyze Russian and Russian-language foreign and international Jewish publications.

The tasks of the work involve the coverage of the following issues:

) History of the Jewish press in Russia. (There is a good article in the Concise Jewish Encyclopedia).

) Prerequisites for the appearance of the Jewish press in Russia.

) The emergence of Jewish newspapers, magazines in Russia, on the example of three magazines ("Aleph", "Korni", "Lechaim") and two newspapers ("Jewish Word", "Shofar").

) Magazines "Aleph", "Roots", "Lechaim". The history of the emergence and development of each of them.

) Newspapers "Jewish Word" and "Shofar". The history of the emergence and development of each of them.

) Comparative analysis of journals.

) Comparative analysis of newspapers.

) State of the art Jewish Russian-language media

2. Main part

2.1 History of the Jewish press in Russia

At the beginning of the 19th century. attempts to publish Jewish newspapers, magazines and scientific collections in Hebrew were made in the Netherlands, Russia, Austria, including in the centers of Jewish thought - in Brody and Lvov. Notable editions of this time were "Bikkurei ha- ittim "(Vienna, 1821-32) and the journal Kerem Hemed (1833-56), which replaced it. In 1861-62, the founder of the Musar movement I. Salanter published the weekly Tvuna in Memel. Galician Maskilim J. Bodek (1819 -56) and A.M. More (1815-68) published the literary magazine "Ha-Roe" (1837-39), in which the works of prominent scientists of that time - Sh.D. Luzzatto, Sh. I.L. Rapoport, L. Tsunza, and later (1844-45) - the literary magazine "Jerusalem" (three volumes were published).

After the abolition of censorship in Austria in Lviv, it began to be published under the editorship of A.M. Mora is the first weekly political newspaper in Yiddish, Lemberger Yiddish Zeitung (1848-49). Later, in connection with the revival of Hebrew, the development of Yiddish literature, as well as the mass emigration of Jews from Eastern Europe to the West (including the United States), where there were no censorship barriers, the number of periodicals grew; this was also facilitated by the emergence of political parties and the Zionist movement. The first Zionist article by T. Herzl was published in the oldest Jewish newspaper in Great Britain "Juish Chronicle" (founded in 1841) on January 17, 1896, and the very next year Herzl began publishing the magazine "Di Welt". By the end of the 19th century. the Jewish press has become a prominent phenomenon in the world. In the brochure "Press and Jewry" (1882), the Viennese publicist I. Singer counted 103 active Jewish newspapers and magazines, of which 30 were published in German, 19 in Hebrew, 15 in English, 14 in Yiddish. The Russian-Jewish "Yearbook" (editor M. Frenkel, Odessa) for 1895 cited a message from the Jewish newspaper "Ha-Tsfira" about the number of periodicals devoted to the Jewish question: their total number reached 116, of which four were published in Russia , in Germany - 14, in Austria-Hungary - 18, in the USA - 45, etc.

Directory of the Russian press for 1912 I. Wolfson's "Newspaper World" (St. Petersburg) contained information about 22 Jewish publications in Yiddish, nine in Hebrew, nine in Russian, two in Polish, published in the Russian Empire.

In the period from the beginning to the middle of the 19th century. several attempts were made to create Jewish periodicals in Russia. In 1813, the Minister of Police, Count S. Vyazmitinov, reported to Emperor Alexander I that the Vilna Jews "wish to publish a newspaper in their own language." However, the tsarist government, under the pretext of the absence of a censor who knew Yiddish, rejected this and a number of subsequent requests. It was only in 1823 that the attempt of A. Eisenbaum (1791-1852), a Jewish teacher and writer, was crowned with success: a weekly in Yiddish and Polish began to appear in Warsaw, Beobachter an der Weichzel (Dostshegach Nadvislianski); in 1841, the almanac "Pirhei Tsafon" was published in Vilna - the first periodical in Russia in Hebrew, the purpose of which was "to spread enlightenment in all corners of Russia"; due to censorship difficulties, the publication of the almanac was stopped at the second issue (1844). The first edition in Hebrew, which existed for a relatively long time (from 1856 to 1891), the weekly "Ha-Maggid", was published in the Prussian town of Lyk (now Elk, Poland), bordering Russia, and was distributed in Russia. It introduced a variety of scientific and political information to Jewish readers and published articles reflecting the moderate views of the Haskalah. A prominent role in the development of the periodical press in Hebrew was played by A. Tsederbaum, who founded the weekly "Ha-Melits" (Odessa, 1860-71; St. Petersburg, 1871-1903; since 1886 it was published daily). Articles and materials in "Ha-Melitz" were devoted to acute, topical problems, which was new for Jewish journalism, they covered events important for the life of Jews in Russia, for example, the Kutaisi case, a public dispute with I. Lyutostansky and others. Jewish periodicals in Russia were published mainly in three languages: Yiddish, Hebrew and Russian. (36)

Periodical press in Yiddish in Russia begins with the weekly Kol Mevasser (1862-1871; supplement to Ha-Melitz), which was also published by A.O. Zederbaum. The weekly attracted prominent representatives of Yiddish literature (Mendele Moher Sfarim, A. Goldfaden, ML Lilienblum). Despite the censorship restrictions, Zederbaum managed to start the publication of the weekly Idishes Folksblat (1881-90) in St. Petersburg. The ideas of Zionism were expressed by the weekly newspaper Der Yud (Krakow, 1899-1902), which addressed the intelligent reader in Russia. The annual editions "Heusfreind" (editor M. Spektor; Warsaw, 1888-96), "Yiddish Folks Libraries" (founded by Shalom Aleichem; Kiev, 1888-89) and "Yiddish Libraries" (editor I. L. Peretz; three volumes were published. Warsaw, 1891-95). These editions paved the way for the publication of the first Russian daily newspaper in Yiddish, Der Freind (editor Sh. Ginzburg), published in 1903-1908. in St. Petersburg, in 1909-13. - in Warsaw. Der Fraind is one of the few Yiddish newspapers that has gained wide popularity among the Jewish masses: its circulation has reached several tens of thousands of copies. Growth at the end of the 19th century. the revolutionary movement, the politicization of the Jewish working masses and the creation of the Bund led to the emergence of illegal publications - Arbeter Shtime, Yiddish Arbeter, Poslednie Izvestia (in Russian), which were printed abroad and secretly transported to Russia.

After the abolition of censorship in October 1905, publications arose that belonged to various Jewish parties. The first legal edition of the Bund, the daily newspaper Der Veker, came out after the manifesto on October 17, 1905, but was soon closed by the authorities (1906). Over the next two turbulent years, the Bund press was represented by such Yiddish publications as Folkszeitung, Hofnung and the weekly Der Morgnstern. The Zionist newspaper "Yiddish Folk" was published in Vilna (1906-08). The Zionist Socialist Party had its own organs: Der Yidisher Proletarian (1906), Dos Wort, Unzer Veg, Der Nayer Veg; the ideas of the territorialists were reflected in the weekly Di Yiddish Wirklehkite, the ideas of Po alei Zion - "Der Proletarian Gedank" (twice a week) and "Forverts" (this name was later used by a popular American Jewish newspaper in Yiddish - see periodicals in the USA). In a number of large cities of the Russian Empire (for example, Odessa, Lodz, Vilna, Kiev and others), periodicals in Yiddish were published, designed for the local readership: "Dos Folk" and "Kiev Worth" (Kiev), "Gut Morgn" and " Sholem Aleichem "(Odessa)," Yiddish Shtime "(Riga) and others. In Vilna, the literary journal "Di Yiddishe Welt" was founded (editor S. Niger, since 1913). The daily newspaper Der Veg (founded in 1905 in Warsaw by Ts.H. Prilutsky, 1862-1942) played an important role in the development of the Yiddish press. Warsaw became at the beginning of the 20th century. center for Yiddish printing. Here the newspaper "Di Naye Velt" (1909) by M. Spector and "Moment" by Ts.Kh. Prilutsky (see. Periodicals in Poland). The popular newspaper Der Fraind (since 1909) also moved to Warsaw from St. Petersburg. In the same period, many publications appeared on specific problems(like, for example, "Der Yidisher Emigrant", founded by Baron D.G. Gintsburg in Vilna and "Vohin" in Kiev - on Jewish emigration), the specialized edition "Teater-Velt" (Warsaw) or the literary-critical magazine "Dos bukh "(editor A. Vevjorka; from the end of 1911); At the beginning of the century, attempts were also made to create a monthly magazine on literature, art and science. Writer I.L. Peretz began publishing the journals Yiddish Surname (1902) and Yiddish Libraries (1904, vols. 1-3). The Dos Lebn magazine was short-lived (from 1905; 10 issues were published). The publication of Lebn un Visnschaft (from 1909), intended for an intelligent reader, continued longer than others. The publications of this period attracted a mass Jewish reader and aroused in him an interest in social problems. The Yiddish press addressed the masses. In educated circles, they read Jewish publications in Russian and Polish, sometimes the press in Hebrew (in general, there were not many readers in Hebrew - it was a public sophisticated in religious and scientific matters). (36)

In the first years of its existence, "Ha-Maggid" was perceived by Jews different countries as the central organ of the Jewish press, although the number of its subscribers by the 1870s. did not exceed two thousand. In 1860, "Ha-Karmel" in Vilna and "Ha-Melitz" in Odessa began to appear almost simultaneously, which sought to draw the reader's attention to issues of public education, the revival of the Hebrew language, productive labor, etc. In 1862 H.Z. Slonimsky founded the weekly newspaper "Ha-Tsfira" (see above), entirely devoted to the popularization of the natural and mathematical sciences (it existed for six months). In the 1870s. P. Smolenskin's monthly "Ha-Shahar" (published in Vienna for censorship reasons) enjoyed exceptional influence in progressive Jewish circles. The program of the magazine has undergone significant changes over time: starting with the ideas of the Haskala and the fight against religious fanaticism, the magazine later turned to criticism of the "Berlin enlightenment" and to the preaching of the national idea. A.B. Gottlober founded the monthly Ha-Boker Or, which was published in Lvov (1876-86), then in Warsaw. In 1877, in Vienna, edited by A.Sh. Lieberman published the first Jewish socialist newspaper "Ha-Emet". In the 1880s. a number of yearbooks and almanacs appeared: "Ha-Asif" (Warsaw, 1884-94, editor N. Sokolov), "Kneset Israel" (Warsaw, 1886-89, editor SP Rabinovich), "Ha-Kerem" (1887 , editor L. Atlas), "Ha-Pardes" (Odessa, 1892-96). These editions gained great popularity - "Ha-Asif", for example, came out with a massive circulation at that time - seven thousand copies.

In 1886 I.L. Kantor founded the first Hebrew daily newspaper Ha-Yom in St. Petersburg, which later played an important role in the development of new Hebrew literature and contributed to the development of a strict newspaper style in Hebrew, free from bombast and ornateness. The competing HaMelitz and HaTsfira also became daily newspapers. (36)

Ahad-ha- Am edited the literary and scientific journal "Ha-Shilloah" (Berlin; 1896-1903), then under the editorship of I. Klausner the magazine was published in Krakow (1903-05), in Odessa (1906-1919) and in Jerusalem (until 1926. ). It published literary and critical articles and materials that touched upon various problems of modern life and culture. Hebrew periodicals such as Ha-Shilloah or Ha-Dor (Krakow, since 1901; publisher and editor D. Frishman) were on the level of the best European magazines of that time.

After the closure of the newspapers Ha-Melits and Ha-Tsfira, the readers' interest was filled with the new newspapers Ha-Tsofe (Warsaw, 1903-1905) and Ha-Zman (Petersburg, 1903-04; Vilna, 1905-1906 ). The publisher "Ha-Zman" B. Katz was an energetic and courageous journalist, his newspaper provided readers with up-to-date information, in the literary supplement to it the poem by Kh.N. Bialik (The Legend of the Pogrom; 1904). In 1907-11. the newspaper was published in Vilna under the name "Head Ha-zman". In the first decade of the 20th century. the Zionist newspaper Ha- Olam "(Cologne, 1907; Vilna, 1908; Odessa, 1912-14). The ultra-Orthodox weekly" Ha-Modia "(1910-14) was published in Poltava. The magazines for children" Ha-Prahim "were published in Hebrew (Lugansk, 1907) , "Ha-Yarden" and "Ha-Shahar" (Warsaw, 1911).

The first Jewish periodical in Russian - the weekly "Rassvet" (Odessa, from May 1860) - set itself the goal of "enlightening the people by exposing the backwardness of the Jewish masses and bringing them closer to the surrounding population." The leading role in the creation of the first Russian-Jewish publication belonged to the writer O. Rabinovich (with the active participation of L. Levanda and others). The creation of the weekly, which was accompanied by considerable difficulties, despite the support of the famous surgeon N. Pirogov, the trustee of the Odessa educational district, was a great achievement for the Russian Jewry of that time. Along with journalism, stock exchange chronicles, reviews of foreign Jewish journalism, criticism, serious historical and other scientific articles, "Rassvet" also published works of art (for example, "Ancestral candlestick" by O. Rabinovich, "Grocery Depot" by L. Levanda and others) ... In one of the editorial responses to criticism, it was determined to whom "Dawn" is addressed: "this is the entire Jewish nation as a whole." The weekly existed for only one year (until May 1861), during which 52 issues were published. In the same year, a second Russian-Jewish edition appeared in the form of the eponymous ("Gakarmel") supplement in Russian to the Vilna weekly in Hebrew "Ha-Karmel" (editor Sh.I. Finn), which was published for three years, publishing in Russian translation of the most interesting materials from "Ha-Karmela". The successors of "Dawn" were three editions: "Zion" (Odessa, 1861-62), "Day" (Odessa, 1869-71) and "Bulletin of Russian Jews" (St. Petersburg, 1871-79). The editors of the weekly "Zion" were E. Soloveichik (died in 1875), L. Pinsker and N. Bernstein. Continuing the tradition of "Dawn", the publication set itself the goal of "softening the strict judgment about the Jews"; under the pressure of censorship, the weekly gradually took on an educational rather than journalistic character. The publication of "Zion" was forced to cease, because it encountered "special obstacles to refuting the unfounded accusations raised by some of the bodies of Russian journalism against Jews and the Jewish religion." The "Zion" line was continued by the weekly "Day" (editors S. Ornshtein and I. Orshansky) - a publication of the Odessa branch

The Day's articles devoted much attention to the struggle to expand the civil rights of Jews in Russia; journalism, polemical materials, and works of art were published. L. Levanda, lawyer P. Levenson (1837-94), E. Soloveichik, M. Morgulis took part in the work of the weekly. After the anti-Jewish riots in Odessa in March 1871, the newspaper ceased to be published. (36)

An important role in the history of Jewish periodicals in Russian was played by the historical and literary collections "Jewish Library" published in St. Petersburg (vols. 1-8; 1871-78) edited by A. Landau, who in 1881-99. published the monthly magazine Voskhod, the most influential Jewish periodical in Russian. By 1899 "Voskhod" changed its direction and, together with the literary and political supplement "Voskhod Book", continued to be published until 1906. In St. Petersburg, the weeklies "Russian Jew" (1879-84), "Rassvet" (1879-83) were published. and the monthly magazine "Jewish Review" (1884). In 1902-1903. the magazine "Jewish Family Library" was published (St. Petersburg, editor M. Rybkin / 1869-1915 /), which introduced the reader to Jewish prose and poetry; a total of 12 issues were released. Translations of Mendele's works by Moher Sfarim, G. Heine, I.L. Peretz, essays on the Jewish ghetto in New York by A. Kogan and others. In 1904-1907. the magazine was published under the title "Jewish Life". (36)

A Jewish workers' press arose in St. Petersburg at that time: the weekly newspaper "Jewish Worker" (1905) continued the direction of the "Bulletin of the Bund", which had been published abroad since 1904. The Zionist Rabochaya Gazeta (1904) appeared in Odessa, and the Zionist Review (1902-1903) in Elizavetgrad. An important place in the Russian-Jewish press of this period is occupied by the weekly "Future", founded in 1899 by the doctor and scientist S.O. Gruzenberg (1854-1909) as an independent body of Russian Jews, "striving for cultural revival and raising the consciousness of the Jewish masses." The weekly widely presented its pages to Russian Zionists, who did not have their own organ at that time. In the annual supplement to the journal "Scientific and Literary Collection" Future "articles of a scientific nature were published (vols. 1-4, 1900-1904). Thanks to the social upsurge in 1905-1906, the number of Russian-Jewish publications reached a record figure for Russia by the middle of 1906 - 17. First of all, they were party organs, including the Zionist: the weekly "Jewish Thought" (Odessa, 1906-1907, editor M. Shvartsman; formerly "Kadima"), which considered the issues of the colonization of Palestine as the main task of the Zionist movement; "Jewish Workers' Chronicle" (Poltava, 1906, organ By Alei Zion), the magazine "Young Judea" (Yalta, 1906) and "Molot" (Simferopol, 1906); "Jewish Voice" (Bialystok, then Odessa, 1906-1907), "Jewish Voter" (St. Petersburg, 1906-1907) and "Jewish People" (St. Petersburg, 1906, forerunner of "Dawn", 1907-15). In Vilna, the Bund weeklies Nashe Slovo (1906) and Nasha Tribuna (1906-1907) were published. The organ of the Jewish People's Group (St. Petersburg, 1907) was the weekly Svoboda and Equality, and the organ of the territorialists was the weekly magazine Russkiy Yevd (Odessa, 1906, editor F. Zeldis). In 1915, a weekly newspaper was published in Moscow under the same name (editor D. Kumanov). The defeat of the first Russian revolution and the ensuing reaction led to a decrease in the number of Jewish periodicals in Russian, but in subsequent years there were still about ten titles. In St. Petersburg, the newspaper "Jewish World" was published (1910-11) with an appendix in the form of a three-month magazine "Jewish World" (editor Sarah Trotskaya, with the close participation of S. Ansky); the magazine was devoted to scientific and cultural issues. The three-month period of the Jewish Historical and Ethnographic Society "Jewish Antiquity" (1909-1930; editor SM Dubnov) also appeared here. "Jewish Antiquity" constituted an entire era in pre-revolutionary Jewish historical scholarship and continued to appear after the revolution. Various Jewish publications were published in Odessa: in the period before World War I - the monthly "Jewish Future" (1909), "New Judea" (1908), "Jewish Review" (1912), the weekly "Jew" (1902-14) , an illustrated literary and art magazine for Jewish children "Spikes" (1913-17). In Kishinev, a weekly socio-political journal "Jewish Chronicle" (1911-12; editor and publisher N. Razumovsky), "a non-partisan organ of Jewish national thought", was published. The magazine was often prosecuted for its sharp, topical articles; in 1913 it was published under the title "Jewish Word" (literary and scientific journal).

During this period, the "Bulletin of the Society for the Spread of Education among Jews in Russia" (St. Petersburg, 1910-12, editor J. Eiger), a monthly edition, in 1913-17 began to be published. - "Bulletin of Jewish education". The monthly "Bulletin of the Jewish Community" (St. Petersburg, 1913-14, editor and publisher I. Perelman) set itself the task of covering various issues of the organization of communities. The monthly "Bulletin of Jewish Emigration and Colonization" (Yelets, Oryol Province, 1911-14, editor and publisher M. Goldberg) was a private publication devoted to the issues of Jewish emigration and covered the work of the Jewish Emigration Society. The monthly Jewish Niva (St. Petersburg, 1913, publisher and editor I. Dubossarsky) and Emigrant (1914, publisher D. Feinberg), a continuation of the Yiddish magazine Der Yidisher Emigrant, also dealt with issues of emigration and colonization. The weekly "Renaissance" (Vilna, 1914, editor A. Levin) - "the organ of Jewish national thought" - fought for the national, cultural and economic revival of the Jewish people (No. 15 was dedicated to the memory of T. Herzl with his portrait on the cover and an article by B. Goldberg "Herzl in Vilna", for which the vice-governor of Vilna fined the editors of "Renaissance"). (36)

The Russian-Jewish press during the First World War was directly connected with the socio-political life of the country, covered events at the front and in the rear, the situation of the Jewish population of Russia. In Moscow, the collection "War and the Jews" (1914-15, editor and publisher D. Kumanov) was published twice a month. Similar goals were pursued by the magazines "Jews and Russia" (Moscow, 1915), "Jews at War" (Moscow, 1915), "Bulletin of the Moscow Jewish Society for Aid to War Victims" (Moscow, 1916-17) and "Delo Pomoshchik" (P., 1916-17). The magazines published detailed testimonies about Jews who suffered from the war, about refugees, materials about the activities of institutions that provided them with assistance, etc. In the same period, the socio-political and literary Zionist newspaper "Jewish Life" (Moscow, 1915-17, editor and publisher S. Brumberg) began to appear, replacing the Petrograd newspaper "Rassvet", which was closed in June 1915. Despite the censorship persecution, the newspaper tried to promote Jewish culture. Thus, one of the issues for 1916 was dedicated to the 20th anniversary of Kh.N. Bialik, another - in memory of L. Pinsker. The weekly "Jewish Week" (1915-17, editors and publishers I. Ansheles, I. Zeligman), the organ of the Jewish People's Group (see above), was also published in Moscow. Setting the task of uniting all elements of Russian Jewry and developing "its internal forces", the magazine paid special attention to the world war, the participation of Jews in it and its significance for Jewry. Soon after the February Revolution, the edition of the Jewish Week was moved to Petrograd; there the newspaper was published until the end of 1918. Until October 1917, the publication of the weekly Novy Put (1916-17, editor and publisher S. Kogan with the participation of O. Gruzenberg and others) continued in Moscow, dedicated to issues of Jewish life. Some of the last editions of the pre-revolutionary period were "Jewish Economic Bulletin" (P., 1917) and the two-week magazine of the Zionist trend, "Jewish Student" (P., 1915-17), devoted to the problems of student youth. The legal organ of the Bund, the weekly Jewish Vesti (1916-17, publisher and editor N. Grushkina), was published in Petrograd, and the Voice of the Bund (organ of the Central Committee) from August to October 1917.

Periodicals in the Soviet Union. Between February and October 1917, there was a rapid increase in the number of Jewish periodicals due to the abolition of censorship and general freedom of the press. This period of freedom for the Jewish press ended by the fall of 1918, when the communist government took control of practically the entire Russian press (relative freedom of the press existed until 1920 in Ukraine and Belarus). The leading Zionist organs of the time were the daily newspapers Kha- Am "(in Hebrew, Moscow, July 1917 - July 1918) and" Togblat "(in Yiddish, P., May 1917 - August 1918). A number of Jewish newspapers of various trends were published in Kiev: the Bund organ Folks Zeitung ( August 1917 - May 1919), organ of the Po party alei Zion "Dos Naye Lebn" (December 1917 - March 1919), the newspaper of the United Jewish Socialist Workers' Party "Naye Zeit" (September 1917 - May 1919), the Zionist newspaper "Telegraph" (November 1917 - January 1918). The newspapers Der Id (December 1917 - July 1918) and Farn Folk (September 1919 - January 1920), both Zionist, were published in Minsk. A number of Jewish press after the revolution took a pro-Soviet direction. The newspaper Der Veker, which appeared in Minsk in May 1917 as the central organ of the Bund, in April 1921 became the organ of the central bureau of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the Evsection of Belarus; existed until 1925. The name "Der Veker" was used by many Jewish publications in Yiddish (mainly socialist), published in Vilna, Vienna, Krakow, London, Bucharest, Iasi, New York. (36)

The periodicals in Hebrew, discontinued due to World War I, began to appear again after February 1917. In Odessa, the revived magazine "Ha-Shilloah" (banned in April 1919), literary collections "Kneset", "Masswot" and "Eretz"; historical and ethnographic collections "Reshumot" and "Sfatenu". Until the beginning of 1920, the last Russian weekly in Hebrew "Barkai" was published in Odessa. In Petrograd, the scientific yearbook "Olamenu" and the children's magazine "Shtilim", as well as the historical collection "He- Avar "(2 volumes were published). Three issues of the Hebrew quarterly" Ha-Tkufa "(publishing house" Shtybel ", 1918) and three socio-literary collections" Safrut "(editor L. Yaffe, 1918) were published in Moscow. Since the end of 1918 On the initiative of the Evsektsiya began a gradual curtailment of periodicals in Hebrew, and then they were completely banned as part of the fight against Hebrew as a “reactionary language.” Along with publications in Hebrew and Yiddish, many Jewish publications in Russian were closed: “Rassvet” (September 1918), "Chronicle of Jewish Life" (July 1919) and others. Until 1926, the central organ of the left organization of Po alei Zion "Jewish proletarian thought" (Kiev-Kharkov-Moscow; publication in Yiddish lasted until 1927). In the first years of Soviet power, the scientific and historical collections "Jewish Thought" (editor Sh. Ginzburg; P., 1922-26, vols. 1-2), "Jewish Chronicles" (1923-26, vols. 1-4) continued to be published , "Jewish antiquity" (M. - P., 1924-30, vols. 9-13), published by a group of Jewish scientists and writers within the framework of the Society for the dissemination of education among Jews in Russia and the Jewish Historical and Ethnographic Society. Separate periodicals were published for some time on the periphery. In 1927-30. five issues of ORT Materials and Research were published. The publication of the OZET organ "The Tribune of the Jewish Soviet Community" (executive editor Sh. Dimanstein, M., 1927-37) was stopped by repressive measures. Jewish periodicals continued to be published in the states formed in the territories that were under the rule of the Russian Empire before World War I (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia), in Poland, in the centers of Russian emigration (Berlin, Paris, Harbin and others). (36)

In contrast to the prohibition of publications in Hebrew, the first two decades of Soviet power flourished in Yiddish, which was recognized in the Soviet Union as the national language of the Jews. The Jewish press was entrusted with the functions of promoting communist ideology. Soviet Yiddish periodicals included daily newspapers, magazines, children's illustrated publications, and scientific collections. Jewish periodicals were published in all major cities of the country with a Jewish population. Three daily newspapers were published in Yiddish: Der Emes (Emes; M., 1918-38; in 1918 - Di Varhayt), Der Shtern (Kharkov, 1925-41), Oktyaber (Minsk, 1925-41), the content of which was highly dependent on the central Soviet press and only partially reflected the phenomena and events of Jewish life, culture and literature in the Soviet Union. Many other publications in Yiddish were published: "Proletarischer von" (Kiev, 1928-35), "Odesar Arbeter" (1927-37), "Birobidzhaner Stern" (Birobidzhan, since 1930), the central organ of the Jewish Autonomous Region, which in in the last decades of its existence (until the second half of the 1980s), he hardly touched upon Jewish issues. Before the start of World War II in the Soviet Union, special attention was paid to literary magazines and almanacs in Yiddish: Prolet (1928-32), Farmest (1932-37), Diroite Velt (1924-33) were published in the Ukraine. ) and "Soviet Literature" (1938-41); in Belarus - "Stern" (1925-41). In 1934-41, 12 volumes of the yearbook "Sovetish" were published, which played a significant role in the development of Jewish literature in the Soviet Union. Children's literature in Yiddish was published in the magazines "Zai Great" (Kiev, Kharkov, 1928-41), "Junger Leninist" (Minsk, 1929-37), "Oktyaber" (Kiev, 1930-39). The journals "Oif der veg zu der nayer shul" (Moscow, 1924-28) and "Ratnbildung" (Kharkov, 1928-37) were devoted to pedagogical topics. Scientific publications on the history of Jewish literature, linguistics, etc. appeared in yearbooks published by Jewish research institutes in Kiev and Minsk (under the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and Belarus): "Di Yiddish Shprah" (Kiev, 1927-30), "Oifn Shprakhfront" (Kiev, 1931-39), "Zeit- font "(Minsk; vols. 1-5, 1926-31)," Linguistisher zamlbuh "(Minsk, vols. 1-3, 1933-36).

The Jewish press in Yiddish continued to exist in the annexed to the Soviet Union in 1939-40. Lithuania, Latvia, Western Ukraine and Western Belarus, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Despite the prohibition of many publications and the subordination of the Jewish periodicals to the dictates of ideology, this press brought a fresh stream to Jewish life and culture in the Soviet Union, acting as the bearer of Western trends in the use of expressive means of the Yiddish language. The publication of these newspapers and magazines ceased after the occupation of the western regions by the German army in the summer of 1941.

With the invasion of Nazi Germany into the Soviet Union, the Anti-Fascist Committee of Jews (AKE), which moved from Moscow to Kuibyshev, began to publish the newspaper "Einikite" (from July 1942 it was published three times a month; from February 1945 to 1948 - three times a week), which published materials about the participation of Jews in the fight against fascism, about the atrocities of the Nazis in the occupied territory, as well as messages and statements by the leaders of the AKE. The newspaper was liquidated by the Soviet authorities in the fall of 1948 after the arrest of the AKE members.

In the post-war period (even before the liquidation of AKE), several Jewish periodicals in Yiddish were published for a very short period: "Heimland" (No. 1-7, M., 1947-48), "Der stern" (No. 1-7, Kiev , 1947-48), "Birobidzhan" (vols. 1-3, 1946-48). In the 1950s. In the Soviet Union, not a single Jewish periodical was published, except for the official newspaper Birobidzhaner Stern, published in 1950-54. with a circulation of one thousand copies. Then, during the period of the "thaw" in 1961, the official organ of the Writers' Union, the literary and art magazine "Sovetish Heimland" (Moscow; from the spring of 1961, every two months, after 1965 - a monthly; editor A. Vergelis), began to be published. where the works of Soviet writers in Yiddish were published. Since 1984, on the basis of "Sovetish Gameland", a yearbook has been published in Russian "Year after Year" (editor A. Tverskoy), which mainly publishes translations of works published in the magazine. (36)

Since the beginning of the aliyah to Israel in the 1970s. Along with the official Jewish editions "Sovetish Gameland" and "Birobidzhaner Stern", published in Yiddish, uncensored typewritten Jewish editions in Russian began to appear, multiplied by rotaprint or photographic method. Publishers and distributors of such literature were persecuted by the KGB.

With the beginning of the so-called perestroika (the second half of the 1980s), legal Jewish periodicals appeared. The first such publications were the organs of Jewish cultural societies: "VEK" ("Herald of Jewish culture", Riga, since 1989); "VESK" ("Bulletin of Jewish Soviet Culture", publication of the Association of Figures and Friends of Jewish Soviet Culture, Moscow, since April 1989; since 1990 - "Jewish Newspaper"); "Vestnik LOEK" (organ of the Leningrad Society of Jewish Culture, since 1989); "Renaissance" (Newsletter of the Kiev City Society of Jewish Culture, since 1990); "Jerusalem de Lita" (in Yiddish, organ of the Society for the Culture of the Jews of Lithuania, Vilnius, since 1989; also published in Russian under the title "Lithuanian Jerusalem"); "Mizrah" ("East", organ of the Tashkent Jewish Cultural Center, since 1990); "Our Voice" ("Undzer Kol"; in Russian and Yiddish, newspaper of the Society of Jewish Culture of the Republic of Moldova, Chisinau, since 1990); "Ha-Shahar" ("Dawn", organ of the Jewish Culture Society within the Estonian Cultural Foundation, Tallinn, since 1988); "Einikite" (Bulletin of the Jewish cultural and educational association named after Sholem Aleichem, Kiev, since 1990) and others.

Along with them, such publications as "Bulletin of the Society for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Israel" (M., Jewish Information Center, since 1989), "Voskhod" ("Zrikha"), the newspaper of the Leningrad Society of Jewish Culture (since 1990 .); "Jewish Yearbook" (M., 1986, 1987, 1988); "Jewish Literary-Artistic and Cultural-Informational Almanac" (Bobruisk, 1989); "Maccabi" (Journal of the Jewish Society of Aesthetics and Physical Culture, Vilnius, 1990); "Menorah" (publication of the Union of Jewish Religious Communities, since 1990) and the eponymous newsletter of the Chisinau Jewish religious community (since 1989), as well as a number of newsletters - on issues of repatriation and Jewish culture (M., since 1987. ); Union of Hebrew Teachers in the USSR (in Russian and Hebrew; M., since 1988); Chernivtsi Jewish Social and Cultural Foundation (Chernivtsi, since 1988); Lvov Union of Hebrew Teachers in the USSR "Ariel" (1989) and many others.

The tremendous changes in the countries of the Soviet Union affected the number and character of Jewish periodicals. The massive departure of Jews from these countries led to the fluidity of the editorial staff of Jewish periodicals and questioned the future of these numerous newspapers, bulletins, magazines and almanacs, especially those oriented towards aliyah (for example, "Kol Zion" - the organ of the Zionist organization Irgun Tsioni, M. , since 1989).

2.2 Preconditions for the appearance of the Jewish press in Russia

The perestroika Jewish press initiated the publication in Riga in 1989 of the VEK magazine (bulletin of Jewish culture). In April of the same year, Tancred Golenpolsky began publishing a new Jewish media outlet, which is still published under the name International Jewish Newspaper.

By the end of the 1980s, Jewish "samizdat" became widespread, ceasing to be dangerous for readers or distributors. In addition, the Jewish theme sounded good in national publications. Literature of deferred demand was openly and massively distributed, but of a journalistic nature - due to the high effect of reliability ("Steep Route", "Heavy Sand", etc.). In response to demand, in the post-Soviet era, there was a certain analogue of the post-revolutionary succession of the Jewish press, but in terms of the number of publications it is much smaller, poorer in content, and no longer in Yiddish, but with Russian-language content under Hebrew brands in Russian - "Boker" ("Morning ")," Gesher "(" Bridge ").

The Russian-language Jewish press has recently been revived in our country. The Jewish newspaper, published in Birobidzhan in two languages, was not available outside the region. The first issue of VESK, the Bulletin of Jewish Soviet Culture, was published in the spring of 1990, at a time when the Soviet regime was already in agony, which is probably why the newspaper could have appeared. And yet "VESK" became an event ... This (or such) newspaper, the Jews of the USSR, who missed their native word, waited for many decades, albeit in Russian: for the majority it has long become native. At first, the newspaper had many readers. To buy it, people had to stand in line. A lot of Jewish bands, mostly pop bands, toured the country. There was also the Chamber Jewish Musical Theater (KEMT), which enjoyed success not only in the USSR, but also abroad. By that time, the Jewish (more precisely Russian-Jewish) theater "Shalom" had shown its first performances. "The Enchanted Tailor" charmed the audience. And in February 1990, the Cultural Center named after Solomon Mikhoels was noisily and solemnly opened. And the newspaper "VESK", published shortly after this event, appeared on time and, as they say, in the same place. It might seem like a hint of a renaissance of Jewish culture, destroyed during the struggle against cosmopolitanism ...

Then Jewish newspapers in Russian began to appear in Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent, and in the capitals of the Baltic republics (it seems that in Tallinn the Russian-language newspaper was published earlier than VESK). The "matured" "VESK" first became the "Jewish Newspaper", and after the collapse of the USSR it was transformed into the "International Jewish Newspaper", "MEG", which was considered the "main" publication in the Russian language. There were also attempts in Moscow to publish Jewish newspapers, but they were not crowned with success.

There were attempts to revive the pre-revolutionary Jewish publications, such as the Samara newspaper "Tarbut". Some publications came out in huge print runs with a good representative typology of the Jewish media of this period. For example, the International Jewish Newspaper had a circulation of up to 30 thousand copies. This was accompanied by an artificial revival of Jewish communities with the establishment of their publications. Foreign organizations actively penetrated the country, the restoration of synagogues ended with their capture by the Hasidim of one of seven similar directions and, accordingly, their spread printed publications purely religious orientation. At the same time, several Zionist publications were financed for distribution in Russia. But only a few of them were filled with copyrighted materials of their own journalists, such as, for example, the Gesher-Most magazine, the publication of the MCIREC "Tkhiya" that no one had done before). At the same time, MEG supported the preservation of Jewish life in Russia, being practically independent of funding sources in its editorial policy, which reminds it of Moskovskaya Pravda.

At the peak of the second succession of the Jewish press, for just one academic year, the Faculty of Journalism operated as part of the Hebrew University in Moscow, whose students were fortunate enough to get all the best that the teachers of the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow State University, researchers of Jewish life in the Soviet Union and its bright representatives could give Chaim Bader, Abram Kletskin and others (1, p. 2)

After the second succession, the Jewish press began to decline and a recession began. The regularity of periodicals was falling. Their publishers found other employment for themselves. For example, the editor-in-chief of the Jewish newspaper Tarbut, revived in Samara, Alexander Brod, moved to Moscow and organized the Moscow Bureau for Human Rights as part of the American organization Union of Councils for Soviet Jews.

Russian-language Jewish press

Separate media outlets, experiencing difficulties both with funding and with the audience, with increasing independence from it, have existed since at least 1993 against the background of the disappearance of Jewish communities. This, for example, happened in Birobidzhan, although there is still some stratum of the Jewish population, in contrast to Ukraine or Poland. Contrary to expectations, MEG and other similar publications remained outside the media holdings. Isolated editions have survived, with great difficulties they are slightly financed little by little from various and incompatible sources - the local budgets of the Russian regions, the Joint, Lishkat-a-kesher, Sokhnut (EAR) and partially - Jewish financiers through the regional branches of the RJC, while they existed.

Against the background of the twofold flourishing of the Jewish press in Russia, the phenomenon of the Israeli, in a broad sense - the diaspora Russian-speaking Jewish press was also noted. Its basis is the penetration into the international market of permanent PR-campaigns of Russian power structures (shadow) and specific newsmakers. For example, Joseph Kobzon financed the "Russian Israeli" for some time. Initially, the mechanism was launched by the consequences of the sensational "plane case" of 1970, which brought Eduard Kuznetsov to the public arena as editor-in-chief of the influential Israeli Russian-language newspaper Vesti.

The diaspora Russian-speaking Jewish press has developed under the significant influence of such teachers of the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow State University as Dietmar Rosenthal and Yasen Zasursky as a result of the emigration of their former students, who idolize their teachers the more the further from their real homeland. (2, p. 12)

By the beginning of 2000, the publication of several more Jewish publications had ceased, including the journals "Russian Jew" and "Diagnosis". In fact, only one newspaper remained of the International Jewish Newspaper publishing group, and even that one temporarily ceased to exist in 2002. Instead of "MEG", its editor-in-chief Nikolai Propirny began to publish the RJC organ "Jewish News", which soon ceased to exist. Then "MEG" began to appear again with a different editorial staff. During this time, one new newspaper appeared - the weekly "Jewish Word", published with the support of the second chief rabbi of Russia, Berl-Lazar.

The printed Jewish press has largely been replaced by online Russian-language publications such as

· "Jewish World. Newspaper of the Russian-speaking America" ​​(# "justify"> From the print editions of not only the Jewish press, but in general among the Russian media, one of the first was reflected in the Runet segment of the MEG network (# "justify"> The typological structure of the Jewish press of the studied period of the second succession is characterized by diversity and relative completeness. Typical examples were: the weekly newspaper "MEG", Moscow; the newspaper in the form of an ongoing irregular publication "Tarbut", Samara; the bulletin of the national public association "Domashnye Novosti" ; Almanac of materials on national themes "Year after Year"; Journal (Journal) "Russian Jew"; Journal (Magazin) "Bulletin of the Jewish Agency in Russia".

The basis of typological diversity is the creative competition of their publishers (editors-in-chief), who are well known to each other in the narrow environment of the national public arena. Some of the publishers and journalists of the Jewish press were familiar from a past life, they are well aware of the conditions of the ghetto. These are people with high social activity, and for most of them journalistic work is not only not the only one, but it has not become the main one.

Thus, the typological completeness of the Jewish press system at the peak of its development reflects, on a reduced scale, the same processes in the general civil press. It should be noted that in this the Jewish press differs markedly from other versions of the diaspora press in Russia, which has never acquired its typological completeness. (1, p. 2)

Subject-thematic classification of the Jewish press reflects the preferred and highlighted topics of the materials. These are primarily politics, religion and traditions, communal life, humor, the activities of the Jewish Agency for Russia (formerly Sokhnut), events in Israel and the Middle East, the problem of anti-Semitism, forms of its expression and causes, as well as a "bookshelf" with a traditional description book novelties.

The functional orientation of the Jewish press reflects the ratio of the requests of a specific national audience and the real coverage of a characteristic thematic set. The functional orientation, in turn, determines the genre structure of the Jewish national press in Russia - the use of specific genres and the ratio of materials of the corresponding genres.

The "renaissance" period of the Jewish press of the nineties in terms of the number of titles is two orders of magnitude behind the post-revolutionary period when the ideological press in Yiddish flourished. It coincided with the transitional period of the Russian press and began in the late 1980s with attempts to publish several specifically Jewish media outlets such as Vestnik Jewish Culture in the form of a magazine in Riga and in the form of a newspaper in Moscow. The Moscow edition comes out almost to this day, renamed into "Jewish Newspaper", then "International Jewish Newspaper" (with supplements "Rodnik" and "Nadezhda"). The first attempts were rather timid and not too professional, but with a huge circulation of 30-50 thousand copies and more. Then, over the course of several years, numerous Jewish publications appeared and closed: Yom Sheni, Moscow-Jerusalem, Gesher-Most, Utro-Boker, and numerous regional ones. Information and propaganda publications of international Jewish organizations, for example, Sokhnut (currently the Jewish Agency for Russia) or the Israel Foundation for Culture and Education in the Diaspora, announcing their activities in the USSR and then in the Russian Federation strictly in agreement with the authorities, and used as a conductor of information by those organizations whose charitable activities are not advertised here, for example, Joint, Orth, Kleimes Conference, B'nai-Brit and others. Phenomenologically, the development phase of the Jewish press in the nineties resembles that of the tens and twenties, but much poorer in terms of the number and independence of publications. (4.p.6 p.2 ____________________________________)

Currently, most of the Jewish post-perestroika publications are closed for the same reasons that led to a reduction in the range of public publications that excluded lobbying for corporate or personal interests and did not participate in election campaigns. The surviving Jewish media use the same methods that keep former Soviet media outlets like Komsomolskaya Pravda and AiF afloat. For example, "MEG" has turned into a group of editions of the united editorial board, which nominally also included the magazine "Di Yiddishe Gas" - the magazines "Russian Jew" and "Diagnosis", the bulletin "Jewish Moscow", the Web-page "Jewish Russia". Religious publications, for example, "Lechaim", "Aleph" or "Fathers and Sons", do not stop and practically do not experience difficulties.

Thus, the reason for the exclusive position of the Jewish press is its integration into civil, general political and national problems and processes associated with the widespread "playing the Jewish card" against the background of diffuse total xenophobia associated with one of the three forms of anti-Semitism, the most widespread at that.

2.3 Magazines "Aleph", "Roots", "Lechaim". The history of the emergence and development of each of them, a comparative analysis

The journal "Roots" is well known to the Jewish reader of Russia. Over the years of its existence, and it has been published since 1994, about 300 articles have been printed in it, more than 350 people have sent their responses, reviews, critical letters, shared their opinions about the journal and the problems covered in it; all this also found its reflection on the pages of the magazine.

The journal "Roots" was founded in 1994 as a literary tribune of lecturers and activists of the broad educational program "People's University of Jewish Culture". It was published by the Saratov regional Jewish organization "Teshuva", and the general sponsor was the "Joint" branch in the Central European part of the Russian Federation (director - Yitzhak Averbukh, Jerusalem). (1.p.3)

In the future, the journal expanded the range of authors and the geography of its distribution. But all the years the magazine "Korni" was and remains the only Jewish social and publicistic magazine in Russia, continuing the traditions of the first Russian-Jewish magazines of the 19th century "Rassvet" and "Voskhod". All these years, along with specialists and researchers of Jewish studies, "Roots" provided an opportunity to discuss the problems of modern Jewish life for the mass reader, public educators, and activists of Jewish communities. "Roots", as a Jewish magazine, has always been at the center of urgent problems national life, culture, understanding the most important milestones in the national history of the people, while remaining, at the same time, a magazine close and understandable to every reader.

Entering its second decade, the Jewish journalistic journal "Korni" is experiencing a kind of rebirth. The increased popularity required new forms of communication with the reader. In recent years alone, in the cities of Russia, Ukraine, the CIS countries and abroad, the magazine has held about 30 readers' conferences, which were attended by more than 3000 people. Readers' conferences gave new impetus to community work. They prompted the leaders of the cultural life of the communities to get in touch with the university, intellectual forces, to organize their relevance, to involve them in the discussion of the problems of local Jewish life and national culture in general, and to involve them in the work in the magazine.

Recently, the magazine began to be distributed by paid subscription and by sale, and its authors help the editorial board in distributing the magazine. By this, he unequivocally told the reader and the authors: "We expect from you not only moral, but also material support. We want you to feel that with your personal participation you are helping the formation of modern Jewish journalism and the development of national enlightenment."

In 2002-2006, the Foundation for the Development of Jewish Communities in Russia and Ukraine (Director - Martin Horwitz, New York) provided great assistance in the development of the journal's economic independence.

The Jewish journal "Roots", being national in its subject matter, is nevertheless open to almost all correspondents outside the national framework. The editors will treat any materials kindly, help in editing them, invite everyone who would like to publish their articles, essays, studies, to cooperate. methodological developments related to Jews and Jews.

Manuscripts are accepted in any form, preserved and returned to the authors. Reviews, reviews and critical remarks on previously published materials are especially valuable for the journal. (5, p. 3)

Starting from No. 17, the design of the magazine has been updated. The cover was changed, illustrations and portraits of the authors were introduced. Starting with # 21, the redesign of the magazine cover continued, and this tradition will continue in the future.

The position of the publication clearly and clearly reflects the idea of ​​the place of the magazine among other publications aimed at the Jewish audience. "Roots" are addressed to ordinary, ordinary Jews, to those who are called amha in Hebrew, who, due to well-known historical reasons and circumstances, have become divorced from tradition, from knowledge, in a word, from the very soil of Jewish life. Therefore, the main task of "Roots", judging by the published articles, was enlightenment.

It is no coincidence that, until recently, the journal was a bulletin of the People's University of Jewish Culture in Central Russia and the Volga region, and since 2004 it has become a public-journalistic and cultural-educational journal of Jewish communities in Russia, Ukraine and other CIS countries. The change in the "subtitle" reflected the characteristic evolution of the journal and editorial policy. The magazine is acquiring more and more features of ours, a communal one, that is, one where every Jew can express his point of view, his point of view in the hope of being heard.

Interest in the journal is also growing because the editorial board does not avoid raising acute, sometimes fierce polemics, and gives the authors the opportunity to express different opinions and assessments, not striving either for "like-mindedness" or for flatly understood "political correctness." The genres of articles and speeches themselves are diverse: along with "pure" journalism, materials of an "academic" nature are also published, authentic documents of the era and personal memoirs find their place, materials that are directly related to cultural heritage, responses to the "news of the day" are presented. (12, p. 5)

Thus, in No. 21, V. Efremova's article "A Jew in Russia", which describes in detail the position of Leskov on the "Jewish question", set forth in his famous book, which has not lost its relevance today, seemed very useful. The writer, who emphasized the importance of "spiritual kinship" in human relations, sought to destroy, as the author of the article proves, typical anti-Jewish myths; his views differed (in comparison with the views of many of his contemporaries) tolerance, which opened up the possibility of dialogue and mutual understanding. The article by E. Mendelevich "Maximilian Voloshin and Jewish Culture" posted here in a very attractive light depicts the figure of a great Russian poet who constantly showed a deep and genuine interest in the historical fate of the Jewish people.

In the first sixteen issues, nine headings appeared with more or less regularity and stability: "Articles. Research", "Modern history (reviews)", "Lectures", "Memories, documents", "Our genealogies", "Reflections", "Archives "," Chronicle "and" Reviews. Reviews. Criticism ". Moreover, only one of them - the first - was present in all sixteen issues, without exception. Starting with the 17th issue, the appearance of the journal, including the composition of its headings, has changed, but more on that later.

Let's start with the rubric whose life on the pages of the magazine turned out to be the shortest - "Archives". In the first two issues it published a collection of documents "From the history of the synagogue in the city of Orel". The most interesting material in the first issue was not published quite successfully. Instead of the 15 documents declared in the preface, only four were presented, but four more documents of the 1990s were added to them, also dedicated to the synagogue in Oryol, but at the same time constituting a completely different plot (the first are devoted to the opening of the synagogue at the beginning of the 20th century, the second - to the struggle for the return of the synagogue building at the end of the century), moreover, unfinished (the struggle continued at the time of publication) and at least for this reason alone does not correspond to the heading "Archives". In the second issue, the publication of a seemingly boring 1912 income statement for the construction of the synagogue is accompanied by a detailed preface by S. Avgustevich, who finds poetry in it (one of the sections of the preface is called “Poetry of the column“ Expenses ”") and forcing the reader to peer at the columns names and numbers, start discovering amazing details in them. But, apparently, publishing required too much effort on the part of the publishers. The next issue was the last publication of the "Archives" section. It contained fragments of the memoirs of the chairman of the City Committee of the Samara socialist labor faction "Tseirei-Zion" Aaron Gordon, written in Jerusalem in 1928 and stored in the Central Zionist Archive in Jerusalem. A unique material that certainly deserves a full publication, which is probably impossible in the journal for reasons of volume. It is a shame that in the preface and afterword to the publication only some factual data are given about the context of the events described in the memoirs, but there is not even the slightest archaeographic description of them. At least: in what language are the memoirs written? Judging by the lack of instructions - in Russian, although a Zionist activist in Jerusalem could write in Hebrew. What is the total volume of memories, how much of them are published fragments? Finally, what is the text - manuscript, typescript, something else? On the one hand, the rules for the scientific publication of historical sources in full in a popular journal are inapplicable, on the other hand, without observing these rules, the publication loses too much. In addition, although the text of memoirs is kept in the archive, its placement under the heading "Archives" is doubtful if there is a heading "Memories. Documents" in the journal. After this issue the heading "Archives" disappeared from the pages of the magazine. It is a pity, but it was, perhaps, justified: strict scientific publications with archaeographic legends would be too heavy for the tasks of publication and would hardly find a mass reader. And "lightweight" publications simply would not correspond to the level of professional dignity of the publishers. (13, p. 6)

The headings "History of Modernity (Reviews)" and "Chronicle" lasted not much longer. They were most reminiscent of the Soviet "news from the fields" (achieved. Covered.) Or service reports. Their disappearance has become quite natural.

Until No. 17, one of the main sections was "Lectures". It published the texts of reports read in different cities of the region by lecturers of the People's University of Jewish Culture in Central Russia and the Volga region. At first, the rubric had some kind of "protocol" character - it was indicated when and where the lecture was delivered, but after a while these messages disappeared - the journal was more and more detached from the lecture hall, becoming a different form of Jewish enlightenment. Let us emphasize: for all the secondary nature of the "lecture genre" itself, many of the lectures published by "Roots" were saturated with material, deep in analysis, and fascinating in presentation.

The only heading that until No. 17 was present in all issues of the journal (and it invariably opened it up to No. 16) is "Articles. Research". The opening heading, of course, can be considered the main one, and the magazine, which made such a heading the main one, sets itself research tasks even more than educational ones. Published articles are devoted to a variety of issues - the philosophy of history in the national aspect, the worldview of Joseph Flavius, Jewish rituals, legislation on Jews in the Russian Empire, borrowing of the Russian language from Hebrew, the attitude of Russian cultural figures towards Jews, participation of Jews in Russian culture and public life, biographies figures of Jewish culture or simply cultural figures of Jewish origin, Jewish education, Judeo-Christian relations, problems of assimilation, reassimilation, national education, Jewish identity and psychology, ethnosocial problems of Israel and much more. The level of articles, of course, is different, but the general level is maintained at a sufficient height.

It should be noted that the heading described above includes, in the main, works of a generalizing, conceptual nature. And the tasks of a regional journal cannot but include a kind of local history component - a simple establishment, consolidation and systematization of the facts of national history in the cities of the region. Such, if one may say so, "microhistorical" articles are published by the journal under another heading - "Our genealogies". Let the name not be confusing - the rubric is not genealogical. Pedigrees are understood here in the broad sense of the word, in many respects synonymous with the name of the journal. In my opinion, it is these small articles (at the same time, much more often than the articles of the previous heading, written based on the results of archival search and provided with a scientific apparatus) that make up not the momentary, but, so to speak, "in eternity" the meaning of the journal's existence. The work that is done by the authors of these articles is unique, it can only be done by them - all doctors and academicians, professors and Ph. D. Moscow and St. Petersburg, Jerusalem and New York will not do this work. This absolutely "exclusive" contribution to the history of Jewry, allowing one to imagine this Jewry in the end, will still be appreciated. I don’t know if the publishers of the magazine themselves recognize the unique value of these materials - it seems that the rubric has a somewhat "downgraded" status. I would especially like to note the excellently made materials by V. Levin, A. Pekny (the memoirs of M.E. Pevzner used by them deserve a separate publication, ideally a bilingual one), E. Kats, I. Lokshin, E. Khokhlov, A. Saran. True, links to archives are a common misfortune of our historiography: the authors report where the document lies, but not always what kind of document it is. This trouble did not begin yesterday (and not in Judaica) and, it seems, will not end tomorrow. But, considering it necessary to contribute to the elimination of this defect as much as possible, I mention it again and again. (12, p. 7)

Of course, the section "Memories. Documents" is also of particular interest. The exclusive role of local and regional journals is also in the publication of memoirs, only they are able to convey to the reader this huge layer of historical memory. We see the memories of a general of the Russian General Staff, prisoners of concentration camps and ghettos, as well as the GULAG, a Jewish collective farmer, a Soviet girl who graduated from a Jewish school in 1938, a wartime teacher, a military and post-war serviceman, a Soviet boy of the 1960s-1970s, retelling oral stories of his grandmother and reproducing family memory as early as a century ago, the first years of the 20th century, a Soviet woman engineer of the Brezhnev era - etc., etc. In addition to memoirs, documentary materials are also published. The publication of fragments from documents about the Nizhny Novgorod pogrom on June 7, 1884, made by B. Pudalov, is very interesting. Unfortunately, the publisher did not specify the storage location for the documents. The review of archival materials about the Jewish life of Tambov prepared by S. Gendler is remarkable.

Speaking about the shortcomings of the publication, we have to note a noticeable amount of printing defects - unprinted, incorrectly pasted pages come across more often than we would like. Another kind of marriage comes across. In No. 18, Cher's remarkable memoir text is published. For the pleasure of reading it again, the magazine could be thanked, but. to publish in magazines chapters from a book published a year ago, and even without any prior notice, is still somehow not accepted.

A similar problem with the publication of an excerpt from the "Dialogues" Ya.N. Eidelman. The full text of this unique samizdat document was published by the Gesharim publishing house two years before Kornei, but the magazine is silent about it. There are a lot of other claims to the journal publication. As stated in the preface to it, the text of Ya.N. Eidelman was 100 pages. What are the published six? An excerpt? Then from what dialogue? Who owns the title - the author or the publisher? There is not a word about the source of the text: is it a samizdat copy, the authenticity of which is obviously in doubt, or is it the author's manuscript? And finally: is the publication agreed with the heirs of Ya.N. Eidelman? In addition, it is not entirely correct to place a 35-year-old text under the heading "Reflections" between today's reflections. (14, p.13)

Another memoir text - V. Tsoglina - is written in such a way that only approximately, on the basis of a rather subtle textual analysis, it is possible to understand the person of what generation he belongs. As luck would have it, there is no biographical note about this author in the magazine. Or another example - the phrase: "In Russia in 1805-1865. Jewish children who were registered with the military department were called cantonists." The duration of the period has been doubled. This is not the fault of the author of the article, who is not a historian and talks, in fact, not about the cantonists, but about his family. But an editor who missed such a mistake, of course, should be more careful - precisely considering the fact that materials, and sometimes very interesting, are often sent to him by non-professionals.

Without going further into the criticism of individual publications (it is clear that among them there are more or less successful ones), it must be said about the not always justified distribution of them by headings. The heading "Reflections" that has arisen from the 12th issue, it is generally unclear what kind of load it carries. No. 12 included G. Tafayev's brilliant scientific article, by all indications intended for the first section, and L. Alshits's aphorisms, which are nevertheless a genre of fiction. There are already three articles in No. 13 in this section - and all three, like many "Reflections" from Nos. 16 and 17, could easily enter the first section. By the way, the third of them, dedicated to Charlie Chaplin's "Jewry", echoes an interesting article by V. Sokolenko about the "social Jew". In the society described by the authors, Chaplin is a Jew regardless of biological origin, a Jew regardless of all his Anglo-Irish roots, a Jew simply because he is not like the others, that everyone holds him for a Jew - and it is easier to agree than to try to dispute. (20, p.103)

But back to the problem of distributing materials by headings. Why did the re-edition (almost a century later) of the essay by S. Ginzburg and P. Marek about Jewish folk songs got into the heading "Our genealogies", and not in "Articles. Research"? To separate from modern materials? But then why is it ignored in the future? Memoirs of A. Pantofel were hardly justifiably placed in the heading "Our genealogies". In general, the publication of these most interesting memoirs was done extremely carelessly. There is almost no information about the author (at least the years of his life, the time of writing the memoirs), only an indication that he worked "in recent years as a foreman (foreman) of a construction brigade." But there are notes (incomprehensible, compiled by a memoirist or publisher) explaining to the readers of the 10th issue of "Roots" what Yiddish, Hebrew, rabbi, cantor, cheder, melamed, shabes and kosher are. All this is accompanied by a frightening message that "The publication was prepared according to the notes of his grandfather, Abram Pantofel," leaving the reader in anxious bewilderment: are these notes by A. Pantofel or what was prepared on the basis of them is unknown? Moreover, the publication is not included in the memoir section. At the same time, the heading "Memoirs. Documents" got quite a lot of materials that did not contain either one or the other: an essay by Z. Libinson about Chagall and an article by E. Podoksik about Jewish Cossacks of Khazar origin, clearly intended for the heading "Articles. Research", articles S. Gutin-Levin about the Saratov community, B. Pudalova about Zakhoder, A. Spon about Jewish charity in Samara, I. Barkusky about the Koenigsberg Jews, which are micro-historical in nature and correspond to the heading "Our genealogy". (31)

As already indicated, starting from No. 17, the magazine began to change frequently. The 17th edition differed from the previous ones in literally everything. The subtitle has changed. The place of publication has changed. The organization promoting the publication has changed. The cover design has changed. The assortment of headings has changed. In No. 17 research articles practically disappeared, in No. 18 the situation improved to some extent: research appeared in the headings "Modernity and History" and "Cultural Heritage". Half of the materials in the last section in No. 20 are devoted to E.G. Etkind. No. 19 again, like No. 20, opens with the heading "Articles. Research". The idea of ​​a rubric placing text monuments is clearly in the air. And then among modern authors a certain V. Chernov somehow got lost. But you never know the Chernovs? Perhaps the first publication of an article extracted from the American archives on the Jewish question of the leader of the Socialist-Revolutionaries V.M. Chernov should have been furnished more solemnly. (31)

No. 21 again appeared before the reader renewed. "Roots" became a quarterly magazine of Jewish communities in Russia, Ukraine and other CIS countries. It would seem that the expansion of the scale is great, but there was a special value in the regionality, the local history approach, which is inevitably lost during globalization. The general picture of national history and culture is made up of local ones - from the histories of settlements and regions, families and institutions (from synagogues to political parties), from personal biographies and memoirs. Wherever Jews live or have lived before, Jewish local history should develop, which means that a local magazine like Roots is needed. Of course, the project should have been expanded. But the network of regional local history journals did not arise, and one of the few existing ones has now been transformed into a central one - which, of course, has its value, but does not replace another, lost local history topic. Although the heading "History and Ethnography of Communities", which appeared in No. 23, seems to try to prove the opposite.

A special merit of the editorial staff should be given the issue dedicated to Moses Teif, an original poet and a man of tragic fate, about the complex vicissitudes of which most of the readers, as one might assume, did not really know much before the magazine was published. First of all, documents and memoir testimonies that restore the image of Teif the way it took shape and was imprinted in the memory of relatives and friends, are read with special interest. (20, p. 105)

"Lechaim" (a Hebrew word meaning a wish for health) is a monthly literary and publicistic magazine, published since 1991 with a total circulation of 50 thousand copies. It brings together a variety of genres - fiction, criticism, historical essays, political essays, reviews.

Consider the February 2008 issue.

The first section of the issue - "House of Teaching" - is devoted to the study of traditional Jewish thought based on the Torah. In this section, of particular interest is the traditional address of Rabbi Berl Lazar to readers, dedicated to the Jewish religious approach to nutrition, as well as the article by Feitl Levin on the attitude of Judaism to euthanasia.

The section "University" includes the publication of the diaries of Solomon Tsetlin, dated 1917. The memoirs of the ancestor of a huge family, almost all of whose members became prominent figures in the Russian revolutionary movement, represent a painterly portrait of a bygone era - the provincial life of the huge masses of Jews in the Russian Empire during the time of Alexander II. They are especially curious in the depiction of the life, work, and everyday life of families of various incomes and degrees of religiosity, as well as in the narration of the problems of teaching children.

Other interesting research materials on Jewish studies are also included in the "University". Here you will read a report by regional correspondents Ilya Karpenko and Vasily Dolzhansky about the life of the Jewish community of Tomsk and a story by journalist Andrei Shary about tragic fate Jewish ghetto of Prague.

In the "Crossroads" section, Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz comments on the possibility of dialogue between the three Abrahamic religions, as well as the problem of their influence on the self-identification of the Jews of Russia. Nina Voronel writes about a three-year period of intense struggle between her family and the Soviet authorities after a request to leave for Israel was refused.

The Library talks about the Jewish presence at the Non-fiction intellectual literature fair, which is traditionally held at the Central House of Artists in late November - early December.

In this issue, journalist Mikhail Gorelik analyzes the Oscar-nominated film by Israeli director Dror Shaul, and literary critic Leonid Katsis tells the reader about Yitzhak Katzenelson, a poet who summed up a number of important outcomes of the fate of the Jewish people in the 20th century.

If we analyze the Lechaim magazine, then, unlike the Korni magazine, which is characterized by critical and analytical traditions, it is, in the full sense, a literary and journalistic publication. Nevertheless, in some cases, articles of a scientific nature are also published.

One of them that deserves attention is the article by A. Chernyak, published in 2001 (No. 5), dedicated to the Jews - the Nobel Prize winners. Here it is in abbreviated form.

“In this article, the author set out to outline the place of Jews among the Nobel Prize winners and to assess the picture obtained, to comment on it. This task turned out to be very difficult. Although there is a fairly significant literature about Nobel Prize winners, it is far from always possible to establish their nationality. authors of a few special works: E. Freerstein - "Jews - Nobel laureates" (Tel Aviv, 1956), T. Levitan - "Jews - Nobel laureates" (New York, 1960) - did not avoid a number of errors. The eternal question - who should be considered a Jew, meaning a half-breed? For a long time we carried out painstaking work to identify Jews - Nobel Prize winners: many, various sources were analyzed, they were checked with each other and the data were compared. so to speak, against the current. ) provides, with German thoroughness and scrupulousness, a list of scholars who are sometimes mistaken for Jews. Among them is the great Italian physicist Enrico Fermi - however, it has now been reliably established that he is a Jew by his mother; it is officially recognized. As for the half-breeds, we were forced to proceed from the halachic principle - to consider Jewry in such cases only by the mother. As a result of our research (taking into account the halakhic sign), we have compiled the following table, covering the period from 1901 to 1992 inclusive. This chronological limitation is related to the state of the sources. However, the resulting picture of the data in percentage terms almost exactly corresponds to the current situation.

Returning to the answer to the question posed, after the attempts made, we come to the conclusion: at present, it is hardly possible to explain the phenomenon of "Jewish dominance" in the situation with the Nobel Prizes. You can only speak at a hypothetical level. We put forward two hypotheses. The first is SCIENTIFIC VANGUARDISM, in other words, the desire of Jewish intellectuals to say a new word in creativity, to get ahead, to overtake colleagues. Of course, this is not an exclusive property of the Jews, but it cannot be denied that it often accompanies the Jew, sometimes assuming passionate, fanatical forms. Here genetic roots are seen - the age-old, absorbed with mother's milk, subjective or objective striving to break out of the tight framework of the former position of Jewry. The second hypothesis is also related to genetics. This is EXPLOSION THEORY, or the "SUPERNEW STAR" phenomenon. Its essence is as follows. For many hundreds of years, Jewishness, its representatives accumulated hidden creative potential. Now it burst out in the form of an explosion, which led, in particular, to a landslide release of scientific energy.

But such a high growth rate of the share participation of Jewish laureates will decrease over time - this is a regularity of the exponent's transition to the logistic curve. The weak point of both hypotheses is the question, why in 50 years Israel has not given a single Nobel Prize laureate in science?

Now about the sectoral composition of the Jewish Nobel laureates. Here are your hypotheses. The high proportion of Jews in the field of economic science can apparently be explained by the traditions of Jewish participation in economic life and in economic research. Recall that of the three great founders of the political economy of capitalism, two — Marx and Riccardo — were Jews. In addition, in modern works on economics, the role of mathematical methods is great, and the role of Jews in the development of mathematics is very large. Roughly the same can be said about medicine, where historically there has been a wide participation of Jewish specialists.

The successes of Jewish scientists in the field of physics, we believe, are associated with the growing role of theoretical developments in this science, which requires a certain mindset, to a certain extent characteristic of Jewish scientists. We do not undertake to argue about chemistry. As for the small number of laureates in literature, then perhaps the answer should be sought in the absence for many centuries of the state, soil roots of Jewish literature.

A significant part of the Nobel Peace Prize winners are statesmen, but their number among Jews is insignificant for the same reason (by the way, the author does not name Begin - on a par with Nasser, who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the separate Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty).

These are our hypothetical attempts to explain where as the extraordinary role of Jewry in the circle of the highest achievements of the past century - in the circle of Nobel laureates.

We do not, of course, have the opportunity to conduct an analysis by country, by geography, although this is of undoubted interest.

But here are a few words about the situation in Russia. Nineteen people have become Nobel laureates in this country - not counting those who left at a young age. Of these, eight are Jews, which is 42% - a figure that is twice the world average. Let us list these laureates. In literature - B. Pasternak and I. Brodsky, in physiology and medicine - I. Mechnikov, in physics - I. Tamm, I. Frank, L. Landau and J. Alferov, in economic science - L. Kantorovich (the only economist laureate in Russia).

The first Jew to be awarded the Nobel Prize was the famous German physicist Adolf von Bayer (1835-1917). For 70 years he was at the forefront of world chemical science, he created the famous scientific school, was the author of many major discoveries, had a huge impact on the formation and development of science and industry of organic synthesis. The fundamental work on benzene, plant photosynthesis, alizarin, aspirin, and veronal is associated with the name of Bayer and his school.

I will name the Jewish laureates who were the first in their fields: A. Michelson (1907, physics), I. Mechnikov (1908, physiology and medicine), P. Heize (literature, 1910), A. Fried and T. Asser (for strengthening Peace, 1911), P. Samuelson (economics, 1970).

The Nobel Prize winners - former juvenile prisoners of Nazi concentration camps - are attracting public attention. In 1981, Roald Hoffman was awarded the Chemistry Prize. When the award was presented to him, the secretary of the Nobel Committee, the Swedish Baron S. Ramel, burst into tears: - he knew the biography of Hoffmann. In 1941, in Ukraine, a four-year-old boy was sent to a ghetto, then to a concentration camp. In 1943, the father transported his wife and son to a small village, where they hid, fed by peasants. Subsequently, Roald graduated from Columbia University (medicine), Harvard (physics), Uppsala in Sweden (quantum chemistry), trained at Moscow University. Now he is the largest chemist in the world. After the presentation of the prize, he gave a speech at the Stockholm synagogue; he actively promotes Judaism, author of poetry collections "If I Forget You, Jerusalem", "Exaggeration of Marx".

In 1986, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Elie Wiesel, an eminent writer, publicist, professor of Judaism in New York, chairman of the American Memorial Council for the Catastrophe of European Jewry. Wiesel was born in 1928 in Romania to a Hasidic family. In 1944, the Wiesel family ended up in the Birkenau extermination camp, and Eli's parents and his sister were killed. Then Eli got to Buchenwald, where certain death awaited him, but he was saved by the advance of the Red Army. In 1958 his autobiography "Night" was published in the USA, it became a world bestseller, translated into 18 languages. In the novel "And the world was silent" and in the three-volume essay "Against Silence" - the denunciation of those who remained silent during the Holocaust. The Beggar in Jerusalem novel is about the Six Day War. Peru Wiesel owns over 30 books. He was awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor, the US Congress Medal, and other honorary awards. When the Nobel Prize was presented to the writer, the words sounded: "Wiesel addresses humanity with a message about peace, redemption, and human dignity."

In 1992, four of the seven laureates were Jews. One of them is Georges Charpac, the largest scientist in the field of elementary particles, the inventor of a number of important devices, in particular those used in radiology, a member of the French Academy of Sciences. A member of the Resistance, he was captured by the Nazis as a young man, sent to the Dachau extermination camp, spent a year between life and death, and at the very end of the war was released as a result of the defeat of Nazism.

Three Nobel Prize winners, who were prisoners of Nazi extermination camps as children or adolescents, were saved thanks to a happy coincidence. How many died among the million child victims of Nazism - possible Nobel Prize winners - no one knows and will never know. "

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The publishing catalog is dominated by the works of the last Lubavitcher Rebbe and popular books on Jewish tradition and holidays, but at the same time there are classics of Jewish fiction in the person of Sholem Aleichem and Sh. - J. Agnon, Bashevis Singer and B. Malamud. Quite unexpectedly, Lechaim published the memoirs of Glickl of Hamelin, a 17th-century German Jewess, one of the earliest rare examples of Jewish autobiographical prose, to which the author's female gender makes it absolutely unique. However, the publication does not at all correspond to the level of the monument: the text is not provided with a proper introduction or comments, not even the author of the translation is indicated. And quite recently, Lechaim published a collective monograph on the Ashkenazi civilization, edited by leading French experts on European Jewry and Yiddish culture - A Thousand Years of Ashkenazi Culture. This academic work, fairly well published, does not fit into the standard program of "Lechaim" at all and can be considered as a way out to a new level.

Obviously, books are not the primary concern of the publishing house, which is rather concentrated on the monthly literary and publicistic magazine of the same name. The magazine is clearly undergoing a positive evolution. From a purely religious and narrow-minded publication, it turns into a very decent, readable and even in places intellectual monthly. Since 2005, the cover design has radically changed and the printing has improved. The composition of the authors has expanded at the expense of publicists and critics, known also from non-Jewish publications. The search for information about famous Jews, apparently inevitable for the popular Jewish media, continues, but now Lechaim publishes interviews not only with, say, the popular favorite G. Khazanov, but also with the poet M. Gandelev, as well as obituaries to professors of the Russian State University for the Humanities S. Broitman and E. Meletinsky. It is obvious that Lechaim as a magazine, and possibly as a book publishing house, is acquiring an increasingly intelligent face and is beginning to be of interest to a wide audience, not only the community, and even not only the Jewish one.

The third most significant publication - the international magazine "Aleph" is named after the first letter in the Hebrew alphabet, which means "first". An international Jewish magazine with this name has existed for a quarter of a century. It began to be published in 1981. in Israel and secretly brought to Russia. From the first day to the present day, the publication of the magazine has been financed by the International Jewish Cultural and Educational Charitable Organization "Hama". According to the editor-in-chief L. Tokar, the Alef magazine is read in the USA, Canada, the countries of Western and Eastern Europe and, of course, in Russia, where the Alef editorial office is now located.

Aleph "is an international monthly publication. The editorial staff of the magazine is trying to unite the Jews of the whole world with the help of a community of interests. material. "Come to us often and feel at home!" - says the appeal of the creators of "Aleph" to its readers.

Here is an example of a literary review from the Aleph magazine.

The book of stories and poems about the Holocaust "The Sealed Carriage" was published on the initiative of the Department for the Development of Jewish Education in the CIS of the Department of Education of the Jewish Agency for Israel with the support of the Commission on Material Claims against Germany. It contains works of authors who have lived and live in different countries; they are written in different languages ​​- Russian, Yiddish, Hebrew, English, Polish, French and German. As the compiler and editor of the book, Zoya Kopelman, notes, this book is not an anthology, a collection of poetry and prose united by a common theme. Z. Kopelman recommends reading the poems and prose collected in the book as a single text, the works in which are presented in the order of the chronology of the events described and the continuity of the plots, regardless of when and where the work was written. The only violation of this conventionally chronological structure is an essay by Elie Wiesel, written 25 years after the Second World War, which outlines the general problematic of discussing the topic of the Catastrophe. "The Sealed Carriage" is a name borrowed from the Israeli poet Dan Pagis (1936-1986), a Jewish man from Vienna who, as a child, was in a concentration camp from 1941 until the end of the war. He titled this poetic cycle about the experience. The experience of the Holocaust is the same sealed carriage: it is sealed, it is impossible to enter it and it is impossible to take its contents out of it.

Comparing all three editions, primacy in a number of characteristics should be given to the journal "Korni", since it, being the most recent in terms of its appearance, rather quickly grew into a large edition, from a regional to a national one. He did not form the rubrication right away, but nevertheless it acquired a little modern shape, and the materials are presented in the most accessible form and are interesting not only for the Jewish audience. In this respect, "Lechaim" adopts the experience of publishing "Roots". As for the Aleph magazine, it is more of a global than a Russian one, and it is precisely the scattering on a worldwide scale (as well as the excess of the English and Spanish-speaking circulation over the Russian-speaking one) that is its negative characterization as a media.

2.4 Newspapers "Jewish Word" and "Shofar". The history of the emergence and development of each of them, a comparative analysis

Of the Jewish Russian-language newspapers, the main ones are "Shofar" and "Jewish Word". The name of the first of them is explained as follows.

"The last month of the Jewish calendar has begun - the month of Elul. As you know, the Jewish New Year(Rosh Hashanah) is compared with the judgment of the entire universe. The last month of the year is especially favorable to think about your actions in front of the court and try to correct them. The sound of blowing a ram's horn (shofar), as the sages decreed, helps to awaken the soul and make good decisions for the future.

Starting from the second day of the new month of Elul (that is, from the 1st Elul) and up to the day before the eve of Rosh Hashan,

In synagogues, the shofar is blown after the completion of the morning Shaharit prayer. There are four of these daily trumpets: Tkiya, Shvarim, Trois and again Tkiya. This trumpet is not prescribed by the Torah, but by ancient Jewish custom. When Moshe in Rosh Chodesh of the month of Elul ascended Mount Sinai to receive new tablets of the Covenant there, the Jews in their camp blew the shofar so that the whole people would know that Moshe (Moses) temporarily ascended to Heaven (and did not leave the earth forever), and because of his absence, he did not indulge in idolatry. In memory of this, the Jews are blowing the shofar from the beginning of Elul - to remind how Moshe ascended to the Almighty, and to confirm once again that Israel repented of the sin of creating the "golden calf" and uprooted, redeemed it, and therefore the Almighty in His mercy and gave him new tablets after forty days. This reminder should awaken in every Jew the desire for teshuva - repentance and return to the Almighty.

The shofar is blown after the completion of the morning prayer, for Moshe once climbed the mountain early in the morning. The trumpet is performed throughout the month to warn the people that the Day of Judgment is approaching, and to awaken in them the desire for teshuva. For the nature of the trumpet sound of the shofar is such that it instills anxiety in the hearts of people, as the Scriptures say: "Can the people not be alarmed if the shofar is sounded in the city?" (Amos, 3,6) The sound of the shofar seems to announce: "Wake up, sleeping, from your sleep, dozing, from your slumber, look at your actions and repent of your sins." This is what Rambam wrote. "

So there is a double meaning here. The shofar is the horn that is blown, and the shofar is the call. The media makes exactly this call, this, as it were, should give th additional popularity: "The sound of the Shofar, sounding in the synagogue, awakens the souls of the Jews, reminds them of their history and faith. Many of those who returned to Judaism say that it was the sound of the Shofar that awakened the hidden until that moment the connection with the Jewish people. We hope that our "Shofar" will become a guiding star for all those interested in Jewish life. "

The newspaper has been published by the Maryinoroshchinskaya Jewish community since March 2005.

Despite the compactness of the newspaper, which is published on four pages, on its pages you can find both the commentary of Rabbi Menachem-Mendel Schneerson on the weekly Torah chapter, and the memoirs of his predecessor, Rabbi Rayats.

In "Shofar" you can read articles on the history of Jewish communities in various Russian cities - Moscow, Kostroma, Ulyanovsk, Perm, Yaroslavl, interviews with community leaders who talk about the life of Russian Jews in Siberia, the North Caucasus, central Russia and its western frontier.

Those who would like to learn more about how to live like a Jew can read about it in the monthly Rabbi Answers of the website rabbi.ru. And in order to dispel the gloomy mood, you can watch the rubric "Jews laugh", where anecdotes and funny stories are published.

Here are examples from the Shofar:

An example on a historical theme dedicated to the Jews in Siberia (by the way, this material was reprinted by the magazine "Sibirskaya Zaimka")

“The first Jewish communities of Siberia, formed at the beginning of the 19th century, were so small that, as a rule, ten men required by Jewish law were not recruited for public prayer. Therefore, the first houses of worship appeared in most Siberian cities only in the second half of the century. in Tobolsk already in 1813 there was an organized funeral brotherhood (hevre-kadisha), which had a book of records (pinkos). In 1818 the local community rebuilt the house, bought from a lieutenant colonel, into a prayer house. the presence of a synagogue in the city was indicated. In Tobolsk, from 1861 to 1863, the duties of the rabbi were corrected by the butcher Mendel Gurin. The first "state" rabbi was elected and confirmed in office only in 1888.

The problem of the existence of religious communities in the Tobolsk province was not only the absence of synagogues and rabbis, but also the low number of Jews in certain cities and districts. They were going to solve this problem by uniting the Jews of several settlements into one religious community. For example, the "scattered and small Jewish population" of Tyumen, Yalutorovsk and Turinsk was proposed to "group religiously" in Tyumen, where to establish "a separate religious society or parish, with the necessary institutions, where they should apply for the performance of religious rituals."

In the Tobolsk province, due to the small size of the Jewish community (the smallest of all Siberian provinces), according to the rules, there could be only one rabbi. The first official, or "state", rabbi was in 1888 the Dinaburg bourgeoisie Chaim Arshon. In the same year, all Jews living in the province were assigned by the provincial government to the department of the Tobolsk rabbi. However, considerable distances made it difficult for him to fulfill his duties. Nevertheless, only in 1899 the provincial authorities appointed two assistants to the rabbi: in Yalutorovsk - the pharmacist S. Aizenshtadt and in Tyumen - the doctor D. Notorin. At the same time, both agreed to perform their duties free of charge.

At the end of the XIX century. the flow of petitions for the opening of synagogues is increasing. This, in particular, was the desire of the residents of Tyumen, Yalutorovsk and Ishim. Initially, applications were rejected on the pretext of a low number of "indigenous" Jewish residents. Permission for the Tyumen Jews to open a prayer house was given only in 1905.

Business in Yalutorovsk developed in a peculiar way. Although it was officially allowed to build a synagogue here only in 1902, presumably it already existed in the late 1870s. In particular, in 1878 the Yalutorovsk merchant of the 2nd guild Mordukh Berkovich asked the Tobolsk governor for permission to build a prayer school in the city. Moreover, the building for the school was built even before the application was filed. For arbitrariness Berkovich was fined, the building was ordered to be sold or demolished. But the police department received no orders, and a prayer school was opened in 1882.

After the changes in government policy, in connection with the adoption of the Manifesto of 1905 and the Decree on Tolerance of 1907, the construction of new Jewish liturgical buildings was intensified in Western Siberia. In 1909, according to the Central Statistical Committee, there were one synagogue each in Tobolsk, Tara and Tyumen.

Conflict situations on religious grounds in Siberia practically was not. There are only isolated cases in archival documents. Contemporaries also noted that mixed marriages and conversion to Christianity are observed among Siberian Jews very rarely, explaining this phenomenon by the fact that such facts as mixed marriages occur mainly among the intelligent, free-thinking part of Jewry, whose percentage in Siberia is insignificant.

Thus, the Jews of the Tobolsk province, due to the fact that local communities at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. were numerous and influential, in many respects retained their religious feelings and national characteristics. The greatest opportunities for participation in religious life were enjoyed by residents of those cities where large communities existed, such as Tobolsk or Tyumen. "

An example on a religious theme (sermon with elements of a legend)

The first expression is quoted in Gemora in Aramaic, while the second is quoted in Loshon Koydesh, the holy language.

Loson koydesh is a holy and pure language. What is expressed with its help seems to us completely clear and understandable. However, the phrase "Everything the L-rd does is for the better" was pronounced in Aramaic, and its meaning at first glance does not seem to us as clear.

We can better understand these words if we remember the stories that gave rise to the widespread dissemination of these words.

Once Rabbi Akiva went to a certain area, taking with him a candle, a donkey and a rooster. After no one allowed him to spend the night, he settled down for the night in a field. The wind extinguished his candle, the lion lifted the donkey, and the cat ate the rooster. Rabbi Akiva said to this: "Whatever the Lord does, is for the best."

And it soon became clear that it was all for the best. On the same night, robbers attacked the town near which Rabbi Akiva was staying. If he slept in it, he would become a victim of bandits. If the wind had not extinguished the candle, the attackers would have noticed it. If the lion hadn't lifted the donkey and the cat hadn't eaten the rooster, the sounds they make would have attracted their attention. Thus, having lost everything that he had with him, Rabbi Akiva escaped.

The phrase "And it's for the best!" belongs to an older contemporary of Rabbi Akiva, tannay Nahum, nicknamed Hamza. He got this nickname just for the constant use of the phrase "Gam zu letova!", Which means: "And this is for the best!"

Once Rabbi Nachum was sent to the Roman emperor with a casket full of precious stones in order to revoke the anti-Jewish decrees. When Rabbi Nachum was on his way, thieves came and stole all the jewels from the casket, replacing them with sand. Rabbi Nachum said: "And this is for the best!"

When he appeared before the emperor and he saw that they had sent him sand, and not jewels, he became angry and ordered the execution of Nachum. The Almighty, however, sent the prophet Eliyahu, who assumed the guise of one of the imperial ministers and told the emperor that this sand could be magical, similar to the one that Abraham Avinu used. They decided to use it in a battle with one people, which the emperor could not conquer. And a miracle happened - the enemies fled.

The difference between these two cases is that Rabbi Akiva suffered the loss of his property and experienced certain inconveniences from it, although in the end this loss saved him from much greater misfortune. Rabbi Nachum did not suffer any losses. On the contrary, if he brought jewelry to the emperor, who knows what kind of reception he would have received - after all, the ruler of Rome did not experience a shortage of jewelry. Magic sand is another matter!

Thus, Rabbi Akiva was in pain of loss, although his suffering saved his life, and for R. On the contrary, Nahuma's loss of property became a prologue to the successful fulfillment of the assignment. "

The volume of "Shofar" is small, but it is precisely such publications that give it its popularity.

With another newspaper - "Jewish Word" - the situation is different. It has grown from a regional to a Russian one and even made, albeit not entirely successful, an attempt to become international.

The Jewish newspaper, published in Birobidzhan in two languages, was not available outside the region. The first issue of VESK, the Bulletin of Jewish Soviet Culture, was published in the spring of 1990, at a time when the Soviet regime was already in agony, which is probably why the newspaper could have appeared. And yet "VESK" became an event ... This (or such) newspaper, the Jews of the USSR, who missed their native word, waited for many decades, albeit in Russian: for the majority it has long become native. At first, the newspaper had many readers. To buy it, people had to stand in line.

Many years have passed since then. For a long time there is no Soviet power and that country, the USSR, in which "VESK" was published. Was there a Jewish Soviet culture? I think so. Although the professional magazine "Sovetik Gameland" ("Soviet Motherland") was published for many years, it was impossible to revive the original Jewish culture, especially in Yiddish.

A lot of Jewish bands, mostly pop bands, toured the country. There was also the Chamber Jewish Musical Theater (KEMT), which enjoyed success not only in the USSR, but also abroad. By that time, the Jewish (more precisely Russian-Jewish) theater "Shalom" had shown its first performances. "The Enchanted Tailor" charmed the audience. And in February 1990, the Cultural Center named after Solomon Mikhoels was noisily and solemnly opened. And the newspaper "VESK", published shortly after this event, appeared on time and, as they say, in the same place. It might seem like a hint of a renaissance of Jewish culture, destroyed during the struggle against cosmopolitanism ...

Then Jewish newspapers in Russian began to appear in Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent, in the capitals of the Baltic republics (in Tallinn, a Russian-language newspaper was published earlier than VESK). The "matured" "VESK" first became the "Jewish Newspaper", and after the collapse of the USSR it was transformed into the "International Jewish Newspaper", "MEG", which was considered the "main" publication in the Russian language. At present, a newspaper has separated from it and is being published as an independent publication under the name "Jewish Word".

· Front page (current political events, etc.)

· Conversation (publications on historical and religious topics)

· Time (short messages about the most important events in the life of Jewish communities).

· Browser column (comments).

· The look of a private person.

"At the end of December last year, a presentation of the new edition of Yevgenia Ginzburg's book" Steep Route "took place in the premises of Memorial.

I knew her personally, very superficially, saw her three times, spoke briefly. Once Aksenov, her son, took me to her to listen to the singer Wolf Biermann. Birman was an East German, a GDRist, he built his songs on allusions, and pissed off the regime. He got to her house through her husband, also a German, her fellow prisoner. In their company there were several of them, with a similar fate, who passed through the zone, arrested for being the Germans: Russian intellectuals. Among the guests I remember Kopelev, a famous Germanist, also a former inmate, a liaison between German and Russian cultures, and also Okudzhava, Akhmadulina, and several other acquaintances. Birman sang in a shrill voice, in the manner of the artists of the Brecht theater, still pre-war (or maybe such songs in German cannot be sung otherwise), Kopelev translated. We were not delighted, there was some kind of dissent, as it were, from above. The impression arose that, of course, the officialdom of the GDR would prefer to do without Birman, but since he already exists, let him serve as an example of a dissident who, not in prison, does not starve to death and even travels abroad. Akhmadulina expressed this quite emphatically: your Ulbricht, she said (Ulbricht was then the GDR Communist No. 1, Birman walked over him, neatly, but still), is not worthy of even the most cursory mention, he is just an ant stuck in amber, and in general, let Bulat sing.

Evgenia Semyonovna, her husband, their friends behaved as they would behave in a similar situation in any such level of European society. They did not rush to correct the situation, did not express sympathy for the singer, did not smile affably and condescendingly at his offender. They received Birman with respect, paid tribute to him - and with the same respect they accepted the poetess' right to speak so, paid tribute to her position and approach. Moreover, it seemed to me that they appreciated the fact that in Russia it is possible to express one's opinion so openly and openly than in bourgeois brought up Europe, and I admit that in their hearts they loved such a state of light scandal a la Dostoevsky, which flies in at any moment.

They were intellectuals, they were intellectuals. For me, this is the central point of their characteristics, the basis on which their fates were formed. From here comes the countdown of everything that happened to them - and how they dealt with it. Nowadays it is customary for the Russian intelligentsia to kick, let alone wipe their feet on them. This is done by everyone in a wide range from vulgar Black Hundreds to recognized cultural figures. Conceptions were given by folk favorites Ilf and Petrov, depicting Vasisualiy Lokhankin in the novel. The recipe is simple, "for the poor": a reflective, unable to do anything type, using ideas picked up from books in order to complain about the inconveniences of life. These are the ones who, according to the abusers, allowed, if they did not provoke a revolution, did not oppose anything to the Bolshevik terror and ignorance, they allowed themselves and ordinary people who considered them to be an authority to be humiliated to the brim. Solzhenitsyn also tried to create such a reputation - nailing them with "education".

Well, yes, there are some, and there are a lot of them. But not more than the number of those who endured all the decades of unbearable trials sent by him. Many - with dignity. Although the fact that they simply survived is immeasurably grander than that, with or without dignity. This is the generation of my parents - and the fathers or grandfathers of any of those who are throwing a stone at them now. They learned poetry by heart, went to concerts and museums. This, in the opinion of today's accusers, is the main evidence against them: swindlers, weaklings. However, they, hungry, cold, torn, not only pulled the children out, but instilled in them the foundations, not only saved the family, but as a cultural institution. Yes, if you like, they extended and preserved the country as a tradition. And along with those who vilify them. They were taken away, they dragged them for incredible periods, with a tag on their feet they lay down in a common ditch. Those who, like Ginzburg, lived to see freedom, did not focus on finding the guilty. They had a goal: to remain themselves - enjoying the daily crumbs of joy, resisting the daily attempts of the regime to strangle them, pursuing unchanging ideals.

This made them dissidents. They were not going to become them, but the very enjoyment of something not sanctioned as "joy" by the authorities; the very desire to resist suffocation; the very service to some ideals was dissent. Power was not a stranger to the communist Yevgenia Ginzburg, but, like any normal person who was not ideologized to the point of a zombie, she proceeded from the fact that to love or not to love Pasternak was entirely her own business. That she herself should decide whether to defend or not defend the persecuted, and in either case, taking responsibility for the decision. Etc. That is, building a new society, submission to party discipline, and so on are important and not discussed, but inferior to the main thing: to be Evgenia Ginzburg. Is this not dissidence, is it not pulling for 18, in total, years of camps and exiles?

Nowadays, looking like a former dissident is about as attractive as recalling the passionate romances of your youth. People who quite, and sometimes to the highest degree, happily coexisted with the Soviet regime, consider themselves - some of them for profit, and most sincerely - fighters against it. They are nice to the new regime: how to deal with types in shabby sweaters, whose eyes ooze distrust and irreconcilability, much more pleasant to meet at receptions with nice people in shirts from Kenzo, at whom in the nine hundred shaggy year he shouted (in the Manege, remember? Manege!) Nikita Khrushchev. But what to talk about when it somehow turns out that the main fighter against injustice is the KGB?

But that route was steep, oh steep. This is one of the best book titles. It retains its irresistible energy even with the new, current meaning of the word. I think that more than one modern writer would like to be the author of such a book. But that steepness for today's "cool" does not seem to be within their power. "

Here are some more examples of fragments from the last issue of the "Hebrew Word";

... “… The real attitude of Jews towards the authorities and dissidents is much more complicated.

Well, first of all, of course, there is no such political party - "Jews". All different, scatter, like among any nationality. Actually, this could be the end. But for all the unconditional correctness of this statement, this is only a half-truth.

Secondly, Jews, in many cases, are indeed more critical of the authorities. Not only in Russia - for example, in the United States, they are still more associated with traditionally critical Democrats, and not with more traditionally patriotic Republicans (although there are, of course, enough Jews there too).

What is the reason for this? A restless character, a more critical attitude, a subconscious suspicion that "a patriot = a nationalist, and a nationalist = an anti-Semite"? Yes, probably all factors are at work. And on the way out there is only one - "eternal critics". (Which, of course, is also objectively necessary - it only arouses oncoming irritation and suspicion).

But, thirdly, the Jews are not just loyal, but SUPER LOYAL citizens! And there are "too many" of them. And the reasons are simple - they remember their fear with their spinal cord, understand their defenselessness and therefore most of all rely on the State. And if the State treats them "well" (that is, without state anti-Semitism), then they pay him with warm reciprocity. This is how many Jews today relate to Putin ... "(from the column" Observer's column, from an article in response to the suspension of B. Nemtsov's membership in the Union of Right Forces).

... "Who planted a charge of explosives in the headrest of the driver's seat of a Mitsubishi-Pajero SUV in Damascus and smashed to shreds Imad Mugnia, the number 2 man in the terrorist Hezbollah, the right hand of the leader of this organization, Sheikh Hassan Nasrallah? This question interests many, many curious people, but there is no direct answer to it yet.Whatever it was, Mugnia, who was listed in the first dozen of the world's terrorists, received what he deserved: his victims number in the hundreds.

The point here is not only and not so much in the late Mugniyah: military leaders, as a rule, have ambitious deputies who dream of taking the place of the chief. The fact is that the public death of a terrorist in Damascus is a warning and a challenge to the Syrian regime, which supports and encourages international terror. This is a slap in the face to the extremist leaders of Iran, with whom Mugniyya maintained a trusting relationship, Iran, which in many respects repeats the experience of the Soviet Union: to present the terrorist activity of bandits from the high road as national liberation revolutionary movements " ).

Judging by the cited fragments, a comparison can be made:

."Shofar" is rather a people's newspaper, even apolitical, it is only interested in the life of Jews as a religious community. On the contrary, the "Jewish Word" is actively interested in current politics, and evaluates everything by far from the yardstick for the benefit of the community.

2.Religious tendencies are characteristic of both newspapers. But the Shofar, with its limited capabilities, "pays more attention to religion and history proper, while the Jewish Word sometimes (rightly) calls for decisive action:" Two dozen rockets hit the city of Sderot and the villages of the Western Negev in a day. This is a bit too much even for the Israelis permanently residing in the shelling zone from Gaza. Jerusalem has filed a complaint with the UN Security Council. The media are chewing the news gum: Hamas is becoming impudent before our eyes, citizens are grumbled, it's time to cut the Gordian knot. Twenty combat missiles, and not in one salvo, but throughout the day - this is, indeed, a lot. The disgusting sensation of a person, hour after hour, listening to the silence of the sky in anticipation of a dull roar and a fiery explosion. The great sky has changed from a dwelling of angels to a nest of rockets. It's time, it's time to cut the knot before the politicians forge swords into plowshares in peacemaking rapture! "By the way, from the standpoint of a reader, Russian or Serb, such an approach would arouse political envy.

In this case, it is difficult to give preference to any of the media. Both of them have their own merits, which are quite dissimilar.

3. Conclusion

In conclusion, let us summarize two questions - general conclusions on the work and the current state of the Russian-language Jewish media.

In general, the prevailing multilingualism is characteristic of the Jewish national press as a whole: Hebrew, Yiddish, Russian, Ladino, etc.

The ideological and confessional diversity of the press, which is clearly positioned as a national Jewish one, exceeds the polar distancing in the general civil press. The diversity of the Jewish press reflected the religious differences of the directions of Judaism and the struggle between them, party affiliation, attitudes towards Zionism. Practically the last place is occupied by general civil Jewish (secular) topics with adequate targeting, since neither the religious, nor the Zionist, nor the party concept of the publication presupposes an alternative, and, accordingly, funding.

Outlining the history of Jewish publications in Russia, we can compose the following short essay.

In the Russian Empire, the first Jewish newspaper appeared in 1823 in Warsaw, it was a weekly in Yiddish "Beobachter an der Weichser". In 1856, the weekly "Ha Magid" was published in Hebrew for distribution in Russia in the Prussian town of Lyke. From 1860 in Odessa, then from 1871 - in St. Petersburg, published in Hebrew "Ha Melitz" - a news periodical in the modern sense with topical materials, which later became daily. Since 1862, an appendix to it in Yiddish "Kol Mevaser" was published.

The mass publication of the Jewish press was achieved by 1882, when 103 Jewish newspapers and magazines were published, including 30 German, 19 Hebrew, 15 English, 14 in Yiddish.

By 1895, there were already 116 Jewish media in the world, of which 4 were in the Russian Empire.

In 1897, Forverts began to appear, becoming the most popular Yiddish newspaper in New York.

The post-revolutionary period of February-October 1917 and until the autumn of 1918 (in Ukraine until 1920) was marked by the rapid growth of the Jewish press, a rapid change in political color, publishers and audience. The cycle of changing the ideological orientation lasted from six months to two years.

The early Soviet period was met by the Jewish press with numerous publications in Yiddish of Soviet and party organizations. Their existence somehow continued until the end of the twenties, sporadically in the forties, and in some areas of the Soviet Union it was supported until the post-war period, which reflected a propaganda game on alternatives to the ideas of Zionism with Stalin's purposeful policy to support the Yiddish language against the spread of Hebrew.

The Jewish press of the occupied zones of the USSR was built for the task of informing the Jewish population, like the earlier rabbinical decrees or decisions of the Vaad. For the first time, the phenomenon of the press in the zones of occupation was fully investigated by specialists of the Scientific and Educational "Holocaust" under the leadership of Alla Gerber. As a result of the research, important regularities of the high role of mass consciousness management were discovered on the basis of the effective use of local characteristics, including the use of the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, which was implemented as a propaganda game based on alternatives to Soviet stereotypes.

The actual Soviet period in the development of the Jewish press was determined by state (more precisely, party) regulation, it fell on the war years and the post-war period. A typical example is the short history of the publication of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee "Einikite" ("Unity", 1942-1948), also a long-liver among the Jewish media - "Birobidzhaner Stern" ("Birobidzhanskaya Zvezda" - the regional newspaper of the Jewish Autonomous Region of the RSFSR, founded in 1930, published 3 times a week, in 1970 the circulation reached 12 thousand copies).

"Censorship" in its highest expression acted simply - by shooting.

Then, since 1961, the magazine in Yiddish "Sovetish Geimland" ("Soviet Motherland"), the organ of the USSR JV, was published. The TSB article "Sovetish Geimland" stated that the publication "is fighting against the reactionary ideology of Zionism." Before perestroika, the position of the editorial board remained rigidly anti-religious. Since 1985, the magazine has been published under the name "Di Yiddishe Gas" ("Jewish Street"), and in the last years of the life of its permanent editor-in-chief, Aron Vergelis, an attempt was made to revive the magazine within the framework of the Tancred International Jewish Newspaper (MEG) holding Golenpolsky.

Thus, the Soviet Jewish media of the war and post-war years can be attributed to a propaganda game based on alternatives to various foreign directions from the fascist "Juden Fry" to Israeli Zionism based on the revival of everyday colloquial Hebrew. Ultimately, the rather artificial maintenance of the endangered Yiddish language in the Soviet Union served through the corresponding publications as temporary support for a certain showcase of Soviet Jewry. It should not be forgotten that in the same years Soviet journalists of Jewish origin, who at that time had nothing to do with the Jewish press, such as Koltsov and Ehrenburg, who also lived to a ripe old age, the former editor-in-chief of Krasnaya Zvezda, fearless and the legendary David Ortenberg.

The late Soviet period of stagnation was marked by a rather stormy activity of Jewish self-awareness, in fact, of national revival, and in a relatively regulated samizdat.

From the beginning of the 70s to the end of the 80s, Israeli publications intended for secret transportation and distribution were naturally considered samizdat in Russian. This period coincided with the extinction of Jewish communities and the disappearance of the Yiddish language. feeling their national origin, the youth saw their future outside the Soviet system and studied Hebrew.

Of the journals considered in the work ("Roots", Aleph "and" Lechaim "), comparing all three editions, preference for a number of reasons should be given to the journal" Roots ", since it, being the latest in time of appearance, rather quickly grew a large publication, from a regional to a national one. The heading did not take shape right away, but nevertheless it acquired a little modern shape, and the materials are presented in the most accessible form and are interesting not only for the Jewish audience. In this regard, "Lechaim" adopts the experience of the publication "Roots “As for the Alef magazine, it is more of a global than a Russian one, and it is precisely the scattering on a worldwide scale (as well as the excess of the English and Spanish-language circulation over the Russian-speaking one) that is its negative characterization as a media.

Comparison of the newspapers "Shofar" and the Jewish Word "gave the following results:

· "Shofar" is rather a people's newspaper, it is only interested in the life of Jews as a religious community. On the contrary, the "Jewish Word" is a propaganda-political direction, is actively interested in current politics, and evaluates everything by far from being a measure for the benefit of the community.

· Religious tendencies are characteristic of both newspapers. But the Shofar, with its limited capabilities, "pays more attention to religion and history proper, while the Hebrew Word takes a more decisive position.

· "Shofar" tries to compensate for its small size by increasing popularity in an indirect way (at least the meaning of the name).

4. Now about other Jewish Russian-language media.

Issues of the Jewish diaspora in the United States are touched upon by Jewish Radio and, in part, by two general Russian-language broadcasting channels, Davidson Radio and New Life in Chicago. Russian-language TV in the USA is represented by almost the same channels as in the Russian Federation. These are ORT and RTR, and from international ones - RTVi. One of the significant problems of Jewish Russian-language television is the large pro-Russian accent, which has been preserved even after the appearance on the screen of the 9th Israeli channel. Readers of the Russian-language Jewish press in the United States are most concerned with the following topics:

) internal Israeli problems, since a significant number of American Jews have relatives in Israel and Americans are interested not only in knowing about the Israeli situation in general, but also in knowing about the life of every city, every street;

) Jewish education;

) interaction of Russian-speaking Jewish communities in the United States and in the world;

) cooperation with the Russian-speaking Jewish press of other countries (as of today, contacts have been established with "Russian Germany", Israeli "Vesti" and the Russian "Jewish Word");

) and finally hot topic growing xenophobia and anti-Semitism in the Russian Federation, as well as in the United States.

A large number of local Russian-language newspapers are published in Israel, as well as all-Israeli print media such as Vesti (the most popular Russian-language newspaper in Israel, with a 34% rating and a circulation of 54,000 copies, providing information and analytical articles on a variety of topics. , from politics to culture), Novosti (News of the Week - 8%, Echo - 7%, Secret - 6%, Ray - 6%; total 27%), Russian Israeli ( one of the most popular weekly publications in Israel with a circulation of 25,000, publishing materials on economics and commerce in Israel and the former USSR) and Globus (a weekly socio-political newspaper with a 6% rating). Among local publications Anat mentioned two Jerusalem newspapers: Our Jerusalem (weekly with a circulation of 12,000) and Vesti Jerusalem (weekly news).

There has also been an increase in the popularity of Internet publications in recent years, especially among young people. There are Israeli information sites such as the Cursor news agency and the MigNews information site on Israel's politics, economy, tourism and culture; Russian-language Israeli portals www.jnews. co. il, www.isra.com and www.narod. co. il.

Russian-language television in Israel is represented by a separate channel - Channel 9 Israel Plus by Lev Leviev, as well as by Vladimir Gusinsky's RTVi channel, broadcasting to Israel, Germany, the United States and the countries of the former USSR. In addition, Russian-speaking Israelis have access to viewing satellite channels of the Russian Federation - ORT, RTR, Nashe Kino.

"The seventh channel" - radio in Russian, broadcasting on-line, news and analytical Internet resource. Participants of the "Seventh Channel" regularly participate in seminars and meetings of journalists, communicate at forums with Israeli youth. There is a great need among Israeli youth to translate the Russian-language press into Hebrew. The main percentage of readers of the Russian-language press is the "big aliyah" of the early 90s. Their children grew up and speak Hebrew, they want to read about how people from the former USSR live - and this is our future audience. Today print runs are falling, and this trend will continue. This must be taken into account.

In Russia at the moment there are many newspapers read by the older generation of Jews. The most significant of them are the newspaper "Jewish Word" (the most serious publication in this series, with a circulation of 40,000 copies), the Ukrainian publication "Shabbat Shalom" (circulation of 15,000 copies) and "Jewish News" (3,000 copies). The press on the Internet is also developing: two major resources were named - "Seven Forty" and JewishRu. In addition, Jews in the Russian Federation actively read Israeli Russian-language Internet resources. Unlike Ukraine, the USA, Germany and Israel, Russia, unfortunately, does not have the opportunity to watch RTVi and Channel 9, which cannot but upset the Jewish community of the Russian Federation.

Unlike the United States, Russia and Israel, the German Russian-language press can boast of only three serious periodicals: the weekly newspapers Russian Germany and Europe-Express, as well as the monthly Jewish Newspaper.

List of used literature

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3.Avgustevich, S. Materials of the magazine "Roots" dedicated to the poet Moses Teif http: //www.oranim. ac. il / Site / ru / General. aspx? l = 3 & id = 18

Baskakova A. Semyon Avgustevich: Our task is to represent Jewish culture. Interview with the chief editor of the magazine "Roots".

Berkner S. Ten years of the magazine "Roots" // AMI (My people), №7, 2004

Vartanov A.S. Actual problems of television creativity: On the television stage. - M .: KDU; Higher school, 2003 - 328 p.

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Goncharok M. The Age of Freedom. Russian anarchism and Jews (XIX-XX centuries). Ufa 1979

Digilensky G.G. Socio-political psychology M .: UNITI-DANA, 2003 - 289 p.

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Zasursky I.I. Reconstruction of Russia: Mass Media and Politics in the 90s. - M .: Publishing house. Moscow State University, 2001 - 224 p.

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• 1. Introduction
• 2. Main part
• 2.4 Newspapers "Jewish Word" and "Shofar". The history of the emergence and development of each of them, a comparative analysis
• 3. Conclusion
• Listusedliterature

1. Introduction

The relevance of the topic of the work lies in the fact that the Jewish press as a media and as a social phenomenon is of interest for research from a historical and journalistic point of view.

The peculiarities of the development of the Jewish periodicals are due to the fragmentation of the Jewish communities of the world and the multilingualism associated with it. The appeals of the rabbinical colleges of the Va'ad of the four lands that appeared from time to time can be considered a kind of predecessors of Jewish newspapers. In these proclamations, various decrees were brought to the attention of the general public or events were announced that deserved the attention of the Jewish population.

Regarding the Jewish press, there are many reports and studies that are far from professional research in journalism, moreover, biased, which closes entire periods of the development of the Jewish press due to the inaccessibility of language and direct study.

It should be noted that the use of a text on a material medium as a means of news information of general civil significance arose among Jews in antiquity. Conventionally, this can be attributed to the copper scroll of the community of therapists (Essenes), which can be considered an analogue of an information publication. The first Jewish newspaper in its modern form was the Gazeta di Amsterdam (1675-1690).

The following stages can be distinguished in the history of the Jewish press proper.

The initial stage in the development of the Jewish press was characterized by the publication of newspapers and their predecessors, which disseminated the proclamations of the rabbinical collegia, the Vaad (committee). The function of these early editions was to bring to the general attention the decrees and information about the events, which for the Jews in the diaspora served as a vehicle for the national idea and determined the national community. It has already been noted that the first Jewish media outlet was the Gazette di Amsterdam, which was published in the Ladino language in 1675-1690 by the printer David de Castro. Also in Amsterdam was published "Distangishe Courant" in Yiddish (1687). The next stage was the development of the ideas of enlightenment and the beginning of emancipation (Haskala - a change in the diaspora mentality). At that time, Kochelet Musar (1750, Germany) and Ha-Meassef (1883, Konigsberg) were published. The first political newspapers within the framework of the Jewish press were published in 1848 in Lvov (Austria) in Yiddish "Lemberger Yiddish Zeitung", also in 1841 - "Juish Chronicle" (England).

The aim of the work is to analyze Russian and Russian-language foreign and international Jewish publications.

The tasks of the work involve the coverage of the following issues:

1) History of the Jewish press in Russia. (There is a good article in the Concise Jewish Encyclopedia).

2) Preconditions for the appearance of the Jewish press in Russia.

3) The emergence of Jewish newspapers and magazines in Russia, on the example of three magazines ("Aleph", "Korni", "Lechaim") and two newspapers ("Jewish Word", "Shofar").

4) Magazines "Alef", "Roots", "Lechaim". The history of the emergence and development of each of them.

5) Newspapers "Jewish Word" and "Shofar". The history of the emergence and development of each of them.

6) Comparative analysis of journals.

7) Comparative analysis of newspapers.

8) The current state of the Jewish Russian-language media

2. Main part

2.1 History of the Jewish press in Russia

At the beginning of the 19th century. attempts to publish Jewish newspapers, magazines and scientific collections in Hebrew were made in the Netherlands, Russia, Austria, including in the centers of Jewish thought - in Brody and Lvov. Notable editions of this time were Bikkurei ha'ittim (Vienna, 1821-32) and the journal Kerem Hemed (1833-56), which replaced it. In 1861-62. the founder of the Musar movement I. Salanter published the weekly "Tvuna" in Memel. Galician Maskilim J. Bodek (1819-56) and A.M. More (1815-68) published the literary magazine "Ha-Roe" (1837-39), in which the works of prominent scientists of that time - Sh.D. Luzzatto, Sh. I.L. Rapoport, L. Tsunza, and later (1844-45) - the literary magazine "Jerusalem" (three volumes were published).

After the abolition of censorship in Austria in Lviv, it began to be published under the editorship of A.M. Mora is the first weekly political newspaper in Yiddish, Lemberger Yiddish Zeitung (1848-49). Later, in connection with the revival of Hebrew, the development of Yiddish literature, as well as the mass emigration of Jews from Eastern Europe to the West (including the United States), where there were no censorship barriers, the number of periodicals grew; this was also facilitated by the emergence of political parties and the Zionist movement. The first Zionist article by T. Herzl was published in the oldest Jewish newspaper in Great Britain "Juish Chronicle" (founded in 1841) on January 17, 1896, and the very next year Herzl began publishing the magazine "Di Welt". By the end of the 19th century. the Jewish press has become a prominent phenomenon in the world. In the brochure "Press and Jewry" (1882), the Viennese publicist I. Singer counted 103 active Jewish newspapers and magazines, of which 30 were published in German, 19 in Hebrew, 15 in English, 14 in Yiddish. The Russian-Jewish "Yearbook" (editor M. Frenkel, Odessa) for 1895 cited a message from the Jewish newspaper "Ha-Tsfira" about the number of periodicals devoted to the Jewish question: their total number reached 116, of which four were published in Russia , in Germany - 14, in Austria-Hungary - 18, in the USA - 45, etc.

Directory of the Russian press for 1912 I. Wolfson's "Newspaper World" (St. Petersburg) contained information about 22 Jewish publications in Yiddish, nine in Hebrew, nine in Russian, two in Polish, published in the Russian Empire.

In the period from the beginning to the middle of the 19th century. several attempts were made to create Jewish periodicals in Russia. In 1813, the Minister of Police, Count S. Vyazmitinov, reported to Emperor Alexander I that the Vilna Jews "wish to publish a newspaper in their own language." However, the tsarist government, under the pretext of the absence of a censor who knew Yiddish, rejected this and a number of subsequent requests. It was only in 1823 that the attempt of A. Eisenbaum (1791-1852), a Jewish teacher and writer, was crowned with success: a weekly in Yiddish and Polish began to appear in Warsaw, Beobachter an der Weichzel (Dostshegach Nadvislianski); in 1841, the almanac "Pirhei Tsafon" was published in Vilna - the first periodical in Russia in Hebrew, the purpose of which was "to spread enlightenment in all corners of Russia"; due to censorship difficulties, the publication of the almanac was stopped at the second issue (1844). The first edition in Hebrew, which existed for a relatively long time (from 1856 to 1891), the weekly "Ha-Maggid", was published in the Prussian town of Lyk (now Elk, Poland), bordering Russia, and was distributed in Russia. It introduced a variety of scientific and political information to Jewish readers and published articles reflecting the moderate views of the Haskalah. A prominent role in the development of the periodical press in Hebrew was played by A. Tsederbaum, who founded the weekly "Ha-Melits" (Odessa, 1860-71; St. Petersburg, 1871-1903; since 1886 it was published daily). Articles and materials in "Ha-Melitz" were devoted to acute, topical problems, which was new for Jewish journalism, they covered events important for the life of Jews in Russia, for example, the Kutaisi case, a public dispute with I. Lyutostansky and others. Jewish periodicals in Russia were published mainly in three languages: Yiddish, Hebrew and Russian. (36)

Periodical press in Yiddish in Russia begins with the weekly Kol Mevasser (1862-1871; supplement to Ha-Melitz), which was also published by A.O. Zederbaum. The weekly attracted prominent representatives of Yiddish literature (Mendele Moher Sfarim, A. Goldfaden, ML Lilienblum). Despite the censorship restrictions, Zederbaum managed to start the publication of the weekly Idishes Folksblat (1881-90) in St. Petersburg. The ideas of Zionism were expressed by the weekly newspaper Der Yud (Krakow, 1899-1902), which addressed the intelligent reader in Russia. The annual editions "Heusfreind" (editor M. Spektor; Warsaw, 1888-96), "Yiddish Folks Libraries" (founded by Shalom Aleichem; Kiev, 1888-89) and "Yiddish Libraries" (editor I. L. Peretz; three volumes were published. Warsaw, 1891-95). These editions paved the way for the publication of the first Russian daily newspaper in Yiddish, Der Freind (editor Sh. Ginzburg), published in 1903-1908. in St. Petersburg, in 1909-13. - in Warsaw. Der Fraind is one of the few Yiddish newspapers that has gained wide popularity among the Jewish masses: its circulation has reached several tens of thousands of copies. Growth at the end of the 19th century. the revolutionary movement, the politicization of the Jewish working masses and the creation of the Bund led to the emergence of illegal publications - Arbeter Shtime, Yiddish Arbeter, Poslednie Izvestia (in Russian), which were printed abroad and secretly transported to Russia.

After the abolition of censorship in October 1905, publications arose that belonged to various Jewish parties. The first legal edition of the Bund, the daily newspaper Der Veker, came out after the manifesto on October 17, 1905, but was soon closed by the authorities (1906). Over the next two turbulent years, the Bund press was represented by such Yiddish publications as Folkszeitung, Hofnung and the weekly Der Morgnstern. The Zionist newspaper "Yiddish Folk" was published in Vilna (1906-08). The Zionist Socialist Party had its own organs: Der Yidisher Proletarian (1906), Dos Wort, Unzer Veg, Der Nayer Veg; the ideas of territorialists were reflected in the weekly Di Yiddish Wirklehkite, the ideas of Po'alei Zion - Der Proletarian Gedank (twice a week) and Forverts (this name was later used by the popular American Jewish newspaper in Yiddish - see periodicals in the USA) ... In a number of large cities of the Russian Empire (for example, Odessa, Lodz, Vilna, Kiev and others), periodicals in Yiddish were published, designed for the local readership: "Dos Folk" and "Kiev Worth" (Kiev), "Gut Morgn" and " Sholem Aleichem "(Odessa)," Yiddish Shtime "(Riga) and others. In Vilna, the literary journal "Di Yiddishe Welt" was founded (editor S. Niger, since 1913). The daily newspaper Der Veg (founded in 1905 in Warsaw by Ts.H. Prilutsky, 1862-1942) played an important role in the development of the Yiddish press. Warsaw became at the beginning of the 20th century. center for Yiddish printing. Here the newspaper "Di Naye Velt" (1909) by M. Spector and "Moment" by Ts.Kh. Prilutsky (see. Periodicals in Poland). The popular newspaper Der Fraind (since 1909) also moved to Warsaw from St. Petersburg. In the same period, a lot of publications appeared, devoted to specific problems (for example, Der Yidisher Emigrant, founded by Baron D.G. Gintsburg in Vilna and Vohin in Kiev - on issues of Jewish emigration), the specialized edition Teater-Velt "(Warsaw) or the literary-critical magazine" Dos Bukh "(editor A. Vevjorka; from the end of 1911); At the beginning of the century, attempts were also made to create a monthly magazine on literature, art and science. Writer I.L. Peretz began publishing the journals Yiddish Surname (1902) and Yiddish Libraries (1904, vols. 1-3). The Dos Lebn magazine was short-lived (from 1905; 10 issues were published). The publication of Lebn un Visnschaft (from 1909), intended for an intelligent reader, continued longer than others. The publications of this period attracted a mass Jewish reader and aroused in him an interest in social problems. The Yiddish press addressed the masses. In educated circles, they read Jewish publications in Russian and Polish, sometimes the press in Hebrew (in general, there were not many readers in Hebrew - it was a public sophisticated in religious and scientific matters). (36)

In the first years of its existence, "Ha-Maggid" was perceived by Jews from different countries as the central organ of the Jewish press, although the number of its subscribers by the 1870s was. did not exceed two thousand. In 1860, "Ha-Karmel" in Vilna and "Ha-Melitz" in Odessa began to appear almost simultaneously, which sought to draw the reader's attention to issues of public education, the revival of the Hebrew language, productive labor, etc. In 1862 H.Z. Slonimsky founded the weekly newspaper "Ha-Tsfira" (see above), entirely devoted to the popularization of the natural and mathematical sciences (it existed for six months). In the 1870s. P. Smolenskin's monthly "Ha-Shahar" (published in Vienna for censorship reasons) enjoyed exceptional influence in progressive Jewish circles. The program of the magazine has undergone significant changes over time: starting with the ideas of the Haskala and the fight against religious fanaticism, the magazine later turned to criticism of the "Berlin enlightenment" and to the preaching of the national idea. A.B. Gottlober founded the monthly Ha-Boker Or, which was published in Lvov (1876-86), then in Warsaw. In 1877, in Vienna, edited by A.Sh. Lieberman published the first Jewish socialist newspaper "Ha-Emet". In the 1880s. a number of yearbooks and almanacs appeared: "Ha-Asif" (Warsaw, 1884-94, editor N. Sokolov), "Kneset Israel" (Warsaw, 1886-89, editor SP Rabinovich), "Ha-Kerem" (1887 , editor L. Atlas), "Ha-Pardes" (Odessa, 1892-96). These editions gained great popularity - "Ha-Asif", for example, came out with a massive circulation at that time - seven thousand copies.

In 1886 I.L. Kantor founded the first Hebrew daily newspaper Ha-Yom in St. Petersburg, which later played an important role in the development of new Hebrew literature and contributed to the development of a strict newspaper style in Hebrew, free from bombast and ornateness. The competing HaMelitz and HaTsfira also became daily newspapers. (36)

Ahad-ha-`Am edited the literary-scientific journal "Ha-Shilloah" (Berlin; 1896-1903), then under the editorship of I. Klausner the journal was published in Krakow (1903-05), in Odessa (1906-1919) and in Jerusalem (until 1926). It published literary and critical articles and materials that touched upon various problems of modern life and culture. Hebrew periodicals such as Ha-Shilloah or Ha-Dor (Krakow, since 1901; publisher and editor D. Frishman) were on the level of the best European magazines of that time.

After the closure of the newspapers Ha-Melits and Ha-Tsfira, the readers' interest was filled with the new newspapers Ha-Tsofe (Warsaw, 1903-1905) and Ha-Zman (Petersburg, 1903-04; Vilna, 1905-1906 ). The publisher "Ha-Zman" B. Katz was an energetic and courageous journalist, his newspaper provided readers with up-to-date information, in the literary supplement to it the poem by Kh.N. Bialik (The Legend of the Pogrom; 1904). In 1907-11. the newspaper was published in Vilna under the name "Head Ha-zman". In the first decade of the 20th century. the Zionist newspaper Ha-Olam was popular (Cologne, 1907; Vilna, 1908; Odessa, 1912-14). The ultra-Orthodox weekly "Ha-Modia" (1910-14) was published in Poltava. Magazines for children "Ha-Prahim" (Lugansk, 1907), "Ha-Yarden" and "Ha-Shahar" (Warsaw, 1911) were published in Hebrew.

The first Jewish periodical in Russian - the weekly "Rassvet" (Odessa, from May 1860) - set itself the goal of "enlightening the people by exposing the backwardness of the Jewish masses and bringing them closer to the surrounding population." The leading role in the creation of the first Russian-Jewish publication belonged to the writer O. Rabinovich (with the active participation of L. Levanda and others). The creation of the weekly, which was accompanied by considerable difficulties, despite the support of the famous surgeon N. Pirogov, the trustee of the Odessa educational district, was a great achievement for the Russian Jewry of that time. Along with journalism, stock exchange chronicles, reviews of foreign Jewish journalism, criticism, serious historical and other scientific articles, "Rassvet" also published works of art (for example, "Ancestral candlestick" by O. Rabinovich, "Grocery Depot" by L. Levanda and others) ... In one of the editorial responses to criticism, it was determined to whom "Dawn" is addressed: "this is the entire Jewish nation as a whole." The weekly existed for only one year (until May 1861), during which 52 issues were published. In the same year, a second Russian-Jewish edition appeared in the form of the eponymous ("Gakarmel") supplement in Russian to the Vilna weekly in Hebrew "Ha-Karmel" (editor Sh.I. Finn), which was published for three years, publishing in Russian translation of the most interesting materials from "Ha-Karmela". The successors of "Dawn" were three editions: "Zion" (Odessa, 1861-62), "Day" (Odessa, 1869-71) and "Bulletin of Russian Jews" (St. Petersburg, 1871-79). The editors of the weekly "Zion" were E. Soloveichik (died in 1875), L. Pinsker and N. Bernstein. Continuing the tradition of "Dawn", the publication set itself the goal of "softening the strict judgment about the Jews"; under the pressure of censorship, the weekly gradually took on an educational rather than journalistic character. The publication of "Zion" was forced to cease, because it encountered "special obstacles to refuting the unfounded accusations raised by some of the bodies of Russian journalism against Jews and the Jewish religion." The "Zion" line was continued by the weekly "Day" (editors S. Ornshtein and I. Orshansky) - a publication of the Odessa branch

The Day's articles devoted much attention to the struggle to expand the civil rights of Jews in Russia; journalism, polemical materials, and works of art were published. L. Levanda, lawyer P. Levenson (1837-94), E. Soloveichik, M. Morgulis took part in the work of the weekly. After the anti-Jewish riots in Odessa in March 1871, the newspaper ceased to be published. (36)

An important role in the history of Jewish periodicals in Russian was played by the historical and literary collections "Jewish Library" published in St. Petersburg (vols. 1-8; 1871-78) edited by A. Landau, who in 1881-99. published the monthly magazine Voskhod, the most influential Jewish periodical in Russian. By 1899 "Voskhod" changed its direction and, together with the literary and political supplement "Voskhod Book", continued to be published until 1906. In St. Petersburg, the weeklies "Russian Jew" (1879-84), "Rassvet" (1879-83) were published. and the monthly magazine "Jewish Review" (1884). In 1902-1903. the magazine "Jewish Family Library" was published (St. Petersburg, editor M. Rybkin / 1869-1915 /), which introduced the reader to Jewish prose and poetry; a total of 12 issues were released. Translations of Mendele's works by Moher Sfarim, G. Heine, I.L. Peretz, essays on the Jewish ghetto in New York by A. Kogan and others. In 1904-1907. the magazine was published under the title "Jewish Life". (36)

A Jewish workers' press arose in St. Petersburg at that time: the weekly newspaper "Jewish Worker" (1905) continued the direction of the "Bulletin of the Bund", which had been published abroad since 1904. The Zionist Rabochaya Gazeta (1904) appeared in Odessa, and the Zionist Review (1902-1903) in Elizavetgrad. An important place in the Russian-Jewish press of this period is occupied by the weekly "Future", founded in 1899 by the doctor and scientist S.O. Gruzenberg (1854-1909) as an independent body of Russian Jews, "striving for cultural revival and raising the consciousness of the Jewish masses." The weekly widely presented its pages to Russian Zionists, who did not have their own organ at that time. Scientific articles were published in the annual supplement to the journal "Scientific and Literary Collection" Future "(vols. a record figure for Russia - 17. First of all, these were party bodies, including Zionist ones: the weekly "Jewish Thought" (Odessa, 1906-1907, editor M. Shvartsman; earlier "Kadima"), which considered the issues of colonization to be the main task of the Zionist movement Palestine; "Jewish Workers' Chronicle" (Poltava, 1906, organ of Po'alei Zion), the magazine "Young Judea" (Yalta, 1906) and "Molot" (Simferopol, 1906); "Jewish Voice" (Bialystok, then Odessa, 1906 -1907), "Jewish Voter" (St. Petersburg, 1906-1907) and "Jewish People" (St. Petersburg, 1906, the forerunner of "Dawn", 1907-15). "Our tribune" (1906-1907). The organ of the Jewish People's Group (St. Petersburg, 1907) was the weekly "Freedom and Equality", a territorialist organ ov - the weekly magazine "Russian Jew" (Odessa, 1906, editor F. Zeldis). In 1915, a weekly newspaper was published in Moscow under the same name (editor D. Kumanov). The defeat of the first Russian revolution and the ensuing reaction led to a decrease in the number of Jewish periodicals in Russian, but in subsequent years there were still about ten titles. In St. Petersburg, the newspaper "Jewish World" was published (1910-11) with an appendix in the form of a three-month magazine "Jewish World" (editor Sarah Trotskaya, with the close participation of S. Ansky); the magazine was devoted to scientific and cultural issues. The three-month period of the Jewish Historical and Ethnographic Society "Jewish Antiquity" (1909-1930; editor SM Dubnov) also appeared here. "Jewish Antiquity" constituted an entire era in pre-revolutionary Jewish historical scholarship and continued to appear after the revolution. Various Jewish publications were published in Odessa: in the period before World War I - the monthly "Jewish Future" (1909), "New Judea" (1908), "Jewish Review" (1912), the weekly "Jew" (1902-14) , an illustrated literary and art magazine for Jewish children "Spikes" (1913-17). In Kishinev, a weekly socio-political journal "Jewish Chronicle" (1911-12; editor and publisher N. Razumovsky), "a non-partisan organ of Jewish national thought", was published. The magazine was often prosecuted for its sharp, topical articles; in 1913 it was published under the title "Jewish Word" (literary and scientific journal).

During this period, the "Bulletin of the Society for the Spread of Education among Jews in Russia" (St. Petersburg, 1910-12, editor J. Eiger), a monthly edition, in 1913-17 began to be published. - "Bulletin of Jewish education". The monthly "Bulletin of the Jewish Community" (St. Petersburg, 1913-14, editor and publisher I. Perelman) set itself the task of covering various issues of the organization of communities. The monthly "Bulletin of Jewish Emigration and Colonization" (Yelets, Oryol Province, 1911-14, editor and publisher M. Goldberg) was a private publication devoted to the issues of Jewish emigration and covered the work of the Jewish Emigration Society. The monthly Jewish Niva (St. Petersburg, 1913, publisher and editor I. Dubossarsky) and Emigrant (1914, publisher D. Feinberg), a continuation of the Yiddish magazine Der Yidisher Emigrant, also dealt with issues of emigration and colonization. The weekly "Renaissance" (Vilna, 1914, editor A. Levin) - "the organ of Jewish national thought" - fought for the national, cultural and economic revival of the Jewish people (No. 15 was dedicated to the memory of T. Herzl with his portrait on the cover and an article by B. Goldberg "Herzl in Vilna", for which the vice-governor of Vilna fined the editors of "Renaissance"). (36)

The Russian-Jewish press during the First World War was directly connected with the socio-political life of the country, covered events at the front and in the rear, the situation of the Jewish population of Russia. In Moscow, the collection "War and the Jews" (1914-15, editor and publisher D. Kumanov) was published twice a month. Similar goals were pursued by the magazines "Jews and Russia" (Moscow, 1915), "Jews at War" (Moscow, 1915), "Bulletin of the Moscow Jewish Society for Aid to War Victims" (Moscow, 1916-17) and "Delo Pomoshchik" (P., 1916-17). The magazines published detailed testimonies about Jews who suffered from the war, about refugees, materials about the activities of institutions that provided them with assistance, etc. In the same period, the socio-political and literary Zionist newspaper "Jewish Life" (Moscow, 1915-17, editor and publisher S. Brumberg) began to appear, replacing the Petrograd newspaper "Rassvet", which was closed in June 1915. Despite the censorship persecution, the newspaper tried to promote Jewish culture. Thus, one of the issues for 1916 was dedicated to the 20th anniversary of Kh.N. Bialik, another - in memory of L. Pinsker. The weekly "Jewish Week" (1915-17, editors and publishers I. Ansheles, I. Zeligman), the organ of the Jewish People's Group (see above), was also published in Moscow. Setting the task of uniting all elements of Russian Jewry and developing "its internal forces", the magazine paid special attention to the world war, the participation of Jews in it and its significance for Jewry. Soon after the February Revolution, the edition of the Jewish Week was moved to Petrograd; there the newspaper was published until the end of 1918. Until October 1917, the publication of the weekly Novy Put (1916-17, editor and publisher S. Kogan with the participation of O. Gruzenberg and others) continued in Moscow, dedicated to issues of Jewish life. Some of the last editions of the pre-revolutionary period were "Jewish Economic Bulletin" (P., 1917) and the two-week magazine of the Zionist trend, "Jewish Student" (P., 1915-17), devoted to the problems of student youth. The legal organ of the Bund, the weekly Jewish Vesti (1916-17, publisher and editor N. Grushkina), was published in Petrograd, and the Voice of the Bund (organ of the Central Committee) from August to October 1917.

Periodicals in the Soviet Union. Between February and October 1917, there was a rapid increase in the number of Jewish periodicals due to the abolition of censorship and general freedom of the press. This period of freedom for the Jewish press ended by the fall of 1918, when the communist government took control of practically the entire Russian press (relative freedom of the press existed until 1920 in Ukraine and Belarus). The leading Zionist organs of that time were the daily newspapers Ha-Am (in Hebrew, Moscow, July 1917 - July 1918) and Togblat (in Yiddish, P., May 1917 - August 1918). A number of Jewish newspapers of various trends were published in Kiev: the organ of the Bund "Folks Zeitung" (August 1917 - May 1919), the organ of the Po'alei Zion party "Dos naye lebn" (December 1917 - March 1919), the newspaper of the United Jewish Socialist Workers' Party " Nye Zeit "(September 1917 - May 1919), Zionist newspaper" Telegraph "(November 1917 - January 1918). The newspapers Der Id (December 1917 - July 1918) and Farn Folk (September 1919 - January 1920), both Zionist, were published in Minsk. A number of Jewish press after the revolution took a pro-Soviet direction. The newspaper Der Veker, which appeared in Minsk in May 1917 as the central organ of the Bund, in April 1921 became the organ of the central bureau of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the Evsection of Belarus; existed until 1925. The name "Der Veker" was used by many Jewish publications in Yiddish (mainly socialist), published in Vilna, Vienna, Krakow, London, Bucharest, Iasi, New York. (36)

The periodicals in Hebrew, discontinued due to World War I, began to appear again after February 1917. In Odessa, the revived magazine "Ha-Shilloah" (banned in April 1919), literary collections "Kneset", "Masswot" and "Eretz"; historical and ethnographic collections "Reshumot" and "Sfatenu". Until the beginning of 1920, the last Russian weekly in Hebrew "Barkai" was published in Odessa. In Petrograd, the scientific yearbook "Olemenu" and the children's magazine "Shtilim" were published, as well as the historical collection "He-Avar" (2 volumes were published). Three issues of the Hebrew quarterly "Ha-Tkufa" (publishing house "Shtybel", 1918) and three socio-literary collections "Safrut" (editor L. Yaffe, 1918) were published in Moscow. From the end of 1918, on the initiative of the Evsection, the gradual curtailment of periodicals in Hebrew began, and then they were completely banned in the framework of the struggle against Hebrew as a "reactionary language". Along with publications in Hebrew and Yiddish, many Jewish publications in Russian were closed: Rassvet (September 1918), Chronicle of Jewish Life (July 1919) and others. Until 1926, the central organ of the left-wing Po'alei Zion organization "Jewish Proletarian Thought" (Kiev-Kharkov-Moscow; publication in Yiddish continued until 1927) was still published. In the first years of Soviet power, the scientific and historical collections "Jewish Thought" (editor Sh. Ginzburg; P., 1922-26, vols. 1-2), "Jewish Chronicles" (1923-26, vols. 1-4) continued to be published , "Jewish antiquity" (M. - P., 1924-30, vols. 9-13), published by a group of Jewish scientists and writers within the framework of the Society for the dissemination of education among Jews in Russia and the Jewish Historical and Ethnographic Society. Separate periodicals were published for some time on the periphery. In 1927-30. five issues of ORT Materials and Research were published. The publication of the OZET organ "The Tribune of the Jewish Soviet Community" (executive editor Sh. Dimanstein, M., 1927-37) was stopped by repressive measures. Jewish periodicals continued to be published in the states formed in the territories that were under the rule of the Russian Empire before World War I (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia), in Poland, in the centers of Russian emigration (Berlin, Paris, Harbin and others). (36)

In contrast to the prohibition of publications in Hebrew, the first two decades of Soviet power flourished in Yiddish, which was recognized in the Soviet Union as the national language of the Jews. The Jewish press was entrusted with the functions of promoting communist ideology. Soviet Yiddish periodicals included daily newspapers, magazines, children's illustrated publications, and scientific collections. Jewish periodicals were published in all major cities of the country with a Jewish population. Three daily newspapers were published in Yiddish: Der Emes (Emes; M., 1918-38; in 1918 - Di Varhayt), Der Shtern (Kharkov, 1925-41), Oktyaber (Minsk, 1925-41), the content of which was highly dependent on the central Soviet press and only partially reflected the phenomena and events of Jewish life, culture and literature in the Soviet Union. Many other publications in Yiddish were published: "Proletarischer von" (Kiev, 1928-35), "Odesar Arbeter" (1927-37), "Birobidzhaner Stern" (Birobidzhan, since 1930), the central organ of the Jewish Autonomous Region, which in in the last decades of its existence (until the second half of the 1980s), he hardly touched upon Jewish issues. Before the start of World War II in the Soviet Union, special attention was paid to literary magazines and almanacs in Yiddish: Prolet (1928-32), Farmest (1932-37), Diroite Velt (1924-33) were published in the Ukraine. ) and "Soviet Literature" (1938-41); in Belarus - "Stern" (1925-41). In 1934-41, 12 volumes of the yearbook "Sovetish" were published, which played a significant role in the development of Jewish literature in the Soviet Union. Children's literature in Yiddish was published in the magazines "Zai Great" (Kiev, Kharkov, 1928-41), "Junger Leninist" (Minsk, 1929-37), "Oktyaber" (Kiev, 1930-39). The journals "Oif der veg zu der nayer shul" (Moscow, 1924-28) and "Ratnbildung" (Kharkov, 1928-37) were devoted to pedagogical topics. Scientific publications on the history of Jewish literature, linguistics, etc. appeared in yearbooks published by Jewish research institutes in Kiev and Minsk (under the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and Belarus): "Di Yiddish Shprah" (Kiev, 1927-30), "Oifn Shprakhfront" (Kiev, 1931-39), "Zeit- font "(Minsk; vols. 1-5, 1926-31)," Linguistisher zamlbuh "(Minsk, vols. 1-3, 1933-36).

The Jewish press in Yiddish continued to exist in the annexed to the Soviet Union in 1939-40. Lithuania, Latvia, Western Ukraine and Western Belarus, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Despite the prohibition of many publications and the subordination of the Jewish periodicals to the dictates of ideology, this press brought a fresh stream to Jewish life and culture in the Soviet Union, acting as the bearer of Western trends in the use of expressive means of the Yiddish language. The publication of these newspapers and magazines ceased after the occupation of the western regions by the German army in the summer of 1941.

With the invasion of Nazi Germany into the Soviet Union, the Anti-Fascist Committee of Jews (AKE), which moved from Moscow to Kuibyshev, began to publish the newspaper "Einikite" (from July 1942 it was published three times a month; from February 1945 to 1948 - three times a week), which published materials about the participation of Jews in the fight against fascism, about the atrocities of the Nazis in the occupied territory, as well as messages and statements by the leaders of the AKE. The newspaper was liquidated by the Soviet authorities in the fall of 1948 after the arrest of the AKE members.

In the post-war period (even before the liquidation of AKE), several Jewish periodicals in Yiddish were published for a very short period: "Heimland" (No. 1-7, M., 1947-48), "Der stern" (No. 1-7, Kiev , 1947-48), "Birobidzhan" (vols. 1-3, 1946-48). In the 1950s. In the Soviet Union, not a single Jewish periodical was published, except for the official newspaper Birobidzhaner Stern, published in 1950-54. with a circulation of one thousand copies. Then, during the period of the "thaw" in 1961, the official organ of the Writers' Union, the literary and art magazine "Sovetish Heimland" (Moscow; from the spring of 1961, every two months, after 1965 - a monthly; editor A. Vergelis), began to be published. where the works of Soviet writers in Yiddish were published. Since 1984, on the basis of "Sovetish Gameland", a yearbook has been published in Russian "Year after Year" (editor A. Tverskoy), which mainly publishes translations of works published in the magazine. (36)

Since the beginning of the aliyah to Israel in the 1970s. Along with the official Jewish editions "Sovetish Gameland" and "Birobidzhaner Stern", published in Yiddish, uncensored typewritten Jewish editions in Russian began to appear, multiplied by rotaprint or photographic method. Publishers and distributors of such literature were persecuted by the KGB.

With the beginning of the so-called perestroika (the second half of the 1980s), legal Jewish periodicals appeared. The first such publications were the organs of Jewish cultural societies: "VEK" ("Herald of Jewish culture", Riga, since 1989); "VESK" ("Bulletin of Jewish Soviet Culture", publication of the Association of Figures and Friends of Jewish Soviet Culture, Moscow, since April 1989; since 1990 - "Jewish Newspaper"); "Vestnik LOEK" (organ of the Leningrad Society of Jewish Culture, since 1989); "Renaissance" (Newsletter of the Kiev City Society of Jewish Culture, since 1990); "Jerusalem de Lita" (in Yiddish, organ of the Society for the Culture of the Jews of Lithuania, Vilnius, since 1989; also published in Russian under the title "Lithuanian Jerusalem"); "Mizrah" ("East", organ of the Tashkent Jewish Cultural Center, since 1990); "Our Voice" ("Undzer Kol"; in Russian and Yiddish, newspaper of the Society of Jewish Culture of the Republic of Moldova, Chisinau, since 1990); "Ha-Shahar" ("Dawn", organ of the Jewish Culture Society within the Estonian Cultural Foundation, Tallinn, since 1988); "Einikite" (Bulletin of the Jewish cultural and educational association named after Sholem Aleichem, Kiev, since 1990) and others.

Along with them, such publications as "Bulletin of the Society for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Israel" (M., Jewish Information Center, since 1989), "Voskhod" ("Zrikha"), the newspaper of the Leningrad Society of Jewish Culture (since 1990 .); "Jewish Yearbook" (M., 1986, 1987, 1988); "Jewish Literary-Artistic and Cultural-Informational Almanac" (Bobruisk, 1989); "Maccabi" (Journal of the Jewish Society of Aesthetics and Physical Culture, Vilnius, 1990); "Menorah" (publication of the Union of Jewish Religious Communities, since 1990) and the eponymous newsletter of the Chisinau Jewish religious community (since 1989), as well as a number of newsletters - on issues of repatriation and Jewish culture (M., since 1987. ); Union of Hebrew Teachers in the USSR (in Russian and Hebrew; M., since 1988); Chernivtsi Jewish Social and Cultural Foundation (Chernivtsi, since 1988); Lvov Union of Hebrew Teachers in the USSR "Ariel" (1989) and many others.

The tremendous changes in the countries of the Soviet Union affected the number and character of Jewish periodicals. The massive departure of Jews from these countries led to the fluidity of the editorial staff of Jewish periodicals and questioned the future of these numerous newspapers, bulletins, magazines and almanacs, especially those oriented towards aliyah (for example, "Kol Zion" - the organ of the Zionist organization Irgun Tsioni, M. , since 1989).

2.2 Preconditions for the appearance of the Jewish press in Russia

The perestroika Jewish press initiated the publication in Riga in 1989 of the VEK magazine (bulletin of Jewish culture). In April of the same year, Tancred Golenpolsky began publishing a new Jewish media outlet, which is still published under the name International Jewish Newspaper.

By the end of the 1980s, Jewish "samizdat" became widespread, ceasing to be dangerous for readers or distributors. In addition, the Jewish theme sounded good in national publications. Literature of deferred demand was openly and massively distributed, but of a journalistic nature - due to the high effect of reliability ("Steep Route", "Heavy Sand", etc.). In response to demand, in the post-Soviet era, there was a certain analogue of the post-revolutionary succession of the Jewish press, but in terms of the number of publications it is much smaller, poorer in content, and no longer in Yiddish, but with Russian-language content under Hebrew brands in Russian - "Boker" ("Morning ")," Gesher "(" Bridge ").

The Russian-language Jewish press has recently been revived in our country. The Jewish newspaper, published in Birobidzhan in two languages, was not available outside the region. The first issue of VESK, the Bulletin of Jewish Soviet Culture, was published in the spring of 1990, at a time when the Soviet regime was already in agony, which is probably why the newspaper could have appeared. And yet "VESK" became an event ... This (or such) newspaper, the Jews of the USSR, who missed their native word, waited for many decades, albeit in Russian: for the majority it has long become native. At first, the newspaper had many readers. To buy it, people had to stand in line. A lot of Jewish bands, mostly pop bands, toured the country. There was also the Chamber Jewish Musical Theater (KEMT), which enjoyed success not only in the USSR, but also abroad. By that time, the Jewish (more precisely Russian-Jewish) theater "Shalom" had shown its first performances. "The Enchanted Tailor" charmed the audience. And in February 1990, the Cultural Center named after Solomon Mikhoels was noisily and solemnly opened. And the newspaper "VESK", published shortly after this event, appeared on time and, as they say, in the same place. It might seem like a hint of a renaissance of Jewish culture, destroyed during the struggle against cosmopolitanism ...

Then Jewish newspapers in Russian began to appear in Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent, and in the capitals of the Baltic republics (it seems that in Tallinn the Russian-language newspaper was published earlier than VESK). The "matured" "VESK" first became the "Jewish Newspaper", and after the collapse of the USSR it was transformed into the "International Jewish Newspaper", "MEG", which was considered the "main" publication in the Russian language. There were also attempts in Moscow to publish Jewish newspapers, but they were not crowned with success.

There were attempts to revive the pre-revolutionary Jewish publications, such as the Samara newspaper "Tarbut". Some publications came out in huge print runs with a good representative typology of the Jewish media of this period. For example, the International Jewish Newspaper had a circulation of up to 30 thousand copies. This was accompanied by an artificial revival of Jewish communities with the establishment of their publications. Foreign organizations actively penetrated into the country, the restoration of synagogues ended with their seizure by the Hasidim of one of seven similar directions and, accordingly, the distribution of their printed publications of a purely religious orientation. At the same time, several Zionist publications were financed for distribution in Russia. But only a few of them were filled with copyrighted materials of their own journalists, such as, for example, the Gesher-Most magazine, the publication of the MCIREC "Tkhiya" that no one had done before). At the same time, MEG supported the preservation of Jewish life in Russia, being practically independent of funding sources in its editorial policy, which reminds it of Moskovskaya Pravda.

At the peak of the second succession of the Jewish press, for just one academic year, the Faculty of Journalism operated as part of the Hebrew University in Moscow, whose students were fortunate enough to get all the best that the teachers of the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow State University, researchers of Jewish life in the Soviet Union and its bright representatives could give Chaim Bader, Abram Kletskin and others (1, p. 2)

After the second succession, the Jewish press began to decline and a recession began. The regularity of periodicals was falling. Their publishers found other employment for themselves. For example, the editor-in-chief of the Jewish newspaper Tarbut, revived in Samara, Alexander Brod, moved to Moscow and organized the Moscow Bureau for Human Rights as part of the American organization Union of Councils for Soviet Jews.

Russian-language Jewish press

Separate media outlets, experiencing difficulties both with funding and with the audience, with increasing independence from it, have existed since at least 1993 against the background of the disappearance of Jewish communities. This, for example, happened in Birobidzhan, although there is still some stratum of the Jewish population, in contrast to Ukraine or Poland. Contrary to expectations, MEG and other similar publications remained outside the media holdings. Isolated editions have survived, with great difficulties they are slightly financed little by little from various and incompatible sources - the local budgets of the Russian regions, the Joint, Lishkat-a-kesher, Sokhnut (EAR) and partially - Jewish financiers through the regional branches of the RJC, while they existed.

Against the background of the twofold flourishing of the Jewish press in Russia, the phenomenon of the Israeli, in a broad sense - the diaspora Russian-speaking Jewish press was also noted. Its basis is the penetration into the international market of permanent PR-campaigns of Russian power structures (shadow) and specific newsmakers. For example, Joseph Kobzon financed the "Russian Israeli" for some time. Initially, the mechanism was launched by the consequences of the sensational "plane case" of 1970, which brought Eduard Kuznetsov to the public arena as editor-in-chief of the influential Israeli Russian-language newspaper Vesti.

The diaspora Russian-speaking Jewish press has developed under the significant influence of such teachers of the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow State University as Dietmar Rosenthal and Yasen Zasursky as a result of the emigration of their former students, who idolize their teachers the more the further from their real homeland. (2, p. 12)

By the beginning of 2000, the publication of several more Jewish publications had ceased, including the journals "Russian Jew" and "Diagnosis". In fact, only one newspaper remained of the International Jewish Newspaper publishing group, and even that one temporarily ceased to exist in 2002. Instead of "MEG", its editor-in-chief Nikolai Propirny began to publish the RJC organ "Jewish News", which soon ceased to exist. Then "MEG" began to appear again with a different editorial staff. During this time, one new newspaper appeared - the weekly "Jewish Word", published with the support of the second chief rabbi of Russia, Berl-Lazar.

The printed Jewish press has largely been replaced by online Russian-language publications such as

· "Jewish World. Newspaper of Russian-speaking America" ​​(http://www.isratop.com/newsexport.asp? Url = http: //www.evreimir.com/),

Internet magazine of the Jewish Internet club (http://www.ijc.ru/istoki91.html),

· "Migdal on line" (http://www.migdal.ru/),

· "Global Jewish on-line center" (http://www.jewish.ru), etc.

Among the print media not only of the Jewish press, but in general among the Russian media, one of the first was reflected in the Runet segment of the MEG network (http://www.jig.ru/).

The typological structure of the Jewish press of the studied period of the second succession is characterized by diversity and relative completeness. The following are selected as typical examples: weekly newspaper "MEG", Moscow; newspaper in the form of an on-going occasional "Tarbut", Samara; bulletin of the national public association "Home News"; almanac of materials on national themes "Year after Year"; magazine (Journal) "Russian Jew"; magazine (Magazin) "Bulletin of the Jewish Agency in Russia".

The basis of typological diversity is the creative competition of their publishers (editors-in-chief), who are well known to each other in the narrow environment of the national public arena. Some of the publishers and journalists of the Jewish press were familiar from a past life, they are well aware of the conditions of the ghetto. These are people with high social activity, and for most of them journalistic work is not only not the only one, but it has not become the main one.

Thus, the typological completeness of the Jewish press system at the peak of its development reflects, on a reduced scale, the same processes in the general civil press. It should be noted that in this the Jewish press differs markedly from other versions of the diaspora press in Russia, which has never acquired its typological completeness. (1, p. 2)

Subject-thematic classification of the Jewish press reflects the preferred and highlighted topics of the materials. These are primarily politics, religion and traditions, communal life, humor, the activities of the Jewish Agency for Russia (formerly Sokhnut), events in Israel and the Middle East, the problem of anti-Semitism, forms of its expression and causes, as well as a "bookshelf" with a traditional description book novelties.

The functional orientation of the Jewish press reflects the ratio of the requests of a specific national audience and the real coverage of a characteristic thematic set. The functional orientation, in turn, determines the genre structure of the Jewish national press in Russia - the use of specific genres and the ratio of materials of the corresponding genres.

The "renaissance" period of the Jewish press of the nineties in terms of the number of titles is two orders of magnitude behind the post-revolutionary period when the ideological press in Yiddish flourished. It coincided with the transitional period of the Russian press and began in the late 1980s with attempts to publish several specifically Jewish media outlets such as Vestnik Jewish Culture in the form of a magazine in Riga and in the form of a newspaper in Moscow. The Moscow edition comes out almost to this day, renamed into "Jewish Newspaper", then "International Jewish Newspaper" (with supplements "Rodnik" and "Nadezhda"). The first attempts were rather timid and not too professional, but with a huge circulation of 30-50 thousand copies and more. Then, over the course of several years, numerous Jewish publications appeared and closed: Yom Sheni, Moscow-Jerusalem, Gesher-Most, Utro-Boker, and numerous regional ones. Information and propaganda publications of international Jewish organizations, for example, Sokhnut (currently the Jewish Agency for Russia) or the Israel Foundation for Culture and Education in the Diaspora, announcing their activities in the USSR and then in the Russian Federation strictly in agreement with the authorities, and used as a conductor of information by those organizations whose charitable activities are not advertised here, for example, Joint, Orth, Kleimes Conference, B'nai-Brit and others. Phenomenologically, the development phase of the Jewish press in the nineties resembles that of the tens and twenties, but much poorer in terms of the number and independence of publications. (4.p.6 p.2 ____________________________________)

Currently, most of the Jewish post-perestroika publications are closed for the same reasons that led to a reduction in the range of public publications that excluded lobbying for corporate or personal interests and did not participate in election campaigns. The surviving Jewish media use the same methods that keep former Soviet media outlets like Komsomolskaya Pravda and AiF afloat. For example, "MEG" has turned into a group of editions of the united editorial board, which nominally also included the magazine "Di Yiddishe Gas" - the magazines "Russian Jew" and "Diagnosis", the bulletin "Jewish Moscow", the Web-page "Jewish Russia". Religious publications, for example, "Lechaim", "Aleph" or "Fathers and Sons", do not stop and practically do not experience difficulties.

Thus, the reason for the exclusive position of the Jewish press is its integration into civil, general political and national problems and processes associated with the widespread "playing the Jewish card" against the background of diffuse total xenophobia associated with one of the three forms of anti-Semitism, the most widespread at that.

2.3 Magazines "Aleph", "Roots", "Lechaim". The history of the emergence and development of each of them, a comparative analysis

The journal "Roots" is well known to the Jewish reader of Russia. Over the years of its existence, and it has been published since 1994, about 300 articles have been printed in it, more than 350 people have sent their responses, reviews, critical letters, shared their opinions about the journal and the problems covered in it; all this also found its reflection on the pages of the magazine.

The journal "Roots" was founded in 1994 as a literary tribune of lecturers and activists of the broad educational program "People's University of Jewish Culture". It was published by the Saratov regional Jewish organization "Teshuva", and the general sponsor was the "Joint" branch in the Central European part of the Russian Federation (director - Yitzhak Averbukh, Jerusalem). (1.p.3)

In the future, the journal expanded the range of authors and the geography of its distribution. But all the years the magazine "Korni" was and remains the only Jewish social and publicistic magazine in Russia, continuing the traditions of the first Russian-Jewish magazines of the 19th century "Rassvet" and "Voskhod". All these years, along with specialists and researchers of Jewish studies, "Roots" provided an opportunity to discuss the problems of modern Jewish life for the mass reader, public educators, and activists of Jewish communities. "Roots", as a Jewish magazine, has always been at the center of urgent problems of national life, culture, comprehension of the most important milestones in the national history of the people, while remaining, at the same time, a magazine close and understandable to every reader.

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The Jewish community in Argentina, one of the largest communities in the diaspora, with an interesting multifaceted history, is nevertheless almost never featured in studies of Jewish history and literature. In this article I want to partially fill this gap by talking about the Jewish press, about the Jewish contribution to modern journalism in Argentina, about the most interesting materials in the Jewish press in different periods of Argentine history.

I will focus on a few of the main functions that the Jewish press performed in a wide variety of political and religious positions, be it Zionism or Yiddish, and which can be summarized as follows:

1. The Jewish press ideologically consolidated certain groups, for example, anarchists and socialists (Dos Arbeter Lebn and, later, Dos Freye Wort) and especially the Bund cooperatives (Der Avangard, Di Press), and helped with this groups to cope with new tasks - the cultivation of the land and the life of the colonists ("Yidisher colonist in Argentina", "El colono cooperador"). The Zionists also started their own publications quite early on (El Sionista, La esperanza de Israel, Nahrihtn).

2. The press helped Jews successfully integrate in Latin America, based on an understanding of Spanish as, in essence, a "Jewish" language, using the experience of Sepharad and the attempt of Jewish enlighteners, Maskils, to revive the tradition of Jewish rationalism (Saadi Gaona, Maimonides, Gersonides), interrupted expulsion from Spain in 1492. Jewish journalists characterized Latin America as a continent with a Jewish background long before their own immigration, as a “new homeland for those expelled by the Inquisition,” thus claiming more than 400 years of Jewish presence on the continent.

3. The press legitimized Jewish culture in the new environment, translated, served as an intermediary between Jewish and non-Jewish elements (“Judaica”, “Heredad”), as well as between generations within the community itself (“Crush”).

5. The Jewish press defended the ideals of social justice, advocated "verbal warfare" rather than armed, opposed dictatorship, protected victims of state violence and supported their families ("Nueva Presencia").

I will go into the last example in more detail, as it best illustrates what I had in mind when I called the article "The New Midrash." This particular newspaper was called "Nueva Presencia", "New Presence", but in general, all Jewish publications in one way or another tried to create a new Jewish voice in Argentine society.

About the centrality of the shoulders

Talking about midrash - Jewish hermeneutics - is talking about the sidelines and the sidelines, and this article is marginal in more than one sense. Talking about Judaism in Argentina is talking about the farthest edge of the periphery, but we know how central borders and margins are in Jewish tradition - from them we learn to read.

The Jewish community in Argentina, officially founded in 1894, numbered over half a million in its golden years, but that number has since halved. In the best times, it was about 2% of the country's population, and now it is about 0.7%, which is still a lot for the Jewish community. 20% of Argentine Jews are Sephardic and 80% are Ashkenazi, but since the official language in the country is Spanish, the result is an interesting "meeting" between Sepharad and Ashkenazi.

The first wave of immigration deserves special attention because it was a collective undertaking. With the exception of a few individuals and families who arrived in Argentina by different routes, most of the first Jews came as participants in Baron Hirsch's project. Impressed by the pogroms and terrible poverty, he bought land for Russian Jews for agricultural colonies, and the first ship with 820 Jews on board arrived from Hamburg in 1889. The colonies were a kind of protokibbutz. Russian Jews came to work in the fields and to cultivate the land. They began to be called gauchos judíos - Jewish gaucho.

Argentine Judaism has always been rather marginal. Argentina did not have famous rabbis and Talmudists, although there were some excellent scholars among the immigrants who corresponded with their European colleagues on Halachic issues. But most of the Jews who arrived "oif di bregn fun Plata" (on the banks of the Rio de la Plata) were people of physical labor. Over time, they created their own rich Jewish life and culture, including, for example, the Yiddish philosophical journal Davke (Exactly or Vice versa), founded in 1949. Davke is the only publication of its kind in the world, and its editor, Solomon Suskovich, wrote with some irony in 1979:

"Crush" has so many problems that there is no end in sight. This is not a magazine that just prints articles, even if those articles are the best. Each material in the magazine should be devoted to the central idea of ​​this issue, since each issue is a self-sufficient and independent publication. How do we achieve this, despite the fact that there are no philosophers among us, and nevertheless "Davke" is published regularly? So far, this is a secret.

Strengthening Cooperativism and Writing: Connecting Colonies with a Verbal Network

The first edition to be discussed is Yidisher Colonist in Argentina, published since November 1909 by the Clara Colony Community Foundation and the Lucienville Jewish Agricultural Society. In addition to The Colonist, at the beginning of the century, other publications were published in Buenos Aires: Di Folkstime, Der Avangard, Broit un era. Interestingly, La Protesta, the Spanish-language organ of socialists and anarchists, printed daily blat(page) in Yiddish for Jewish workers. Other groups of immigrants were also asked to make a strip in their own language, but only Jewish workers took advantage of this opportunity. Buenos Aires was at that time the center of the anarchist and socialist press throughout Latin America.

The "Yidisher colonist" tried to make the colonists' own voice sound, sought to unite colonies separated by hundreds of kilometers through the written word, tried to educate settlers in matters related to agriculture and cattle breeding, as well as in matters of cooperative theory and Jewish culture. The publication wanted to build an invisible network that would save the colonists from geographical isolation and give them the opportunity to again, together with other Jews, become a "community of texts."

Unlike the majority of Jewish periodicals published individually, "Colonist", in accordance with the principles of cooperativism, was a collective project, and its edition included the most famous names in the Jewish-Argentine cooperative movement, among them - M. Saharoff, S. Pustylnik, B Bendersky, Halperin, Shkolnik, Yarkho. The content of The Colonist, like that of other contemporary publications, was quite eclectic, with articles on Jewish literature and culture along with agricultural materials and personal announcements about bar mitzvah or weddings. The Colonist ceased publication in 1912 due to economic difficulties in the colonies caused by prolonged rains and a poor harvest. After a five-year hiatus, in 1917, the Colonist was again published under the name El colono cooperador; although the adjective “Jewish” disappeared from the title, the publication continued to be Jewish. The editorial foreword to the first issue read:

To the best of our ability, we will endeavor to explain the basic ideas of cooperation by giving examples from the history of the cooperative movement. Cooperativism was the contribution of the first Jewish settlers to Argentine society. This philosophy, which the Jews brought to Argentina, broke the oligarchic structure of this country - not just for Jews, but for everyone.

El сolono сooperador has released almost 700 issues. For five decades, it has retained the distinctive feature of many Jewish periodicals - bilingualism. To it was added another remarkable feature - the "Marrano" letter. The magazine could be opened and read from left to right (Spanish part) and from right to left (Yiddish part). Most readers who knew only one of the two languages ​​probably thought that one part was a literal translation of the other. A careful study of the Spanish and Yiddish texts shows, however, that this is not quite the case, in some places it is like two different editions. The Spanish part consisted of materials on agriculture, veterinary medicine, cooperativism - interspersed with Spanish translations of stories written in Yiddish. The Yiddish part contained literature and news of "Jewish" content, for example, about the trials of Nazi war criminals in Europe, news from Israel and from other Jewish communities of the Diaspora, announcements of new books in Yiddish, etc.

This "Marranian" strategy of using Yiddish to smuggle through texts intended exclusively for Jewish readers was later adopted by Di Press, but in a more politicized manner. During the years of the dictatorship, the newspaper was required to print an editorial column also in Spanish so that the censors could read it. As a result, all the Spanish-language editorials spoke favorably of the government in one way or another, while the Yiddish version, which was not accessible to censors, said something different.

Colony journalism represents a most interesting period in the history of the Jewish press. It was an interpretation and commentary on the unique situation in Jewish history, the reaction of the printed word and Jewish tradition to the challenges of the times.

Daily newspapers in the big city: Di Yiddish Zeitung and Di Press

Whereas the life of Argentine Jewish colonists demanded press coverage and journalistic commentary, political events concerning those Jewish communities from which the new Argentine gauchos came also needed press coverage.

Di Yiddish Zeitung began publication in Buenos Aires in 1914, "in the first months of the great European war, responding to the urgent need of Jewish readers to know about the events taking place at this time."

We had scanty capital, but the enthusiasm of the founders and the spirit of self-sacrifice overcame all difficulties, and over time, Di Press reached a state of prosperity. This is a project that originated and took shape in the warm atmosphere of cooperativism, and in this sense, Di Press is an exception in the entire family of Argentine journalism. Di Press has always been guided by the principles that it still follows: adherence to Yiddish, support for any projects aimed at the development of Jewish culture, struggle for the cause of workers and other workers - for the cause of the people.

In their heyday, both newspapers had a daily circulation of 20,000. By comparison, in Argentina in 1920, the Italian community published 18 periodicals, the French 5, the Germans 10, and the Jews 23. The immigrants who inhabited the streets of Buenos Aires were accustomed to seeing kiosks with newspapers printed in the Hebrew alphabet and from right to left. The Yiddish letter was established not only in rural colonies, but also in a large multinational metropolis.

Translation, legitimation and preservation of Jewish heritage: "Judaica", "Heredad" and "Crush"

We, Alberto, the Spanish squad

Prophets and wise men

That doubles in his Ladin intercessions

The uniqueness of Jerusalem.

We are the Castilian square

Jewish Circle, Sinai

On a good romance, Sephardic Torah,

Psalms and prayers addressed to tolerance.

Carlos M. Grunberg. Gerchunoff

The Jewish minority is one of the few that have no embassy, ​​no “country of origin,” no diplomats to support it against local racists. Unlike Italian or Spanish immigrants, Jews had no weapons other than words. And they used it. As Shankman noted in his first exploration of this topic, "the world of letters is a space in which Jews defend their culture and at the same time prove their membership in the melting pot of the races." This is accomplished with different strategies such as special pedantry and perfectionism in Spanish in order to demonstrate excellent proficiency in the language; comprehending Spanish as, in essence, the Hebrew language on the basis of the Sephardic experience and at the same time protecting the "cultural bigamy" by translating and distributing the "treasures" of Yiddish. Periodicals, especially magazines, occupy an essential place in this symbolic struggle.

In 1917, Vida nuestra (Our Life) began to appear, the first attempt to create a literary platform for Jewish cultural identity. After the "tragic week" in January 1919, when the factory strike turned into a pogrom in the Jewish quarter, people were attacked in the streets for several days, the libraries of the Bundists and the Poale Zion were burned down, and in the end the police arrested a Jewish journalist and charged him in organizing a conspiracy to establish Jewish-Bolshevik rule in Argentina - after all this, Our Life conducted a famous survey of non-Jewish Argentine intellectuals (Leopold Lugones, Juan Justo and others) on anti-Semitism and the role of Jews in the country.

But the most important role in legitimizing the Jewish heritage was played by the journal Judaica, published by Solomon Reznik. It was published during the terrible period of the triumph of National Socialism in Europe (1933-1946, 154 issues in total). And at this historic moment, Reznik and his team decided to show the richness of Jewish culture on the pages of Judaica and inform about the right of Jews to “be at home” in Spanish and on the Latin American continent. The content of the magazine was deliberately eclectic: with Spanish translations from European Jewish classics (Moses Mendelssohn, Sholem Aleichem, Yosef Opatoshu), expressive biographies of Sephardic celebrities (Ibn-Gabirol, Maimonides, Yehuda a-Levi) and essays on the role of the Marrans in the formation of what the authors of the magazine called "Judeoamérica", a continent that, in their opinion, has not yet realized the fundamental importance of the Jewish element in its history.

Judaica sought support from the IMO, regularly publishing news about the institute's activities and even dedicated an entire issue to it in June 1934, and considered it important to preserve Yiddish. And at the same time polished written Spanish to carry its banner, in defiance of those Argentine intellectuals who demanded "Spanish purity" and the exclusion of immigrants, especially Jews, from the definition of Argentina. What is surprising about this endeavor is that Ashkenazi Jews "returned" to Sepharad - and this is the irony of the epigraph of a poem dedicated to Grünberg to Alberto Gerchunoff, patriarch of Jewish literature in Spanish in Argentina and author of the classic book Jewish Gauchos (1910 ).

In an effort to find the intersection and confluence of Jewish and Spanish cultures, Judaica has published several strategically important materials. One of them is the translation into Spanish of the preface by H.-N. Bialik for his translation of Don Quixote into Hebrew; in this preface, Bialik urges to see in the Knight of the sad image the embodiment of Jewish love for literature, irony and the search for justice.

Judaica fought on several fronts simultaneously, including local anti-Semitism, the war in Europe, and the fear that future generations will forget Yiddish and Jewish culture. From the pages of the magazine, Enrique Espinoza (Samuel Gluzberg) called for solidarity with the Spanish republicans, and A. Koralnik - for the support of “our brothers Armenians”. In the early years of National Socialism, a number of articles (original or translated) discussed racist theories and hypothesized that Hitler himself was a Jew or even the entire German people had Jewish roots. Attempts were made to pressure the government to open the country for Jewish refugees. Judaica's editorials and other materials suggest that the news from the Old World gave Argentine Jews a sense of despair and helplessness, and they tried to organize help for their European tribesmen.

Judaica acted as a collective translator trying to preserve the heritage of Yiddish-speaking Jewry and at the same time participate in the life of a free and tolerant country as the rightful heir to the greatness of Spain, Sepharad. The ideal is somewhat utopian, but necessary for survival in a world where the darkness of hatred was deepening.

"Heredad"

In 1946, when Judaica closed with the death of its editor Solomon Reznik, it was replaced by Heredad (Heritage), led by Carlos Grünberg. Among its authors were many collaborators of Judaica: Maksimo Yagupsky, Abraham Rosenvaser, Yossi Mendelssohn, Boleslao Levin - and translated in the Heritage the same writers that were previously in Judaica: Max Brod, Arnold Zweig, Sholem Aleichem, Yitzchak -Leybush Peretz. The magazine saw its task in picking up the banner of Jewish culture that fell from the hands of the destroyed European Jewry.

Interestingly, the famous story of Zvi Kolitz about the Warsaw ghetto, "Yossi Rakover addresses Gd," was first published in Heredad in Spanish in 1947. And a testament to how little Europe knew about the Latin American Jewish press is the fact that as early as 1993 it was still debated whether this was a historical document from the Warsaw Ghetto, despite the fact that this text was published half a century ago in Buenos Aires as a work of fiction under the name of its real author, who lived at that time in Argentina.

"Crush"

A few years later, in 1949, another project was born - a highbrow philosophical journal in Yiddish. Its editor Solomon Suskovich (Shloyme Shmushkovich) and his team translated Spinoza and Mendelssohn, Freud and Marx, Bergson and Cassirer and many other authors in exactly the opposite direction, as compared to the translations in Judaica and Heritage, in Yiddish. “Probably in those post-war years, Suskovich chose the word crush(on the contrary, out of spite) with the meaning that despite everything that seemed obvious in the light of the reality of the Holocaust, new lights were lit in Jewish and world thought. "

Like Judaica, Davke served the function of translation and legitimization, but in a different way and for a different Jewish audience. By translating great Jewish thinkers into Yiddish, the magazine sought to acquaint its readers with Western philosophy and at the same time demonstrate Yiddish's ability for abstraction and scientific thought - an ability that has been doubted since the Haskalah, calling Yiddish "jargon," the popular language of the uneducated masses.

Suskovich bluntly declared the content eclecticism of his journal, starting from various philosophical systems, but not adhering to any of them. According to him,

in Crush you will find neither rigid, disciplined Germanic thinking nor pragmatic Anglo-Saxon approach. We want the magazine to be not dogmatic, but critical and eclectic, for this is so close to both Jewish and Latin culture.

Obviously, Suskovich saw this as an advantage, not a disadvantage. He further notes that as Jewish philosophy, although it contained original ideas, but mostly throughout its long history absorbed, adapted, "translated" elements of foreign cultures, Yiddish itself is considered Mischsprache, a "mixed language", a combination of elements from others languages ​​that make up a hybrid and therefore exciting new system.

Suskovich, self-taught, was known among his followers as "modest." He was born in Russia in 1906, was orphaned at the age of 9, by the age of 13 he was already working as a melamed, and at 18 he went to Buenos Aires, where he became a peddler. In 1930 he began writing literary criticism, and in 1944 he compiled an Anthology of Jewish Literature in Argentina in Spanish.

"Crush" came out every three months, but there were big breaks - due to financial difficulties. Most of the original articles, some of which were signed by the pseudonym Estrin, belonged to Suskovich himself. A total of 83 issues were published, the last one in 1982. It was a unique attempt to combine periodicals, philosophy and Yiddish.

"Raíces" ("Roots"): access to a large society

As a Jewish publication for Argentine readers, Raíces was, to some extent, the antipode of Crush. He began publishing after the Six Day War, in 1968, and tried to be the Jewish mouthpiece for the entire country. The first editorial promised to build on “our Jewish identity,” but at the same time “reflect national, continental and world events” rather than “being locked in a spiritual ghetto”: “We want to be heard as Jews, but we do not want to hear only Jewish voices or talk only about Jewish topics. We do not refuse - on the contrary, we insist on it on the condition that no one tries to take away the most precious thing we have: our identity. "

The magazine - large format, in the style of Time magazine, 102 pages plus a 32-page supplement - was published monthly and featured works by the best writers in Argentina and around the world, including non-Jewish writers on non-Jewish topics. The permanent headings were: "Country", "Continent", "Peace and People", "Contemporary Jewish Problems", "Roots of the Roots", "Israel and the Middle East", "Science in the XXI Century", "Art, Literature and entertainment "," Psychology "and" Humor ". The first issue came out with a circulation of 10 thousand copies, the magazine was sold all over the country, completely different people, including priests and housewives, read it in the subway, and it ended up in neighboring countries. The editorial office received many letters from readers, and little by little Roots turned into a “mass Jewish magazine” - something that had never happened before. The influence of time - the culture of the late 1960s and the Jewish euphoria after the Six Day War - also played a big role here, and a great role was also played by the fact that a number of prominent people, including non-Jews, among them - Jorge Luis Borges, Marc Chagall, Jose Luis Romero, played an important role. , Yehuda Amichai, Martin Buber, Nahum Goldman, Elie Wiesel, Moshe Dayan, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, David Ben-Gurion, Marcel Marceau, Amos Oz, Luis Aragon.

"Roots" lasted five years - the initial impulse dried up, the number of authors and readers declined, economic difficulties and a deterioration in the political climate began in Argentina, which led to the return of Juan Perón, and in 1973 the last, 45th, issue of the magazine was published. But to this day, 40 years later, Raíces is remembered as a great success for the Jewish community in creating a media that appeals to all Argentines.

Nueva Presencia (New Presence): A Struggle for Justice

In his article Der neue Midrasch (New Midrasch), Ernst Simon writes about the use of rhetorical strategies in Jewish writing in 1930s Germany:

The persecuted minority still believed, as in the midrash era, in their own language to be used in situations of confrontation with the outside world. Enemies will only occasionally understand this language, and fellow tribesmen and co-religionists will always understand it.<…>And so a special style was formed, a special intimate and conspiratorial language that unites the speaker and the listener.

The legacy of the "Marrano" writing is clearly visible also in the periodicals of Jewish resistance during the military dictatorship in Argentina (1976-1983). This regime of terror and repression is responsible for the “disappearance” of 120 independent or opposition journalists (among the 30,000 “missing” citizens). In such conditions, few journalists could deceive the censors or dare to report information about the real situation in the country. One such successful example is the underground news agency ANCLA, founded by writer Rodolfo Walsh for the Montoneros (Partisans) guerrilla movement. Another is Humor Registrado, a formally satirical magazine that has become virtually the only massive opposition publication. Two other examples are the publications of Argentine ethnic communities: the Buenos Aires Herald, published in English and therefore limited to an English-speaking audience, and the Jewish newspaper Nueva Presencia. This newspaper began to be published by the Jewish community, and over time became the mouthpiece of several human rights organizations.

The New Presence began to appear in the summer of 1977 as a weekly supplement to the Yiddish-language newspaper Di Press, and then for ten years - until 1987 - it was published as an independent weekly newspaper. For the first time in Argentina, a purely Jewish publication found itself in the political vanguard and gained recognition in various sectors of society - despite its unpresentable appearance and regardless of how they had to do their job. The newspaper owes its success primarily to the fact that in the terrible days of the dictatorship it took an irreconcilable position. Nueva Presencia became a guide to the world of Midrash for a significant part of Argentine society, it taught how to read between the lines and how to apply the biblical call “Truth, Seek Truth” (Deut. 16:20) to the current situation.

At the beginning of its activity, Nueva Presencia tried to say what no one else dared to say. Since it was too dangerous to do it openly, it was necessary to learn how to speak without speaking. Consonant Hebrew writing teaches everyone to be interpreters: each reader, reading, reconstructs the text. Accordingly, the "New Presence" began to rely on readers' thinking, using the following method: the newspaper told about the events in the Jewish community, hinting at the events taking place in the country. It was expected that although the censors would suspect something was wrong, they would not find a legitimate reason to close the newspaper.

How was this "Marranian" language arranged? The tense atmosphere of those years - extreme political pressure, murders in the streets, censorship - did not encourage the use of complex semiotic theories. The most common type of such encrypted message was substitution. For example, the newspaper published "Documentary Chronicle of the Jewish Question in Argentina" - an overview of anti-Semitic manifestations in recent years, supported by the police and the army. Referring to the Nuremberg trials, the author also calls the problem of "fascism, which continues to live and operate in different parts of the planet." Another example: on the 200th anniversary of the birth of General José de San Martín, hero of the War of Independence of the Latin American Colonies, the greatest figure in the historical iconography of Argentina, a newspaper editorial was titled: “San Martin, General of Clean Wars”. And although the text consisted exclusively of praise addressed to the general, the reader could easily see in it a criticism of the "dirty war" waged by the junta. Jewish memorable dates and holidays served as a means for conveying all kinds of hints. For example, Passover, the holiday of the Exodus from Egypt, was presented as a "holiday of freedom." The story of the uprising in the Warsaw ghetto was a story about the struggle "for our and your freedom" - it was one of the slogans put forward by the leader of the uprising Mordechai Anilevich. The history of Hanukkah was presented as the history of the guerrilla war against the aggressors, and Purim as the struggle of the ancient Jews "against prejudices and oppressors." Each holiday or memorable date turned into an occasion for reflection on the current situation, a lesson with a practical conclusion for the modern political struggle.

Substitution was also implied when translating or republishing materials from the foreign press, in which they talked about one thing (for example, “Censorship in Judaism”), but the readers saw another (censorship in Argentina). The theme of censorship is present in a number of cartoons reprinted from foreign newspapers. For example, a person writes incomprehensible words on the wall and explains: "Actually, I meant 'Long live freedom!', But I encrypted it to avoid danger." Other cartoons, such as a huge pencil with the words "Censorship" or "symbolic duel" between Woody Allen and Joseph McCarthy, are quite explicit. Page of the magazine "Roots". Rubric "Peace and People" Cover of the magazine "El colono cooperador" for the 175th anniversary of the birth of Heinrich Heine. December 1972 "It is forbidden to think out loud." Caricature reprinted from The Book of Gila Complaints by Miguel Guila (Madrid, 1975).

Another strategy was to transmit someone else's speech. Firstly, the newspaper was not responsible for someone else's opinion, and secondly, there was an opportunity to “pull out” dangerous judgments during the dialogue. For example, an interview with the famous Argentine actress Inda Ledesma, dedicated to the world of theater, was titled with the following quote from her remarks: "We live in the moment of an eclipse, but the sun will shine again." The conservative rabbi Marshall Meyer spoke more directly in an interview on various currents within Judaism. The headline read: "Judaism Cannot Survive in a Society Where Human Rights Are Not Respected," and the subtitle: "As a rabbi, I see no justification for the silence of European rabbis in the 1930s." There is a clear parallel between National Socialism and the Argentine junta. Protected by his American passport, Meyer could afford to call murderers murderers.

This fight was not safe. There must have been threatening phone calls, attempts to intimidate, anti-Semitic graffiti on the walls in front of the editorial office. Two bombs were planted at the printing house where the newspaper was printed. The main factor that saved the lives of journalists was apparently the ignorance of the authorities, who believed that Nueva Presencia was part of a worldwide Jewish network that had great influence in the United States. The editor-in-chief of the newspaper knew about this paranoid vision of the situation and tried to turn it to his advantage. In particular, he published articles about the American Jewish Committee and tried to create the impression that the newspaper had strong ties with this organization. The junta did not seem to want to make enemies in the United States, especially among the Jewish lobby, which it thought was particularly powerful. For the same reasons, the life of the journalist Jacobo Timerman was saved, who was kidnapped and tortured by the military, but eventually released. The newspaper played a major role in the struggle for the release of Timerman. In a newspaper cartoon, he is shown next to Dreyfus, who pats him on the shoulder. At a distance of 80 years and 10 thousand kilometers, injustice and absurdity are still with us. But the echoes of "J'accuse" are also heard.

An old anecdote says that György Lukács, when, after the invasion of Hungary in 1956 by Soviet troops, he was arrested and asked if he had a weapon with him, reached into his pocket and pulled out a pen. In the spirit of Berne and Heine and the best representatives of the Jewish tradition, armed with the word and ready to defend with the word against all modern pharaohs, a handful of journalists raised their hands in a far corner of the planet to fight one of the bloodiest dictatorships of the twentieth century. Translators, co-operatives, prophets, fighters, marginal thinkers, marranas, dreyfusars, dreamers: the history of Jewish periodicals in Argentina deserves to be told.

Translated from English by Galina Zelenina

The perestroika Jewish press initiated the publication in Riga in 1989 of the VEK magazine (bulletin of Jewish culture). In April of the same year, Tancred Golenpolsky began publishing a new Jewish media outlet, which is still published under the name International Jewish Newspaper.

By the end of the 1980s, Jewish "samizdat" became widespread, ceasing to be dangerous for readers or distributors. In addition, the Jewish theme sounded good in national publications. Literature of deferred demand was openly and massively distributed, but of a journalistic nature - due to the high effect of reliability ("Steep Route", "Heavy Sand", etc.). In response to demand, in the post-Soviet era, there was a certain analogue of the post-revolutionary succession of the Jewish press, but in terms of the number of publications it is much smaller, poorer in content, and no longer in Yiddish, but with Russian-language content under Hebrew brands in Russian - "Boker" ("Morning ")," Gesher "(" Bridge ").

The Russian-language Jewish press has recently been revived in our country. The Jewish newspaper, published in Birobidzhan in two languages, was not available outside the region. The first issue of VESK, the Bulletin of Jewish Soviet Culture, was published in the spring of 1990, at a time when the Soviet regime was already in agony, which is probably why the newspaper could have appeared. And yet "VESK" became an event ... This (or such) newspaper, the Jews of the USSR, who missed their native word, waited for many decades, albeit in Russian: for the majority it has long become native. At first, the newspaper had many readers. To buy it, people had to stand in line. A lot of Jewish bands, mostly pop bands, toured the country. There was also the Chamber Jewish Musical Theater (KEMT), which enjoyed success not only in the USSR, but also abroad. By that time, the Jewish (more precisely Russian-Jewish) theater "Shalom" had shown its first performances. "The Enchanted Tailor" charmed the audience. And in February 1990, the Cultural Center named after Solomon Mikhoels was noisily and solemnly opened. And the newspaper "VESK", published shortly after this event, appeared on time and, as they say, in the same place. It might seem like a hint of a renaissance of Jewish culture, destroyed during the struggle against cosmopolitanism ...

Then Jewish newspapers in Russian began to appear in Kiev, Minsk, Tashkent, and in the capitals of the Baltic republics (it seems that in Tallinn the Russian-language newspaper was published earlier than VESK). The "matured" "VESK" first became the "Jewish Newspaper", and after the collapse of the USSR it was transformed into the "International Jewish Newspaper", "MEG", which was considered the "main" publication in the Russian language. There were also attempts in Moscow to publish Jewish newspapers, but they were not crowned with success.

There were attempts to revive the pre-revolutionary Jewish publications, such as the Samara newspaper "Tarbut". Some publications came out in huge print runs with a good representative typology of the Jewish media of this period. For example, the International Jewish Newspaper had a circulation of up to 30 thousand copies. This was accompanied by an artificial revival of Jewish communities with the establishment of their publications. Foreign organizations actively penetrated into the country, the restoration of synagogues ended with their seizure by the Hasidim of one of seven similar directions and, accordingly, the distribution of their printed publications of a purely religious orientation. At the same time, several Zionist publications were financed for distribution in Russia. But only a few of them were filled with copyrighted materials of their own journalists, such as, for example, the Gesher-Most magazine, the publication of the MCIREC "Tkhiya" that no one had done before). At the same time, MEG supported the preservation of Jewish life in Russia, being practically independent of funding sources in its editorial policy, which reminds it of Moskovskaya Pravda.

At the peak of the second succession of the Jewish press, for just one academic year, the Faculty of Journalism operated as part of the Hebrew University in Moscow, whose students were fortunate enough to get all the best that the teachers of the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow State University, researchers of Jewish life in the Soviet Union and its bright representatives could give Chaim Bader, Abram Kletskin and others (1, p. 2)

After the second succession, the Jewish press began to decline and a recession began. The regularity of periodicals was falling. Their publishers found other employment for themselves. For example, the editor-in-chief of the Jewish newspaper Tarbut, revived in Samara, Alexander Brod, moved to Moscow and organized the Moscow Bureau for Human Rights as part of the American organization Union of Councils for Soviet Jews.

Russian-language Jewish press

Separate media outlets, experiencing difficulties both with funding and with the audience, with increasing independence from it, have existed since at least 1993 against the background of the disappearance of Jewish communities. This, for example, happened in Birobidzhan, although there is still some stratum of the Jewish population, in contrast to Ukraine or Poland. Contrary to expectations, MEG and other similar publications remained outside the media holdings. Isolated editions have survived, with great difficulties they are slightly financed little by little from various and incompatible sources - the local budgets of the Russian regions, the Joint, Lishkat-a-kesher, Sokhnut (EAR) and partially - Jewish financiers through the regional branches of the RJC, while they existed.

Against the background of the twofold flourishing of the Jewish press in Russia, the phenomenon of the Israeli, in a broad sense - the diaspora Russian-speaking Jewish press was also noted. Its basis is the penetration into the international market of permanent PR-campaigns of Russian power structures (shadow) and specific newsmakers. For example, Joseph Kobzon financed the "Russian Israeli" for some time. Initially, the mechanism was launched by the consequences of the sensational "plane case" of 1970, which brought Eduard Kuznetsov to the public arena as editor-in-chief of the influential Israeli Russian-language newspaper Vesti.

The diaspora Russian-speaking Jewish press has developed under the significant influence of such teachers of the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow State University as Dietmar Rosenthal and Yasen Zasursky as a result of the emigration of their former students, who idolize their teachers the more the further from their real homeland. (2, p. 12)

By the beginning of 2000, the publication of several more Jewish publications had ceased, including the journals "Russian Jew" and "Diagnosis". In fact, only one newspaper remained of the International Jewish Newspaper publishing group, and even that one temporarily ceased to exist in 2002. Instead of "MEG", its editor-in-chief Nikolai Propirny began to publish the RJC organ "Jewish News", which soon ceased to exist. Then "MEG" began to appear again with a different editorial staff. During this time, one new newspaper appeared - the weekly "Jewish Word", published with the support of the second chief rabbi of Russia, Berl-Lazar.

The printed Jewish press has largely been replaced by online Russian-language publications such as

· "Jewish World. Newspaper of Russian-speaking America" ​​(http://www.isratop.com/newsexport.asp? Url = http: //www.evreimir.com/),

Internet magazine of the Jewish Internet club (http://www.ijc.ru/istoki91.html),

· "Migdal on line" (http://www.migdal.ru/),

· "Global Jewish on-line center" (http://www.jewish.ru), etc.

Among the print media not only of the Jewish press, but in general among the Russian media, one of the first was reflected in the Runet segment of the MEG network (http://www.jig.ru/).

The typological structure of the Jewish press of the studied period of the second succession is characterized by diversity and relative completeness. The following are selected as typical examples: weekly newspaper "MEG", Moscow; newspaper in the form of an on-going occasional "Tarbut", Samara; bulletin of the national public association "Home News"; almanac of materials on national themes "Year after Year"; magazine (Journal) "Russian Jew"; magazine (Magazin) "Bulletin of the Jewish Agency in Russia".

The basis of typological diversity is the creative competition of their publishers (editors-in-chief), who are well known to each other in the narrow environment of the national public arena. Some of the publishers and journalists of the Jewish press were familiar from a past life, they are well aware of the conditions of the ghetto. These are people with high social activity, and for most of them journalistic work is not only not the only one, but it has not become the main one.

Thus, the typological completeness of the Jewish press system at the peak of its development reflects, on a reduced scale, the same processes in the general civil press. It should be noted that in this the Jewish press differs markedly from other versions of the diaspora press in Russia, which has never acquired its typological completeness. (1, p. 2)

Subject-thematic classification of the Jewish press reflects the preferred and highlighted topics of the materials. These are primarily politics, religion and traditions, communal life, humor, the activities of the Jewish Agency for Russia (formerly Sokhnut), events in Israel and the Middle East, the problem of anti-Semitism, forms of its expression and causes, as well as a "bookshelf" with a traditional description book novelties.

The functional orientation of the Jewish press reflects the ratio of the requests of a specific national audience and the real coverage of a characteristic thematic set. The functional orientation, in turn, determines the genre structure of the Jewish national press in Russia - the use of specific genres and the ratio of materials of the corresponding genres.

The "renaissance" period of the Jewish press of the nineties in terms of the number of titles is two orders of magnitude behind the post-revolutionary period when the ideological press in Yiddish flourished. It coincided with the transitional period of the Russian press and began in the late 1980s with attempts to publish several specifically Jewish media outlets such as Vestnik Jewish Culture in the form of a magazine in Riga and in the form of a newspaper in Moscow. The Moscow edition comes out almost to this day, renamed into "Jewish Newspaper", then "International Jewish Newspaper" (with supplements "Rodnik" and "Nadezhda"). The first attempts were rather timid and not too professional, but with a huge circulation of 30-50 thousand copies and more. Then, over the course of several years, numerous Jewish publications appeared and closed: Yom Sheni, Moscow-Jerusalem, Gesher-Most, Utro-Boker, and numerous regional ones. Information and propaganda publications of international Jewish organizations, for example, Sokhnut (currently the Jewish Agency for Russia) or the Israel Foundation for Culture and Education in the Diaspora, announcing their activities in the USSR and then in the Russian Federation strictly in agreement with the authorities, and used as a conductor of information by those organizations whose charitable activities are not advertised here, for example, Joint, Orth, Kleimes Conference, B'nai-Brit and others. Phenomenologically, the development phase of the Jewish press in the nineties resembles that of the tens and twenties, but much poorer in terms of the number and independence of publications. (4.p.6 p.2 ____________________________________)

Currently, most of the Jewish post-perestroika publications are closed for the same reasons that led to a reduction in the range of public publications that excluded lobbying for corporate or personal interests and did not participate in election campaigns. The surviving Jewish media use the same methods that keep former Soviet media outlets like Komsomolskaya Pravda and AiF afloat. For example, "MEG" has turned into a group of editions of the united editorial board, which nominally also included the magazine "Di Yiddishe Gas" - the magazines "Russian Jew" and "Diagnosis", the bulletin "Jewish Moscow", the Web-page "Jewish Russia". Religious publications, for example, "Lechaim", "Aleph" or "Fathers and Sons", do not stop and practically do not experience difficulties.

Thus, the reason for the exclusive position of the Jewish press is its integration into civil, general political and national problems and processes associated with the widespread "playing the Jewish card" against the background of diffuse total xenophobia associated with one of the three forms of anti-Semitism, the most widespread at that.

PERIODIC PRINT

With the beginning of the so-called perestroika (the second half of the 1980s), legal Jewish periodicals appeared. The first such publications were the organs of Jewish cultural societies: "VEK" ("Bulletin of Jewish Culture", Riga, since 1989); "VESK" ("Bulletin of Jewish Soviet Culture", publication of the Association of Figures and Friends of Jewish Soviet Culture, Moscow, since April 1989; since 1990 - "Jewish newspaper"); “Vestnik LOEK” (organ of the Leningrad Society of Jewish Culture, since 1989); Renaissance (Newsletter of the Kiev City Society of Jewish Culture, since 1990); "Jerusalem de Lita" (in Yiddish, organ of the Society for the Culture of the Jews of Lithuania, Vilnius, since 1989; also published in Russian under the title "Lithuanian Jerusalem"); "Mizrakh" ("East", organ of the Tashkent Jewish Cultural Center, since 1990); Our Voice (Undzer Kol; in Russian and Yiddish, newspaper of the Society of Jewish Culture of the Republic of Moldova, Chisinau, since 1990); " NS ha-Shahar "(" Dawn ", organ of the Jewish Culture Society within the Estonian Cultural Foundation, Tallinn, since 1988); "Einikite" (Bulletin of the Jewish Cultural and Educational Association named after Sholem Aleichem, Kiev, since 1990) and others.

Along with them, such publications as "Bulletin of the Society for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Israel" (M., Jewish Information Center, since 1989), "Voskhod" ("Zrikha"), the newspaper of the Leningrad Society of Jewish Culture (since 1990 .); "Jewish Yearbook" (M., 1986, 1987, 1988); "Jewish Literary-Artistic and Cultural-Informational Almanac" (Bobruisk, 1989); Maccabi (Journal of the Jewish Society of Aesthetics and Physical Culture, Vilnius, 1990); The Menorah (published by the Union of Jewish Religious Communities, since 1990) and the eponymous newsletter of the Chisinau Jewish Religious Community (since 1989), as well as a number of newsletters - on issues of repatriation and Jewish culture (M., since 1987. ); Union of Hebrew Teachers in the USSR (in Russian and Hebrew; M., since 1988); Chernivtsi Jewish Social and Cultural Foundation (Chernivtsi, since 1988); Lvov Union of Hebrew Teachers in the USSR "Ariel" (1989) and many others.

The tremendous changes in the countries of the Soviet Union are affecting the number and character of Jewish periodicals. The massive departure of Jews from these countries leads to a fluidity of the editorial staff of Jewish periodicals and calls into question the future of these numerous newspapers, bulletins, magazines and almanacs, especially those oriented towards aliyah (for example, "Kol Zion" - the organ of the Zionist organization Irgun Tsioni, M. , since 1989).

Poland

For the Jewish periodicals in Poland in the period between the third partition of Poland (1795) and the First World War, see the section Periodicals in Russia. The true flourishing of the Jewish press in Poland began after Poland gained independence in 1918. over 200 periodicals were published here, many of which existed until the German occupation of Poland in 1939. The periodicals were diverse both in the form of presentation of the material and in the socio-political views expressed in it. Most of the publications were published in Yiddish, some in Polish, and several in Hebrew. There were about 20 daily newspapers in Yiddish alone. Of these, three were published in Vilno: Der tog (since 1920, in 1918–20 - Lett Nayes), Abend Courier (since 1924) , two in Bialystok - Dos Naye Lebn (since 1919) and Bialostoker Telegraph, three in Lodz - Lodger Togblat (since 1908; editor I. Unger, circulation about twenty thousand copies), Morgnblat "(From 1912) and" Nye folksblat "(from 1923). A newspaper was published in Lublin. "Lyubliner togblat" (since 1918), in Grodno - "Grodno moment" (since 1924). The Zionist newspaper Novy Dziennik (since 1918) and the Bund magazine Valka (1924–27) were published in Krakow. In Lvov, one newspaper was published in Yiddish - "Morgn" (1926) and one in Polish - "Khvylya" (since 1919). In Warsaw, two competing Yiddish newspapers dominated. NS aynt "(since 1908) and" Moment "(see above), which had the largest circulation. Newspapers in Yiddish were published in Warsaw: Yiddish Wort (since 1917), Warshaver Express (since 1926), Naye Folkszeitung (since 1926) and Unzer Express (since 1927). The newspaper Nash Pshegland (from 1923, Zionist) was published in Polish. There were also published a literary weekly in Yiddish Literary Bleter (since 1924, Warsaw), Cinema - Theater - Radio (since 1926), Weltspiel (since 1927), PEN Club Nays ( since 1928, Vilno), the scientific monthly "Land un lebn" (since 1927), the popular scientific publication "Doctor" (Warsaw, since 1929). The humorous weekly Blufer was also published in Warsaw (since 1926). During the German occupation of Poland, all Jewish periodicals were closed. The first Jewish newspaper in post-war Poland, Naye Lebn (in Yiddish), was published in Lodz in April 1945; from March 1947 it became daily (organ of the Central Committee of Polish Jews, which united all Jewish political parties). Then, however, there appeared the publications associated with the parties "Arbeter Zeitung" (Poorimalei Zion), "Ihud" (Liberal Zionists), "Folkshtime" (PPR - Polish Workers' Party, see Communism), "Glos Younger" ( NS Hashomer NS a-tsamikir) and Yiddish Font (organ of the Jewish Writers' Association). After the liquidation of Jewish political parties (November 1949), Jewish periodicals were mostly closed (see Poland). The Jewish Cultural Society continued to publish the literary monthly Yiddishe Font, an organ of Jewish writers who themselves elected the editorial board of the magazine. The only remaining Jewish newspaper was Folkshtime (published four times a week); the official organ of the ruling party was printed in Yiddish, and the policy of the newspaper was largely controlled by the Jewish Cultural Society. By 1968, the Folkshtime newspaper had become a weekly; she published a strip in Polish every two weeks. The publication of Yiddish Font was discontinued at the 25th issue.

Hungary

In 1846–47. In the city of Papa, several issues of the Hungarian-language quarterly Magyar Synagogue were published. In 1848 in Pest (in 1872 it entered Budapest) a weekly newspaper in German, Ungarishe Israelite, appeared. L. Loew published the magazine Ben Hanania in German (1844–58, Leipzig; 1858–67, Szeged; quarterly, since 1861 - weekly), which expressed the ideas of emancipation. In the 1860s. several Jewish newspapers were published, which soon closed. Only in 1869 in Pest was founded a Yiddish newspaper "Peshter Yiddish Zeitung" (published five times a week), in 1887 it turned into a weekly in German "Allgemeine Yudishe Zeitung" (printed in Hebrew type), which existed until 1919. The Hungarian-language weekly Edjenlösög (1881-1938) was published daily during the blood libel in Tisaeslar, publishing reports on the progress of the trial. The monthly Magyar Judeo Semle (in Hungarian, 1884-1948), an organ of the Budapest Rabbinical Seminary, also took part in the struggle for emancipation and religious equality. At the same time, its editorial staff published the Hebrew magazine “ NS ha-Tsofe le-Hohmat Yisrael "(originally" NS ha-tsofe le-eretz NS agar "; 1911–15) on the problems of the science of Jewry. The first Zionist organ in Hungary was the weekly Ungarlendishe Yudishe Zeitung (in German, 1908–14). The Hungarian-language Zionist magazine Zhido Neplap was published in 1903–1905; revived in 1908 under the name "Zhido Elet". In 1909, the Hungarian Zionist Federation founded its own organ, Gido Semle, which was banned in 1938. The poet I. Patai (1882–1953) published a literary monthly, Mult esh Yove (1912–39) of the Zionist trend.

Between the two world wars, about 12 weekly and monthly Jewish publications were published in Hungary. In 1938, the Jewish periodical press in Hungary was practically destroyed. Totalitarian regimes - fascist and then communist - allowed the publication of only one Jewish magazine. Since 1945, the Central Committee of Hungarian Jews has been publishing the Uy Elet magazine (circulation 10 thousand copies).

Czechoslovakia

Jewish journalists worked for newspapers of all political parties in Czechoslovakia. Even before the creation of the Czechoslovak state, Jewish periodicals were characterized by controversy between supporters of Zionism and the organized movement of supporters of assimilation, which created the first Jewish newspaper in the Czech language, Ceskozhidovskie Listsy (1894). After merging with another newspaper of a similar trend (1907), it was published as a weekly under the name "Rose" until 1939. The first Zionist organ was the weekly for youth "Jung Yuda" (in German, founded by F. Lebenhart, 1899-1938). Another weekly, Selbstver (1907–39, editor from 1918 F. Weltsch, later his assistant H. Lichtwitz / Uri Naor /) became one of the leading Zionist periodicals in Europe; from the 1920s he came out with an app for women (editor Hannah Steiner). Another Zionist weekly is Yudische Volkstimme (editor M. Hickl, later H. Gold; Brno, 1901–39).

The first Zionist organ in the Czech language, Zhidovski Lists about the Czechs, Morava and Selesko, began to appear in 1913, but its publication ceased during the First World War. In 1918 it was replaced by the weekly Zhidovskie Spravy (editors E. Waldstein, F. Friedman, G. Fleischman, Z. Landes and V. Fischl / Avigdor Dagan; 1912–2006 /). In Slovakia and Transcarpathia, the Jewish periodicals included Orthodox religious bodies in Hungarian and Yiddish. In Slovakia, the Zionist weekly in German Yudishe Volkszeitung (with an appendix in Slovak; editor O. Neumann) and the organ of Mizrahi's party Yudishes Familienblatt were published; in Transcarpathia - the Zionist weekly "Yudishe Shtimme", the revisionist weekly "Zhido neplap" (in Hungarian; since 1920). The magazine "Yiddishe Zeitung" (publisher - Rabbi Mukacheva) had the largest distribution. There were also the historical journals Zeitshrift für di Geschichte der Juden and Böhmen und Mehren (editor H. Gold); Bnei-Brit organ "Bnei-Brit Blatter" (editor F. Tyberger); the revisionist body Medina Hebrew - Judenshtat (editor O. K. Rabinovich; 1934–39); the newspaper Pookayalei Zion "Der noye veg" (editor K. Baum) and the sports monthly " NS a-Gibbor NS a-Maccabi ". Jewish youth and student movements also published magazines of varying frequency in different languages ​​of the country. In the late 1930s. emigrants from Germany published the magazine "Yudische Review" in Prague. In 1945–48. Attempts were made to revive the Jewish periodicals in Czechoslovakia, but after the communists came to power (1948), the Jewish periodicals were represented only by the body of the Jewish community in Prague "Bulletin of the Jewish community in Praze" (editor R. Itis). The almanac "Zhidovska Rochenka" was published under the same edition. In 1964–82. The State Jewish Museum in Prague published the Judaica Bochemie yearbook.

Romania

Jewish periodicals in Romania originated in the middle of the 19th century. The first Jewish weeklies were published in the city of Yassy. Most of them came out for only a few months ("Korot NS a-‘ittim ”, in Yiddish, 1855, 1859, 1860 and 1867; “Gazeta Romyne Evryaske”, in Romanian and Yiddish, 1859; Timpul, in Romanian and Hebrew, 1872; "Vocha aperatorului", 1872, in 1873 came out every two weeks). The weekly Israelitul Romyn (editor Y. Barash, 1815–63) was published in Bucharest partly in French (1857). The eponymous magazine was published in 1868 by the French Jew J. Levy, who arrived in Romania in the vain hope of influencing its government in the interests of local Jews. US Consul General in Romania BF Peixotto (Peixotto, 1834–90) published a newspaper in German and Romanian that opposed anti-Semitism and advocated emigration to the United States. The newspaper L'eco Danubien was published in Galati (in Romanian and French, editor S. Carmellin, 1865). The weekly Timpul - Di Zeit (editor N. Popper; Bucharest, 1859) was published in Romanian and Yiddish; in Yiddish - the scientific almanac "Et Ledaber" (editor N. Popper; Bucharest, 1854–56). The journal Revista Israelite (1874) was published in Yassy. Historian and publicist M. Schwarzfeld (1857–1943) founded the weekly Egalitatya (Bucharest, 1890–1940), which became the most important Jewish periodical in Romania. In the same period, the weekly " NS a-Iorabets "(1876-1920), expressing the ideas of Hovevei Zion, and the almanac" Likht "(1914); both publications were published in Yiddish. In 1906, H. Kari (1869–1943) founded the weekly Kurierul Israelite, which became the official organ of the Union of Romanian Jews; its publication lasted until 1941.

After World War I, most Jewish newspapers in Romania joined the Zionist movement. The weeklies Mantuira (founded in 1922 by the Zionist leader A.L. Zissu / 1888-1956 /; after a long hiatus again came out in 1945-49) and Reanashterya Noastre (founded in 1928 by the Zionist publicist S. Stern). The weekly Viaza Evryascu (1944–45) expressed the ideas of socialist Zionism. A number of literary and political magazines were also published. The monthly Hasmonaya (founded in 1915) was the official organ of the Zionist Students' Association. The Adam magazine (1929–39; founded by I. Ludo) published works of Jewish writers in Romanian.

Except for a brief period in 1877, there were no daily Jewish newspapers in Romania, due to the lack of an autonomous national Jewish life. The information published by Jewish weekly and monthly publications in Yiddish, German and Romanian was limited to Jewish life in Romania and beyond. Political coverage was dictated by specific Jewish interests; all Jewish periodicals were somewhat polemical in nature. The publication of the Zionist weekly Renashtera Noastre resumed in 1944; Another five Jewish periodicals, which began to be published in 1945, adhered to the Zionist orientation. The most authoritative of them was the newspaper Mantuira, whose publication was resumed after Romania joined the anti-Hitler coalition and continued until the liquidation of the legal Zionist movement. The organ of the Jewish Democratic Committee was the newspaper Unirya (1941–53). In the following years, various attempts were made to publish other Jewish newspapers (several in Yiddish and one in Hebrew), but by the end of 1953 all of them had ceased to be published. Since 1956, the journal of the Federation of Jewish Communities of Romania "Revista Kultului Mosaic" has been published (editor - Chief Rabbi of Romania M. Rosen). Along with traditional religious materials, the magazine published articles on the history of Romanian Jewish communities, prominent Jews, Jewish writers, Jewish economic life, news from Israel and the Diaspora, as well as translations of Rabbinic literature and Yiddish literature. The magazine is published, in addition to the Romanian language, in Hebrew and Yiddish.

Lithuania

During the period of independence, twenty Jewish newspapers in Yiddish and Hebrew were published in Lithuania. By 1940, more than ten Jewish newspapers continued to be published, including three daily newspapers (all in Kaunas): Di Yiddish Shtime (from 1919), Idishes Lebn (from 1921) and Nayes (from 1921). See also Vilnius.

Great Britain

Jewish periodicals in English appeared in the first half of the 19th century. The first Jewish periodicals in England were the monthly Hibru Intelligencer (publisher J. Wertheimer, London, 1823) and Hibru Review and Magazine of Rabbinical Literature (editor MJ Raphall, 1834–37). A successful endeavor was J. Franklin's Voice of Jacob, published biweekly since September 1841; two months later, the Juish Chronicle newspaper, which laid the foundations of Jewish journalism in England, began to appear, which still exists today. Competition between these newspapers continued until 1848, when the Juish Chronicle became the only and most widely read Jewish newspaper in England. Among other publications were the Hebru Observer (1853), which merged with the Juish Chronicle in 1854, the Juish Sabbat Journal (1855) and the Hebru National (1867). A publicly available Jewish newspaper, the weekly Juish Record, was published from 1868 to 1872. The newspaper "Juish World", founded in 1873, reached by the end of the century a significant circulation for those times - two thousand copies; it was acquired by the Juish Chronicle in 1931 and merged with the latter in 1934. At the end of the century, many cheap mass Jewish newspapers (the so-called "penny papers") were published: The Juish Times (1876), The Juish Standard (1888–91), and others. In the provinces, Juish Topics (Cardiff, 1886), Juish Record (Manchester, 1887) and South Wales Review (Wales, 1904) were published. Hebrew weekly " NS a-Yeh NS udi ”was published in London in 1897–1913. (editor I. Suwalski). After the First World War, the magazines Juish Wumen (1925–26), Juish Family (1927), Juish Graphic (1926–28), and Juish Weekly (1932–36) appeared. Founded in the late 1920s. The independent weeklies Juish Eco (editor E. Golombok) and Juish Gazette (editor G. Waterman) continued to appear in the 1960s. A group of anti-Zionists published the Juish Guardian (editor L. Magnus, 1920–36). Jewish weeklies were published in London, Glasgow, Manchester, Leeds, Newcastle - places of the greatest concentration of the Jewish population in England. The weekly Juish Observer and Middle East Review (founded in 1952 as the successor to the Zionist Review) reached a circulation of 16,000 in 1970.

The Jewish in Eastern Europe magazine (1958–74) and the Insight: Soviet Juz newsletter (editor E. Litvinov), as well as the Soviet Juish Affers magazine (since 1971) were devoted to the problems of Jewishness in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. , successor to Bulletin on Soviet and East European Juisch Affers, 1968–70, editor H. Abramsky).

Yiddish periodicals in Great Britain

Mass emigration of Jews from Eastern Europe to England in the 1880s. created the preconditions for the emergence of periodicals in Yiddish, although the newspapers Londoner Yiddish Daiche Zeitung (1867) and the socialist Londoner Israelite (1878) had already been published here, which, however, did not last long. In the émigré environment that developed in London, Leeds and Manchester, newspapers and weeklies of the socialist trend, Der Arbeter, Arbeter Fraind (1886–91), Di Naye Welt (1900–04), Germinal (anarchist ), Der Veker (anti-anarchist), as well as humorous publications - Pipifax, Der Bluffer, Der Ligner. At the beginning of the 20th century. the newspapers "Advertiser" and "Yidisher Telephone" were founded. In 1907 the Yidisher Journal was founded, which absorbed the Advertiser newspaper and was absorbed in 1914 by the Yidischer Express newspaper (founded in 1895 in Leeds, turned into a London daily newspaper in 1899). Another periodical, Yidisher Togblat, was published from 1901 to 1910, and the daily newspaper Die Zeit, from 1913 to 1950. After World War II, the newspaper Yiddishe Shtime (founded in 1951 g., comes out every two weeks). The Jewish literary magazine Loshn un lebn (founded in 1940) is published in London.

USA

Jewish periodicals in the USA originated initially in the languages ​​of immigrants: in the middle of the 19th century. in German (in connection with immigration from Central Europe, mainly from Germany and Austria-Hungary), in the late 19th century - early 20th century. - to Yiddish in connection with the immigration of Jews from Eastern Europe (Russia, Poland); Jewish immigrants from the Balkan countries founded a press in Hebrew-Spanish. The English language gradually replaced other languages, and the press in it took a dominant position both in terms of the importance of publications and the number of readers. In 1970, in the United States, there were over 130 English-language Jewish newspapers and magazines of various periodicity (51 weekly, 36 monthly, 28 quarterly).

Press in English

The Jewish press in English originated in the 1820s. Such monthly periodicals as Ju (publisher S. Jackson, NY, 1823) and Occident (publisher I. Liser, Philadelphia, 1843), mainly reflected the religious interests of the Jews, fought against the influence of Christian missionaries. The first Jewish weekly in English was Asmonien (ed. R. Lyon, N.Y., 1849–58), "a family journal of commerce, politics, religion, and literature." Asmonien, a privately owned weekly with local, national and foreign news coverage, featuring feature articles, editorial commentary, and fiction, became the prototype for later Jewish periodicals in the United States. A similar type of publication was the weekly Khibru Leader (1856–82), which was modeled after the Jewish magazine Israelite in the United States (publisher M. Wise, Cincinnati, since 1854; since 1874, American Israelite) , which existed longer than other publications. Among the earliest examples of the English-language Jewish press in the United States stand out "Juish Messenger" (N.Y., 1857-1902, founder S.M. Isaacs), as well as "San Francisco clay" (since 1855, founder J. Ekman) ... In 1879, five religious young people began to publish the weekly American Hibru, which has become one of the finest examples of Jewish periodicals.

Many American Jewish magazines initially expressed the views of their publishers. One of the later journals of this kind was Juish Spectator (since 1935, editor T. Weiss-Rosemary). Such, for example, is the Philadelphia weekly "Juish Exponent" (founded in 1887). As the leading non-Jewish American newspapers began to focus more on Jewish affairs, Jewish publications focused more and more on local issues. At this time, the press developed, funded by various Jewish organizations. One of the first such publications was the Menorah newspaper (1886-1907), the organ of Bnei Brit. Its successors were Bnei Brit News, Bnei Brit Magazine (since 1924) and National Juish Munsley (since 1939). The organization NS adassa presents the magazine NS adassa magazine ", American Jewish Congress -" Congress of the Weekly "(since 1934, as a fortnight since 1958). Since 1930, the journal "Rekonstrakshenist" has been published (see Reconstructivism). The ideas of Zionism are reflected in the Midstream magazine (founded in 1955), the ideas of the Zionist labor movement - Juish Frontier (founded in 1934). Commentary (founded in 1945; editor E. Cohen, since 1959 - N. Podgorets), the organ of the American Jewish Committee, was the most influential publication in the United States aimed at the intellectual reader. Since 1952, the organ of the American Jewish Congress "Judaism" has been published. Different trends in Judaism are represented by the journals Conservative Judaism (founded in 1954; see Conservative Judaism), Dimensions in American Judaism (since 1966) and Orthodox Tradition (since 1958) - all quarterly.

Periodicals in Yiddish in the USA

The emergence and development of Yiddish periodicals was due to the wave of immigration to the United States from Eastern Europe in the late 19th century - early 20th century. One of the first long-lived daily newspapers in Yiddish was Yiddishe Togblat (1885–1929; editor K. Sarason), which held conservative social and religious positions. Along with this newspaper in the 1880s. many other short-lived publications in Yiddish arose: Teglikhe Gazeden (New York), Sontag Courier (Chicago), Chicago Vohnblat, Der Menchnfreind, Der Yidisher Progress (Baltimore) and others. The New York daily newspaper Teglikher was popular. NS herald "(1891-1905). The Yiddish socialist press was influential among American Jewish workers. In 1894, after a major strike of garment workers, the daily socialist newspaper Abendblat (1894-1902) appeared; professional interests expressed the New York newspapers "Schneider Farband" (from 1890) and "Kappenmacher Zhurnal" (1903-1907).

In 1897, the moderate wing of the American Socialist Labor Party founded the Yiddish newspaper Forverts. A. Kahan (1860-1951) was its editor-in-chief for almost 50 years (1903-1951). Throughout the century, Forverts was one of the most widely read Yiddish newspapers in America; its circulation in 1951 reached 80 thousand copies, and in 1970 - 44 thousand. Along with journalism, relevant information and essays on Jewish life, the newspaper published stories and novels by Jewish writers: Sh. Asch, I. Rosenfeld (1886-1944), Z. Schneur, A. Reisen, I. Bashevis-Singer and others. J. Sapirstein founded the evening newspaper New Yorker Abendpost (1899-1903), and in 1901 - the newspaper Morgn Zhurnal (both newspapers reflected the views of Orthodox Judaism). Morgn Magazine was a long-lived publication; in 1928 it absorbed the newspaper Yiddishe Togblat, and in 1953 merged with the newspaper Tog (see below). In the 1970s. the circulation of "Tog" was 50 thousand copies.

In the first decade of the 20th century. the Yiddish periodicals in the United States reflected the full spectrum of political and religious views of American Jewry. The total circulation of all newspapers and other publications in Yiddish was 75 thousand. Periodicals in Yiddish existed not only in the largest publishing center in the United States - New York, but also in many other cities of the country where colonies of Jewish immigrants existed. In 1914, the newspaper Day of New York intellectuals and businessmen was founded (Tog; editors I. L. Magnes and M. Weinberg). Jewish writers Sh. Niger, D. Pinsky, A. Glants-Leyles, P. Hirshbein and others took part in the work of the newspaper. As early as 1916, the newspaper had a circulation of over 80 thousand copies. In 1915-16. the total circulation of daily newspapers in Yiddish reached 600,000 copies. The newspaper Var NS ayt ”(1905–1919; editor L. Miller).

The Yiddish press in Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Chicago and other large cities in America (mainly weeklies) was not much inferior to the New York press; it discussed the same problems along with regional ones. The Chicago Daily Courier (1887–1944), Cleveland Juish World (1908–43) and others were published for many years.

The longest-running Yiddish daily newspaper in the United States was Morning Fry NS ait ”, founded in 1922 as an organ of the Jewish section of the US Communist Party. M. Olgin was its editor for a long time (in 1925–28 - together with M. Epstein). The level of journalism in the newspaper was high. Many Jewish writers of the United States have appeared on its pages: NS... Leivik, M. L. Galpern, D. Ignatov and others. The newspaper has consistently supported the policy of the Soviet Union; it took an independent position only in the late 1950s, especially with the arrival of P. Novik (1891-?) to the post of editor-in-chief. In 1970 the newspaper was published five times a week, with a circulation of 8,000. It continued to be published until 1988. Among the monthly Yiddish publications, Tsukunft stood out (founded in 1892 in New York as an organ of the Socialist Workers' Party, editor A. Lesin; and since 1940 as an organ of the Central Jewish Cultural Organization); socialist magazine "Veker" (since 1921), "Undzer veg" (since 1925), publication by Po'alei Zion, "Yiddishe Kultur" (since 1938, editor N. Maisel) - organ of Yidisher kultur-farband (IKUF), Folk un velt (since 1952, editor J. Glatshtein) - the organ of the World Jewish Congress, and many others.

In recent decades, Yiddish in the Jewish press in the United States has been increasingly supplanted by the English language, although literary almanacs and quarterly publications continue to be published: Unzer Shtime, Oifsnay, Svive, Vogshol, Yiddish Kultur Inyonim, Zamlungen , "Zayn" and others. The Congress for Jewish Culture publishes the Yiddish almanac (editors M. Ravich, J. Pat, Z. Diamant); IVO and IKUF also publish almanacs in Yiddish: “IVO-bleter” and “IKUF-almanach”.

Periodic press in the USA in Hebrew

Periodic printing in Hebrew originated in the United States at the end of the 19th century. The first periodical was the weekly of one of the founders of the Jewish press in the United States, Ts. NS... Bernstein (1846-1907) " NS a-tsofe ba-aretz NS ha-hadasha ”(1871–76). A year earlier, Ts. NS... Bernstein also founded the first Yiddish newspaper The Post. An attempt to publish a daily newspaper in Hebrew was made in 1909 by M. Kh. Goldman (1863–1918), who in 1894 founded a magazine in Hebrew “ NS a-More "(did not last long), and later published (first together with N. M. Shaikevits, then independently) the magazine" NS a-Leom "(1901-1902); the newspaper he founded " NS Ha-Yom "soon suffered a financial collapse (90 issues were published). An attempt to resume its publication was also unsuccessful. At the end of the 19th century. - the beginning of the 20th century. several other different editions were published in Hebrew, mainly in New York: “ NS a-Leummi "(1888–89; weekly, organ Hovevei Zion)," NS a-‘Ivry ”(1892-1902; an orthodox weekly); scientific publication - quarterly "Otsar NS a-hochma ve- NS a-madda "(1894) and the independent magazine" NS a-Emet "(N.-J., 1894–95). Newspaper " NS a-Doar "(N.Y., 1921–22, daily; 1922–70, weekly; editor from 1925 M. Ribalov, pseudonym M. Shoshani, 1895–1953) was not political, but rather literary and artistic edition: for half a century, many American writers and essayists who wrote in Hebrew were published here. Ribalov also published a literary collection "Sefer NS a-shana l-iye NS Wander America ”(1931–49; several volumes were published). In the 1970s. the circulation of the edition reached five thousand copies.

A popular literary weekly was also “ NS a-Toren "(1916–25, from 1921 a monthly, editor R. Brainin). Since 1939, the literary monthly "Bizzaron" has been published in New York. For a short time, the monthly literary magazine Miklat was published (N.Y., 1919–21).

Canada

The Juish Times (originally a weekly), the first Jewish newspaper in Canada, came out in 1897; from 1909 - The Canadien Juish Times; in 1915 it merged with the weekly Canadien Juish Chronicle (founded 1914). This latter, in turn, merged with the Canadien Juish Review and was published as the Canadien Juish Chronicle Review since 1966 in Toronto and Montreal; since 1970 - monthly. The daily Hebru Journal (founded in 1911) is published in Toronto with a circulation of about 20,000 in Yiddish and English. A daily newspaper in Yiddish has been published in Montreal under the name Canader Odler since 1907 (English name is Juish Daily Eagle; circulation 16,000). The weeklies Juish Post (Winnipeg, since 1924), Juish Western Bulletin (Vancouver, 1930), and Western Juish News (Winnipeg, since 1926) are also published. The weeklies Isrielight Press (Winnipeg, since 1910) and Vohnblat (Toronto, since 1940) and the monthly Worth - View (Worth since 1940, View - since 1958) .) are published in Yiddish and English. Since 1955, two organizations, the United Welfare Fund and the Canadien Juish Congress, have published the Yiddish Nayes magazine, and the Zionist organization of Canada has published the Canadien Zionist magazine (since 1934). Since 1954, the French monthly Bulletin du Circle Juif has been published in Montreal; Ariel magazine (also in Montreal) is published in three languages: English, Yiddish and Hebrew.

Australia and New Zealand

The first Jewish newspaper in Australia, The Voice of Jacob, was founded in Sydney in 1842. Until the end of the 19th century. several more editions were published, the most stable of which were the Ostreilien Juish Herald (from 1879), the Ostreilien Juish Times (from 1893) and the Hibru Standard (from 1894). In the 20th century. in connection with the growth of the Jewish population of Australia (in 1938-60 - from 27 thousand to 67 thousand), the Jewish press acquired a more massive character and became sharper in socio-political terms. The Ostreilian Juish News weekly (founded in 1933, Melbourne, editor I. Oderberg) was published in English and Yiddish. Its circulation in 1967 together with the subsidiary publication "Sydney Juish News" reached 20 thousand copies. The oldest Jewish newspaper, Ostreilien Juish Herald (since 1935, editor R. Havin) published an addendum in Yiddish, Ostreilien Juish Post (since 1944; editor G. Sheik). The publisher of these newspapers, D. Lederman, sometimes took an anti-Israel stance, which led to a sharp decline in the number of subscribers; in 1968 the newspapers ceased to exist. In the late 1940s - early 1950s. In Australia, several monthly editions were published in English, mainly bodies of Jewish organizations: Bnei Brit Bulletin (Sydney, since 1952), Great Synagogues Congregation Journal (Sydney, since 1944), NS ha-Shofar "(Auckland, since 1959)," Maccabian "(organ of the" Maccabi "sports society, 1952) and others. The Bund published in Australia the Yiddish magazine Unzer Gedank (Melbourne, since 1949), the Jewish Historical Society - the Ostreilien Juish Historical Sosayeti Journal (twice a year, since 1938). The literary magazine Bridge (quarterly) and the Yiddish magazine Der Landsman were also published. The New Zealand Jewish Newspaper was founded in 1931 as the Juish Times; from 1944 published in Wellington under the title New Zealand Juish Chronicle (editor W. Hirsch).

Netherlands

The first Jewish newspapers were published in the 17th century. in Amsterdam (see above). In 1797–98. the split of the old Ashkenazi community in Amsterdam and the formation of the new community "Adat Yeshurun" led to the publication of the polemic weekly "Discourse fun dinaye ke NS ile ”(in Yiddish, 24 issues were published, November 1797 - March 1798). Competing edition - "Discourse fun di alte ke NS Ile ”- also did not exist for long (only 13 issues were published).

Until the 1850s. there was practically no regular Jewish periodical in the Netherlands, with the exception of a few yearbooks and almanacs. The first Jewish weekly was The Nederlands Israelite News-En Adventiblad (1849-50), founded. AM Chumaseiro (1813–83), who in 1855 became chief rabbi of Curacao. The continuation of this edition was the weekly "Israelitish vekblad". The previous edition published the new weekly Vekblad Israelite (1855–84), which was followed by the weekly Newsblad Thief Israelite (1884–94). "Vekblad the thief of Israel" defended reformism in Judaism; his rival was the orthodox weekly Nyeiv Israelitish Vekblad (NIV), founded in 1865 by the bibliographer M. Rust (1821–90). Its circulation at the end of the 19th century. reached three thousand by 1914 increased to 13 thousand and by 1935 - to 15 thousand (the Jewish population of the Netherlands in 1935 was about 120 thousand people). The publication of the weekly was interrupted during the Nazi occupation, but resumed in 1945; his political position, formerly anti-Zionist, was replaced by a pro-Israel one. By 1970, it remained the only Jewish weekly in the Netherlands; its circulation reached 4.5 thousand (the Jewish population of the Netherlands in 1970 was about 20 thousand people).

At the same time, the weeklies Wekblad the Thief Israelite Heizgezinnen (1870-1940; publisher Hagens, Rotterdam) and Centralblad Thief Israelite in Nederland (1885-1940; publisher van Kreveld, Amsterdam) published detailed accounts and paid little attention to the life of Jews in the Netherlands. attention to the Jewry of other countries. The position of the weekly De Joodse Wachter (founded in 1905; later published twice a month), which became the official organ of the Zionist Federation of the Netherlands, was different; in the 1920s. the editorial staff included P. Bernstein. In 1967–69. "De Jodse Watchman" was published only once every two or three weeks in the form of a short supplement to the weekly "N. I. V. " Subsequently, he became independent again; now comes out once a month. The Zionist orientation was held by the monthly Tikvat Israel (1917–40), an organ of the Zionist Youth Federation; “Ba-derekh” (1925–38; in 1938–40 - “Herutenu”); women's monthly " NS a-Ishsha "(1929-40) and Keren's organ NS a-Yesod "Het Beloft Land" (1922–40; later "Palestine"). The journal De Vreydagavond (1924–32) was devoted to cultural issues.

During the German occupation (from October 1940), most Jewish publications were banned, except for the weekly Yode vekblad (August 1940 - September 1943; from April 1941 - the organ of Yodse rad / Jewish Council /), which published official orders of the authorities ... After the liberation of the southern part of the Netherlands in the autumn of 1944, the surviving Jews (mainly from Amsterdam) began to publish the newspaper Le-‘ezrat NS a-‘am”.

After the war, the monthly periodicals were published “ NS Ha-Binyan ”(since 1947), organ of the Sephardic community of Amsterdam; " NS a-Ke NS illa ”(since 1955), the organ of the Ashkenazi community and“ Levend Yode Gelof ”(since 1955) - the organ of the liberal Jewish congregation. The scientific collection "Studio Rosentaliana" (since 1966), dedicated to the history and culture of Jewry in the Netherlands, was published by the "Rosentaliana" library (see Amsterdam).

Periodicals in Hebrew-Spanish

The first Jewish newspaper was printed in Hebrew-Spanish (see above), but before the beginning of the 19th century. newspapers in this language were no longer published. The main reason for the belated development of periodicals in the Hebrew-Spanish language was the social and cultural backwardness of the countries in which most of the speakers of this language lived (the Balkans, the Middle East). The situation gradually changed throughout the 19th century, and in 1882, out of 103 Jewish newspapers listed by I. Singer (see above), six were published in Hebrew-Spanish.

Newspapers in Hebrew-Spanish, using the so-called Rashi script, were published in Jerusalem, Izmir (Smyrna), Istanbul, Thessaloniki, Belgrade, Paris, Cairo and Vienna. In 1846–47. in Izmir, the magazine "La Puerta del Oriente" (in Hebrew - under the name "Sharabayarei Mizrah", editor R. Uziel) was published, containing general information, trade news and literary articles. The first periodical in Hebrew-Spanish, printed in Latin script, was published twice a month in the Romanian city of Turnu Severin (1885–89, editor E. M. Crespin). The literary, political and financial newspaper El Tempo was published in Istanbul (1871–1930, the first editor was I. Carmona, the last one was the writer D. Fresco; see Hebrew-Spanish). D. Fresco was also the publisher of the literary and scientific journal "El Sol" (published twice a month, Istanbul, 1879–81?) And the illustrated magazine "El amigo de la familia" (Istanbul, 1889). From 1845 until the outbreak of World War II, 296 periodicals were published in Hebrew-Spanish, mainly in the Balkans and the Middle East. The center of periodicals in this language was the city of Thessaloniki.

Some magazines were published partly in Hebrew-Spanish, partly in other languages. The official organ of the Turkish authorities in Thessaloniki was the newspaper Thessaloniki (editor - Rabbi Ya. Uziel; 1869–70) in Hebrew-Spanish, Turkish, Greek and Bulgarian (published in Bulgarian in Sofia). The magazine "Jeridie and Lesan" (published in Istanbul in 1899 in Hebrew-Spanish and Turkish) was devoted to the popularization of the Turkish language among Jews.

Jewish socialists in the Balkans considered it necessary to preserve and promote the Hebrew-Spanish language as the language of the Sephardic masses. Socialist ideas were expressed by the newspaper Avante (it began to be published in 1911 in Thessaloniki once every two weeks under the name La Solidaridad Uvradera; during the Balkan Wars of 1912-13 it became a daily newspaper). In 1923 the newspaper became the spokesman for the ideas of the Jewish communists (editor J. Ventura). Its publication ceased in 1935. An opponent of Avante was the satirical weekly El Asno, which existed for only three months (1923). The magazine "La Epoca" (editor B.S. NS Alevi) came out in 1875-1912. first as a weekly, then twice a week, and finally daily. Under the influence of the Zionist movement in the Balkans, newspapers were founded in two languages ​​- Hebrew and Hebrew-Spanish. In Bulgaria, under the auspices of the community and the rabbinate, there were newspapers El Eko Hudaiko, La Luz; Of the Zionist publications, the most famous is the El Hudio magazine (editor D. Elnekave; Galata, then Varna and Sofia, 1909–31).

In 1888 in Edirne (Adrianople) the magazine “Yosef NS a-darokoikat "or" El progresso "(editor A. Dakon), devoted mainly to the history of the Jews of Turkey; in the same place - the nationally oriented literary monthly "Carmi Shelley" (editor D. Mitrani, 1881). The Zionist magazine El Avenir (editor D. Florentin, 1897-1918) was published in Hebrew-Spanish. The organ of the Zionist Federation of Greece, the weekly La Esperanza (1916–20), was published in Thessaloniki. The Zionist weekly Le Maidian Israel - Pro Israel (founded in Thessaloniki, 1917; in 1923-29, editor A. Recanati) published articles in Hebrew-Spanish and French.

A number of satirical magazines were published in Hebrew-Spanish: El Kirbatj (Thessaloniki, early 20th century), El Nuevo Kirbatj (1918–23), El Burlon (Istanbul), La Gata (Thessaloniki, p. 1923).

In the United States, periodicals in the Hebrew-Spanish language appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. with the arrival of a second wave of Sephardi immigrants, mainly from the Balkan countries. In 1911-25. the daily newspaper La Aguila and the weekly La America were published (editor M. Gadol). In 1926, an illustrated monthly "El Lucero" appeared (editors A. Levy and M. Sulam). The weekly "La Vara" was published under their own editorship. Nissim and Alfred Mizrahi published the weekly El Progresso (later La bos del Pueblo, 1919–20 - La Epoca de New York). By 1948, there were practically no periodicals in the Hebrew-Spanish language in the United States.

Before the creation of the state in Eretz Yisrael, there was only one newspaper in Hebrew-Spanish "Hawazzelet - Mevaseret Jerusalem" (editor E. Benveniste, 1870, 25 issues were published). By the end of the 1960s. there are almost no such publications in the world, with the exception of two Israeli weeklies (El Tiempo and La Verdad) and one in Turkey (only partially in Hebrew-Spanish).

France

Before the Great French Revolution, there was practically no Jewish press in France. Several editions appeared after 1789, but they did not exist for long, and only at the beginning of 1840 the monthly Arshive Israelite de France (founded by the Hebraist S. Caen, 1796-1862), which defended the idea of ​​reforms, began to appear. In 1844, in opposition to this publication, a conservative body appeared, the monthly journal of J. Blok "Univer Israelit". For about a hundred years, both of these publications reflected different aspects of Jewish life in France; "Arshive" existed until 1935, and "Univer" as a weekly was published until 1940. In total, from 1789 to 1940, 374 editions were published in France: 38 of them - until 1881, most of the editions ( 203) appeared after 1923. Of the total number of publications, 134 were published in French, 180 in Yiddish, and nine in Hebrew; many of these publications were influential. A significant part of periodicals adhered to the Zionist orientation (56, of which 21 were in Yiddish), 28 (all in Yiddish) were communist. During World War II, there were several underground newspapers in Yiddish and French.

Of the numerous post-war periodicals, the illustrated monthly Arsh stands out (founded in 1957, Paris; editor J. Samuel, later M. Salomon, born in 1927), published by the leading Jewish charity and financial institution Sosiale juif unifi foundation. The magazine sought to reflect the religious, intellectual and artistic life of the resurgent French Jewry. In the post-war years, two Yiddish weeklies were also founded: Zionistishe Shtime (Paris, 1945, editor I. Warshavski), the organ of the General Zionists and Unzer veg (Paris, 1946; editor S. Klinger), the tribune of the Mizrahi party - NS a-Po ' NS a-Mizrahi. Other publications in Yiddish include the monthly Freiland (Paris, founded in 1951, editor J. Shapiro), Fryer Gedank (founded in 1950; editor D. Stetner); The quarterly magazine Pariser Zeitshrift (edited by E. Meyer) publishes novelties of Yiddish literature, published not only in France, but also in other countries, as well as critical articles. Since 1958, the Yiddish yearbook "Almanac" has been published by the Association of Jewish Journalists and Writers of France. The Yiddish daily newspaper Naye Presse, founded by G. Koenig in 1940, is also popular. Two more daily Jewish newspapers were published in Yiddish: Unzer Shtime (the organ of the Bund, founded in 1935) and Unzer Worth (the organ Po'alei Zion, founded in 1945).

Italy

The first Jewish newspaper in Italy was the Rivista Israelite (1845–48; Parma, publisher C. Rovigi). The Jews of Italy took an active part in the national liberation movement of the Italian people (Risorgimento). Thus, in 1848 in Venice C. Levy published the radical newspaper Liberto Italiano. The emancipation in Italy and the development of Jewish journalism in Europe gave impetus to the emergence of such periodicals as Israelita (Livorno, 1866) and Romanziere Israelitico (Pitigliano, 1895). The journal "Educator Israelite", founded in 1853 in Vercelli (in 1874-1922 - "Vessillo Israelite") by rabbis J. Levi (1814-74) and E. Pontremoli (1818-88), published articles of a religious nature and news about the life of Jewish communities abroad. The newspaper Corriere Israelitico, founded in 1862 in Trieste by A. Morpurgo with the participation of the journalist D. Lattes (1876-1965), actively promoted the ideas of Zionism on the eve of the 2nd Zionist Congress (1898). At the beginning of the 20th century. the monthly L'idea Zionist (Modena, 1901–10) and L'Eco Zionist d'Italia (1908) were published. Since 1901, the journal Anthology of Ebraica existed in Livorno for a short time. The magazine Lux was published somewhat longer (1904; editors A. Lattes and A. Toaff; 10 issues were published). Chief Rabbi Sh. NS... Margulies (1858–1922) founded the journal Revista Israelica (Florence, 1904–15), in which prominent scholars published their works: W. Cassuto, Ts. NS... Hayes and others, and the weekly Settimana Israelitica (Florence, 1910–15), which merged in 1916 with the Corriere Israelitico newspaper; this is how the magazine "Israel" (editor K. A. Viterbo, 1889-1974) and its supplements - "Israel dei ragazzi" (1919-39) and "Rassenya mensile d'Israel" (from 1925) arose. The Zionist leader L. Carpi (1887–1964) published the revisionist organ L'idea Zionistika (since 1928). Since 1945, the bulletin of the Jewish community of Milan "Bollettino della communita israelitica di Milano" (editor R. Elia) has been published. Since 1952, the monthly of the Jewish community of Rome "Shalom" has been published, since 1953 - the monthly of the Federation of Jewish Youth " NS ha-Tikva ". The publication of the Jewish National Fund "Karnenu" (since 1948) and the pedagogical monthly " NS units NS a-hinnuh ".

Latin American countries

The greatest flourishing of the Jewish periodicals in Latin America reached in Argentina(first in Yiddish, then in Spanish), where already at the end of the 19th century. the first Jewish immigrants arrived. In March 1898, in Buenos Aires, M. NS a-ko NS Yen Sinai founded the Der Widerkol newspaper (only three issues were published). Due to the lack of a Hebrew typographic font, the newspaper was printed in a lithographic way, which made it very difficult to publish. In the same year, two more weeklies were published, one of them - "Der Yidisher Phonograph" by F. Sh. NS Alevi also did not last long. Only the weekly Di Folkshtime (founded by A. Vermont) existed until 1914, when daily newspapers in Yiddish began to appear more or less regularly. Until 1914, magazines, weeklies and other periodicals of various ideological currents, mostly radical ones, were published, some of them were edited by immigrants who arrived in Argentina after the defeat of the Russian revolution of 1905. As a rule, these publications did not exist for long. The most important of them were "Derzionist" (editor I. Sh. Lyakhovetsky, 1899-1900); Dos Yiddishe Lebn (editor M. Polak, 1906), a newspaper of the Zionist-socialist trend; anarchist newspaper Lebn un fry NS ayt ”(editors P. Shprinberg, A. Edelstein, 1908); Zionist newspaper Di Yiddish NS ofenung ”(editor Y. Yoselevich, 1908–17); the organ of Pokayalei Zion "Broit un era" (editor L. Khazanovich, 1909–10); Bund organ "Avangard" (editor P. Wald, 1908–20).

The emergence of the daily press in Yiddish was facilitated by the outbreak of the First World War, which cut off Argentina from the rest of the world, and immigrants from Eastern Europe from their relatives and friends. The two daily newspapers that began to appear at this time, Di Yiddishe Zeitung (1914–73) and Di Presse (founded in 1918, still being published), expressed opposing political views. The first (founder J. Sh. Lyakhovetsky, editors L. Mass, I. Mendelssohn until 1929; then acquired by M. Joiner) adhered to the pro-Zionist line. The second (the founder P. Katz, O. Bumazhny) was close to the views of the left wing of the Po'local Zion and was in solidarity with the communist movement. Despite the differences in the ideological and political positions of the newspapers that addressed representatives of different social strata of society, in general, the Jewish periodicals played an important role in the social and cultural life of the Jews of Argentina. In the 1930s – 1940s, when the Jewish population of Argentina exceeded 400 thousand people, another daily Jewish newspaper, Morgn Zeitung, was published (editor A. Spivak, 1936–40). The three daily Jewish newspapers of an informative and literary nature (with special Sunday and holiday supplements) published in Buenos Aires were not inferior to the Jewish newspapers in Warsaw and New York.

There were also many different weeklies and monthly publications - from organs of various ideological trends (including the Zionist and communist ones) to humorous and philosophical journals. Representatives of the younger generation, who did not know Yiddish, created already in the first decade of the 20th century. periodicals in Spanish. The first of these were the weeklies Juventud (1911–17) and Vida Nuestra (editors S. Reznik and L. Kibrik, 1917–23). The Sephardic community was addressed by the monthly "Israel" (editor Sh. NS Alevi, 1917–80?). The Jewish weekly in Spanish "Mundo Israelita" (founded by L. Kibrik in 1923) is published to this day in large circulation. They were distinguished by a high level scientific work on Judaism, published in the monthly "Khudaika" (editor Sh. Reznik, 1933–46). In the 1940s and 1950s. two more prestigious magazines were published: “Davar” (editor B. Verbitsky, 1946–47?) and “Commentario” (editor M. Egupskiy, 1953–57?). The younger generation, cut off from Jewish traditions, strove for a synthesis of universal Jewish values ​​and secular Argentine culture. In this spirit, an attempt was made in 1957 to create a Jewish daily newspaper in Spanish. Despite the support of the majority of Jewish authors writing in Spanish, this newspaper, Amaneser (editor L. Shalman), existed for no more than a year (1957–58). At present, the most widespread Jewish periodical, along with Mundo Israelita, is the weekly (originally published once every two weeks) La Luz (founded by D. Alankave in 1931).

Initially, only a small group of Jewish intellectuals supported Hebrew periodicals. Publications in Hebrew had to overcome serious difficulties, both financial in nature and associated with a very limited number of readers. Despite this, Buenos Aires published a monthly in Hebrew “ NS a-bima NS a-‘Hebrew” (editor I. L. Gorelik, then T. Olesker, 1921-30). Attempts to publish magazines " NS e-Halutz "(1922)," NS a-‘Ogen ”(1932) and“ Atidenou ”(1926) were not successful; only the monthly Darom (first editor I. Goldstein), the organ of the Hebrew Language Union in Argentina, managed to survive for many years (1938–90).

Daily newspaper " NS Ha-Tsofe ”(founded in 1937) remains the organ of the religious Zionist parties; newspapers " NS a-Modia "," NS a-Kol ”and“ Shemokiyarim ”express the views of the adherents of the orthodox currents in Judaism.

The oldest Israeli newspaper NS a-Po ' NS a-tsatovikir "after the merger of the movement of the same name with the party of Tnu-ikah le-ahdut NS a-‘plant and formation of the Mapai party became the central organ of the latter (1930). The editors of the newspaper were I. A NS aronovich (until 1922), I. Laufban (until 1948) and I. Ko NS en (1948–70). With the formation of the Israel Party of Labor, the newspaper became its weekly (1968–70). In 1930–32. the Mapai Party published the literary and public magazine "Akhdut NS a-‘avoda ”(editors Sh. Z. Shazar and Kh. Arlozorov).

During the period of the British Mandate, there were many underground publications. Back in the 1920s. the communist movement published underground newspapers in Hebrew, Yiddish and Arabic. The newspaper of the communist party "Kol NS a-‘‘am” began to be published legally in 1947. In 1970 it changed from daily to weekly. A. Karlibach (1908–56) in 1939 founded the first evening newspaper in Israel, the Iedianot Aharonot, and in 1948, another evening newspaper, Maukoriv.

The massive aliyah from Germany after the Nazis came to power led to the emergence of newspapers in light Hebrew with vocalization. In 1940 the first such newspaper appeared “ NS ege ”(editor D. Sadan), it ceased to be published in 1946, but was revived in 1951 under the name“ Omer ”(editors D. Pines and C. Rotem) as a supplement to the newspaper“ Davar ”. Later, several more newspapers (usually weeklies) with vouchers were published, including the Shapolocar La Mathil.

State of Israel

In the first 20 years of the existence of the State of Israel, the number of daily newspapers did not change significantly, but in 1968–71. decreased from 15 to 11 (" NS ha-Aretz "," Davar "," NS a-Tsofe "," Al NS a-mishmar "," Shelocaliyarim "," NS a-Modia "," Omer ", two so-called evening newspapers -" Iedi-d'Or Akharonot "and" Maukikariv ", the sports newspaper" Hadshot NS a-sport ”and the economic journal“ Yom yom ”). In 1984, a new newspaper, Khadashot, was founded, intended for a mass reader (its publication was discontinued in 1993). Mass aliyah has led to a significant increase in the number of periodicals in different languages ​​(Yiddish, Arabic, Bulgarian, English, French, Polish, Hungarian, Romanian and German). As their readers master Hebrew, the future of these editions becomes problematic. For the periodicals in Russian, see below.

By the early 1980s. there were 27 daily newspapers in Israel, about half of which were in Hebrew. The total circulation on weekdays was 650 thousand, on Fridays and on the eve of holidays - 750 thousand copies. At the same time, 250 thousand each were accounted for by the evening newspapers "Iedianokot Akharonot" and "Maulokariv". Circulation of the newspaper NS ha-Aretz "- 60 thousand," Davar "- 40 thousand copies. The supplements to these newspapers, which were published on Fridays, were popular: in addition to the weekly news review, they published a variety of articles on sports, fashion, sociology, politics and other issues. In addition to the main daily newspapers, more than 60 weeklies, more than 170 monthly magazines and 400 other periodicals were published in Israel. Among them there are about 25 medical publications, 60 - devoted to economic problems, about 25 - devoted to agriculture and the life of kibbutzim.

In Israel, numerous publications of different frequency (from weekly to yearbooks) are published, devoted to various aspects of society: culture, literature, science, military affairs, etc. They are published by political parties, government agencies, the Israel Defense Forces, NS and individual trade unions, cities, associations of agricultural settlements, trade associations, scientific and technical institutes, sports organizations, teachers' associations. A large number of entertainment, satirical magazines, children's newspapers and magazines, publications devoted to cinema, chess, sports, economics and Judaism are also published.

Periodicals in Israel are informative and quickly respond to readers' requests. The rise of aliyah from the Soviet Union and other countries contributed to the rise in the number of periodicals by the late 1980s. In 1985, 911 periodicals were published in the country, of which 612 were in Hebrew (67% of the total); in comparison with 1969, the number of periodicals has almost doubled.

Many specialized magazines and bulletins are published, as well as literary magazines publishing poetry, prose, essays by Israeli poets and prose writers, translations: Moznaim (organ of the Israel Writers' Union), Keshet (published in 1958–76), Molad "(Since 1948)," Akhshav "(since 1957)," NS a-Umma "(since 1962)," Mabbuah "(since 1963)," Siman kriah "," Prose "," Itton-77 "(see Hebrew new literature).

Russian-language periodicals in Israel

One of the first periodicals in Russian after the establishment of the State of Israel was the publication of a community of immigrants from China - “Bulletin of the Yiggood Yots'ei Sin” (published from 1954 to the present). In 1959–63. published a monthly magazine dedicated to Israel and world Jewry, "Herald of Israel" (editor-in-chief A. Eizer, 1895-1974). Under his own editorship in 1963–67. a two-month social literary magazine "Shalom" was published. The development of periodicals in the Russian language is due to the mass aliyah from the Soviet Union and is directly dependent on its size and composition. Since 1968 the newspaper "Our Country" (weekly) has been published. In 1971–74. the newspaper "Tribuna" was published. The decline of aliyah from the Soviet Union since the late 1970s. led to the closure of this newspaper. Mass aliyah of the late 1980s - early 1990s contributed to the increase in the number of periodicals in Russian. In 1991, two daily newspapers in Russian were published in Israel - Nasha Strana and Novosti Nedeli (since 1989). The Sputnik newspaper (once daily) was published twice a week.

Major Israeli newspapers serve as the base for several periodicals in Russian: for example, the daily newspaper Vesti is associated with the newspaper Iediokaniyot Akharonot. Russian-language newspapers publish on Thursdays or Fridays annexes: "Our country" - "Links" and "Friday"; "Time" - "Kaleidoscope"; "Weekly News" - "The Seventh Day", "Home and Work"; "Vesti" - "Windows".

There are two weekly magazines in Russian - Krug (since 1977, in 1974–77 - Club), Alef (since 1981), as well as a weekly newspaper for women, New Panorama ( since 1989). The Jewish Agency published in 1980-85. the non-periodic magazine "Uzy", and since 1982 - the monthly "thin" magazine "Panorama of Israel". Also, religious magazines "Direction" and "Renaissance" (since 1973) are published. The reformists publish the Rodnik magazine (once every two months). The magazine "Mirror" - a digest of literature in Russian - has been published since 1984. In 1972–79. the literary-social magazine "Zion" was published (in 1980–81 the magazine was not published; one issue was published in 1982). The magazine "Twenty Two" (since 1978) is oriented towards the intellectual reader. The Jerusalem Literary Club has been publishing the Inhabited Island magazine since 1990. The literary and public magazine "Time and We" has been published in Israel since 1975; from 1981, its publication was moved to New York (N.Y.-Jer.-Paris).

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