It does not apply to socially motivational qualities. Personnel motivation as a social basis of management. The compensation package includes

IN modern conditions it turns out to be completely inadequate to orient labor incentives only to meeting the needs for food, housing, and clothing. These needs, at a sufficiently high level of their satisfaction, lose their primary importance for the employee, fade into the background, becoming something self-evident. The social subsystem of the organization begins to play a special role, which includes a set of intergroup and interpersonal relations that develop in connection with work.

Areas of social motivation (management business career employee, professional education, interpersonal communication, non-material incentives to work), aimed at achieving organizational goals, ensure the strengthening of the corporate spirit, which has a positive effect on overall results labor.

Topic 11. Systems of participation in motivational management

An important role in enhancing the interest of workers in the labor process is played by participation systems (participation in the management of an organization, participation in property, capital, participation in profits). Additional remuneration allows for the greatest individualization of payment, taking into account a huge number of factors, including those directly dependent on the competence and activities of the employee himself.

Participatory systems are one of the most important motivational mechanisms and are implemented at different organizational levels.

In the structure of managerial competencies, delegation and execution management are the leading ones.

IN different countries In the world, there are various systems of participation in property, capital. Participation in capital is a form of long-term remuneration of employees, closely linking his vital interests with the interests of the company.

Participation in profits and incomes is used by entrepreneurs as a means of contributing to the preservation of social peace within the organization and as a factor in increasing the organization's interest in its economic success.

Topic 12. Collective contractual relations
and their role in motivational management

The issues of employee participation in decision-making are very relevant. Social partnership, interaction and coordination of the activities of the management structures of the organization related to the development and implementation of measures labor motivation, with plenipotentiaries labor collective and trade unions are especially important.

To reconcile the interests of the manager and the executor, it is necessary to effectively use the regulatory collective bargaining system. Collective agreements are of great importance in the implementation of the main directions of material motivation of personnel.

Topic 13. The role of organizational culture
in the motivational activities of personnel

Field theories study the stage of the stimulus-goal motivational mechanism, determining how the environment and organizational culture of the organization ("field") stimulate the work of an employee and determine the goals that he sets for himself.

Modern models of economic behavior are based not on an unambiguous logical choice based on the principle of maximum benefit or maximum satisfaction of a need, but on the study of inner peace employee. Consumer behavior is not determined by the choice between things, but the choice between the intentions to purchase them. Therefore, the theories belonging to the group of field theories are becoming more and more relevant.

The cultural field of the organization - part social space society, located within the organization, which is the program of the labor activity of its personnel, as well as the sphere of transformation and development human resources organizations based on common ideas and perceptions. The role of organizational culture in the formation of motives for the work of workers is great. The stages of a positive model for the development of an employee's attitude to the organization and its culture are: reliability, loyalty and commitment to the organization.

Topic 14. Motivation in various fields of activity

Formation issues professional interests, different profiles of aggregate remuneration for different categories of employees and motivation professional choice very important. It is necessary to have an idea of the reasons for inadequate professional choice, intangible (non-financial) incentives in various fields of activity in order to develop modern models of personnel motivation.

Topic 15. Overseas experience stimulating labor
and staff motivation

Great importance in personnel management abroad is attached to the development of incentive and labor motivation systems.

Remuneration systems are developed taking into account the national characteristics of the development of countries (in Japan - depending on the length of service in the organization and the qualifications of the employee; in the USA - according to the results of activities; in England, France, individualization of remuneration is practiced based on the assessment of merit, etc.) ...

Germany, France, England, USA, Japan are characterized by governmental support and the system of legislative regulation of the activities of organizations to attract personnel to participate in share capital and distribution of profits.

Application of flexible systems of social payments and benefits, material incentives innovation activities are an important component of labor incentive systems abroad.

Appendix 2

Full version of tests

1. Motivation labor activity- This:

Encouraging the labor activity of workers and developing a responsible attitude to work;

Encouraging employees to improve their qualifications to achieve high work results;

The creation of such conditions governing labor Relations when the employee has a need to work selflessly;

Developing a certain attitude towards work among employees, which allows them to achieve organizational goals.

2. The motive is:

Desire to receive a reward;

Desire to work better and get job satisfaction;

Internal motivation of a person to a certain behavior to meet his needs;

External incentive to work.

A set of motivation tools;

Choice management;

The needs of the individual;

Identifying the reasons for the behavior of the individual.

4. The degree of relevance of a particular need for an employee is determined:

By the power of motive;

The degree of motive;

The importance of the incentive;

Hierarchy of needs.

5. A person with high motivation for achievement will prefer in his activities:

Group work;

Solving important tasks;

Control over other people;

Participation in management.

6. Reward is:

- everything that a person considers valuable for himself;

Salaries, bonuses, social benefits;

Job satisfaction;

Participation in decision making.

7. Bonus is:

The type of remuneration paid for the achievement of certain performance results;

The form of remuneration, the essence of which is to determine the system of personnel participation in profits;

Social benefits and employee benefits paid by the organization;

Compensation allowances.

8. Incentives for labor are:

Encouraging the best employees in the team;

All forms material incentives workers;

External motivation, an element of the work situation that affects human behavior;

Surcharges and surcharges used in the organization.

9. Surcharges and allowances in organizations are:

Compensatory and stimulating effects;

Cash and in kind;

Collective and individual;

Overall impact.

10. Paternalism is:

The need for communication;

Personnel remuneration policy and practice, taking into account the personal contribution of each;

The policy and practice of "fatherly concern" management of subordinates, fostering the feeling that they are members of the same family;

- element of the organization's personnel policy.

11. The social package includes:

Social payments and benefits, and social programs designed for employees and their families;

Medical insurance and food payments;

Payments aimed at securing highly qualified personnel at the enterprise;

- payment for employee training.

12. The social cafeteria system involves:

A certain set of social benefits and services for each employee;

The choice by the employee, within certain limits, of the set of social benefits and services that is currently more relevant for him;

A set of all social benefits and services of the organization from which the employee can choose;

Payment of social expenses of employees.

13. Need is:

Conscious need for certain material, cultural benefits, social and spiritual values;

Requirements for the organization that arise in the course of work;

The internal state of an individual when he needs a reward for the results of his activity;

Desire to achieve any results of activity.

14. Awards are:

Remuneration paid in addition to wages;

The economic method of stimulating labor;

Remuneration paid in addition to labor remuneration for results exceeding the norm;

Cash incentives to work.

15. Compensation is:

Payments in cash and in kind for work in special conditions;

Cash payments established in order to reimburse employees for the costs associated with the performance of their labor functions;

Cash payments aimed at reimbursement of costs to employees associated with the performance of additional labor functions;

Material incentives for workers' labor efforts.

16. Self-motivation is:

Desire to do a better job;

- the formation of motives for better performance of work without external control, as well as the desire to achieve a result;

A sense of duty, responsibility, an internal attitude towards high-quality productive work;

Conscious desire to achieve faster results.

17. The compensation package includes:

Salary, allowances, additional payments;

Salaries, social benefits;

Basic wages (basic wages), incentive payments, social payments and benefits;

Tariff payments, sick leave payments, incentive payments.

18. The motivational core is:

The totality of all motives influencing the behavior of the individual;

The main motive that determines human behavior;

A set of motives associated and conditioned by the semantic motive of activity, which determines human behavior;

The mechanism that determines human behavior.

19 .Labor incentive functions:

Reproductive, regulatory, economic;

Economic, moral, social;

Economic, distributive, social;

Behavioral, economic, regulatory.

20. Direct compensation includes:

Basic salary, all types of bonuses, one-time incentives, incentive bonuses;

Additional payments for jobs with special conditions, payments due to social insurance;

Basic salary, additional payments for work in areas with special climatic conditions;

Salary according to the tariff.

21. Participation systems in enterprises can be implemented in the forms:

Profit sharing, participation in corporate events;

Participation in management, participation in capital, participation in profits;

Participation in management, participation in the development of in-house regulations, participation in capital;

Empowerment.

22. Allowances are:

Compensation or incentive in connection with relatively permanent factors of labor and production, relatively stable characteristics of the qualification level and business qualities;

Payments due to unfavorable working conditions, the special nature of the work performed;

Payouts for professional skill, for the performance of especially important work;

Bonus payments.

Surcharges are

Additional payments for work on weekends and holidays, underage workers due to the reduction of their working hours;

Payments that can compensate for the impact on the employee of variable factors of the organization of labor and production and stimulate high, above-standard achievements in labor;

Additional payments related to work in areas with special climatic conditions;

Cash reward for additional effort expended.

24. Values are:

Ideal ideas of a person about the goals of life, work and means of achieving these goals;

Moral foundations of human behavior;

Moral norms and rules of human behavior in society;

Unwritten laws of behavior.

25. Organizational culture is:

A set of rules according to which the organization conducts its activities;

A set of beliefs, attitudes, norms of behavior and values common to all employees;

The system of material and spiritual values inherent in this corporation;

A set of the organization's moral goals.

26. Valence is:

The degree or measure of attractiveness, value of the reward;

The degree to which the reward is received;

The degree of fairness in receiving the remuneration;

A measure of the impact of incentives on an employee.

27. Indirect compensation is:

Financial payments and non-financial benefits that are not directly related to the volume of products produced or hours worked;

Ongoing financial payments related to hours worked that have a regular impact on employee behavior;

Payments aimed at stimulating high results;

Payments in excess of the received remuneration.

28. The company faces the problem of reducing staff turnover and staffing, which the company is going to solve with the help of the following payments:

Seniority allowances;

Excellence premiums;

Supplements for night work;

Awards for Invention and Innovation.

29. Incentives perform the following functions: economic, ..., social.

Moral;

Behavioral;

Stabilizing.

30. Intangible incentives are divided into social, ..., moral.

Non-monetary;

Stabilizing;

Creative;

Cultural.

31. For the formation and development ... workers use a whole arsenal of means, among which there is a special technique (reframing) that allows you to see the situation, fact, action from a different angle (reformulating the problem from negative to positive).

Job satisfaction;

Production skills;

Self-motivation;

Motives for work.

32. To attract and retain personnel in the organization in addition to wages and incentive payments are used:

Social package;

Compensation payments;

Awards and gifts;

Seniority allowances.

Each person, without exception, seeks to improve his life in any way convenient for himself, and often what satisfies one person may seem like a mere trifle to another. But what really prompts us to act in this way, and why do we choose this path for ourselves and not another?

The answer to these questions lies in social motivation, which is a person's acquired needs over time. It is about these powerful forces that can control human behavior that we will talk about in our article.

Motivation for social action

We strive to dominate in society, with the help of power, material wealth, we want to comply with the accepted principles of morality and get the approval of others. These desires give rise to the need to improve their social status, increase the amount of income, prestige, and rewards for work. Any supermarket seller dreams of becoming a director, a nurse in a hospital wants to become a doctor, a soldier - a general, and a subordinate - a manager. Such social motivation of the individual contributes to his self-affirmation, encourages a person to achieve a higher status in society.

The strongest motivation for a person's social actions is obedience to authority, the execution of orders from elders, the observance of the laws of power, even if they are not always favorable for ourselves. So, for example, by order of the director, employees of enterprises release hazardous substances into reservoirs, knowing that this is harmful to the environment.

Another type of socio-psychological is the desire to reach the level of well-known, popular and successful personalities. This is manifested in the imitation of youth idols, copying the model of behavior and style of singers, actors, politicians, etc.

Based on everything, the conclusion suggests itself that the ratio of social motivation and rational behavior human - these are interrelated concepts in which the desire of the individual grows into needs.

The behavior of the individual in each case has its own reasons. What prompts a person to act in this way, and not otherwise, is the motivation of his activity. Revealing the motives of people's activities is an extremely difficult task. Firstly, because complex types of personality activity (for example, labor) are caused by not one, but several factors (needs). Secondly, because motives can be not only conscious, but also unconscious. When discussing social motivation, it should be emphasized that it is based not on innate, but on acquired needs. They are formed as a result of education, training, impact on the individual of other people and groups. Of course, the biological foundations of a person can also be manifested in social motivation. Thus, the desire of any person for social domination has a certain, albeit superficial, similarity with the satisfaction of the innate needs of some animals. Ultimately, however, the enormous influence of social and cultural factors on the motivation of the human person is undeniable. There is a number of experimental data showing the different motivational significance of certain influences for different cultural groups.

Representatives of many psychological schools are interested in social motives primarily because such motives in practice are probably the most powerful forces governing human behavior. It is social motives that prompt us to achieve a certain social status, to wear fashionable clothes and act in such a way as to receive approval from their social group, to comply with the requirements of public morality.

As noted above, people in different social groups, as well as in society as a whole, being interdependent with each other, they perform certain social roles. At the same time, they evaluate the positions (statuses) that they have in different ways. This assessment involves comparing one's own social role with all others. Some members of society are perceived as having approximately equal status, others are higher, some are relatively low. A person, as a member of society, has such a strong social motive as a transition to a higher social stratum. People in society strive to improve their social status, as this gives a higher social prestige and level of income. So, quite often a nurse wants to get a doctor's diploma, a department assistant at a university - to become a professor, an ordinary employee of a firm - a manager. Of course, the strength and nature of the needs underlying the motivation for raising one's social status will be different for different people, for example, for two young men, one of whom grew up in a peasant family in the Ryazan region, and the other is the son of a major Moscow businessman. Each of them will understand differently the increase in their social status, and they will be satisfied with completely different achievements in their life path.

Social motives of people can be either specific (rival) or cooperative (cooperative) in nature. One or another social status is usually acquired through competition or cooperation. According to experimental data (the behavior of monkeys and small children was compared), cooperation is impossible without the corresponding development of speech.

Social motives also include the conformity of the individual, her desire to conform to certain models adopted in a particular group or a given society. Following fashion in clothes, hairstyle, even lifestyle is also an important social motive of human behavior. Not every one of us will agree to being considered "old-fashioned" by others. Young people are especially inclined to imitate their idols, in the role of which they can act as real people - popular actors, singers, politicians, and heroes of films, plays, books.

Among the most important social motives, it is necessary to single out submission to authority. Obedience to the official authorities is an integral characteristic of any society, and its social institutions function precisely because of the corresponding motivation of the majority of people. Usually we recognize the need for legitimate (legitimate) authority and consider ourselves obligated to obey it. This often happens even in cases where the demands of the authorities do not correspond to the beliefs and values of people, contradict them. So, following the order of the director of the enterprise, workers release toxic production wastes into the river. Aides to a politician, guided by his orders, use "dirty technology" to discredit a rival. When such cases become known to the public, the performers usually show a desire to absolve themselves of guilt in whole or at least in part, emphasizing that they only followed orders from above.

The desire of the individual to obey authority is explained, according to Milgram, by the enormous importance of the socialization of obedience. Recall that socialization is called the process during which the individual learns a certain social experience and adapts to his social environment. From early childhood, throughout life, a person is taught to obey authority and rewarded for this behavior. Submission becomes the undisputed operating norm in institutions and social institutions in general: in the military, medical, legal, educational, religious, industrial and other spheres. The successful result of an individual's actions in a variety of circumstances is often a consequence of motivation to obey authority, regardless of whether it is about school grades, health, promotion, service medals, recognition, etc. Thus, in the course of his life a person learns to value submission, even if it is sometimes not very pleasant.

The question of the main social motives of a person is open, and each of the researchers approaches it in his own way. Above, we have already covered the theory of "hierarchy of motives" by Maslow, who singled out needs according to the degree of their priority for the individual. Among the social ones Maslow attributed the needs for belonging and love, for respect and self-respect, for self-actualization. A few years after the appearance of this work, Maslow, the American anthropologist Linton, who studied the characteristics of the culture of various peoples, named three basic needs, which, in his opinion, are the most common and most significant for understanding human behavior:

The need for emotional response from others, which may arise from an addiction relationship in early childhood;

The need for long-term guarantees stemming from the immutable fact that people have the ability to perceive time - both the past and the future. People have a need for "reinsurance" and hope, so they can only live in anticipation of the subsequent reward;

The need for newness in life experience that arises when other needs are met. It stems from boredom and lack of any challenge.

White transformed this idea into a concept of "efficacy." He considers characteristic property human desire for competence in order to control his environment. Denying the instinctive nature of this property, White insists that the motivation for "efficiency" is derived from a purely human need for exploratory activity and a kind of "playfulness", appropriately aimed at achieving competence.

Among the most famous concepts of social motivation, the "theory of three needs", the author of which is McClelland, should be noted. Based empirical research he concluded that the motivation for the behavior of each individual can be generated by the following three basic needs:

The need for achievement (striving for excellence, to achieve a specific goal);

The need for power (the desire to influence others, make them behave appropriately);

The need for affiliation (striving for friendly and close interpersonal relationships).

McClelland notes that every person has all three of these needs, but each individual has them expressed in different degrees. So, a person can have high level needs for achievement, medium - in power and low - in affiliation. Another individual has a completely different combination of these needs. Especially a lot of attention in McClelland's works is paid to the analysis of personality with a predominance of the need for achievement. These people are demanding of themselves, persistent and realistic. For them, achieving a certain result is in itself a goal. They strive specifically for personal achievement, and not for reward for success. At the same time, an achievement-oriented person cannot be classified as a reckless adventurer.).

1. Searching for a social contact

There are many different interpretations of the fact that the individual is looking for a society of his own kind. Moreover, such a contact can also take a variety of forms.<...>... Some authors, for example, McDougall 2, have referred to the herd instinct. Currently, there is a tendency to view social motives as derivatives, due to the secondary reinforcement of certain physiological needs. The individual seeks the company of other individuals, since in this way he can satisfy his need for food. Through the process of generalization, the connection of one individual with another, with the help of which his need was satisfied, is extended to other representatives of the same species.

1 See: Sensory Deprivation // A symposium held at Harvard Medical School. Cambridge,
1961. P. 9.

2 See: McDougall W. An introduction to social psychology. L .; Methuen & Co., 1908;
28 ed. 1948.

July J.[Cognitive and social motivation] 125

This explanation is supported by many data. It is known, for example, that a sheep does not necessarily follow the ram or the herd by virtue of an innate instinct; if a person cares for and feeds a sheep, she becomes attached to this person and is no longer an integral member of a group of her own kind. Ethologists have abundant data on these "triggers" of behavior, as well as on the time when such connections are established (Imprinting).

As far as man is concerned, the fact that the child satisfies his many needs thanks to the adult creates a very special affective relationship between the child and the adult. Nevertheless, the facts suggest that the explanation social trends satisfaction of primary needs is hardly legitimate. It is known that from a certain age, the child seeks not so much the company of adults as companions in the game, who do not help him in satisfying his organic needs. Anderson 1 and others emphasized that in this case it is necessary to look for other factors. After the period when the child plays alone with some objects, there comes a period when he wants to "do something" along with others. He is clearly looking for the company of others in order to jointly implement this or that game plan, the complexity of which increases with age 2.

In addition, the systematic observations of Spitz 3 show that the satisfaction of organic needs is not, apparently, a sufficient condition for the formation of social contacts in the child. Despite the fact that in a hospital, a child receives from adults everything necessary to satisfy his “primary” needs, the absence of a mother negatively affects the child's emotional and social contacts and even his intellectual and physical development. Thus, for the normal development of the child, apparently, a complex network of human relationships is necessary, which is of independent value, (For criticism of Spitz's work, see Pinno's article 4; see also Spitz's answer 5.)

1 See: Anderson H. Social development // Carmichael L. (Ed.) - Manual of child psychology *
1954. P. 1162-1215.

2 See also: Murphy L.B. Social behavior and child personality. N. Y .: Columbia Univ.
Press, 1937.

3 See: Spitz RA. Hospitalism. An inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in
early childhood // Psychoanal. Stud. Child. 1945.1 P. 53-74.

4 See: Pinneau S.R. The infantile disorders of hospialism and anaclitic depression //
Psychol. Bull. 1955.52 P. 429-452.

5 See: Spitz RA. Reply to Dr. Pinneau // Psychol. Bull. 1955.52.P. 453-459.

126 Topic 12. Psychology of motivation

2. Affective meaning of the human face

This value and the special significance of human contacts not related to the satisfaction of physiological needs was even more clearly shown by the study of the child's first affective reactions to a human face. A specific example such an emotional reaction is the child's first social smile (as opposed to gastric smile, described by Gesell) at the age of two months.

Some authors have tried to explain this first affective reaction by the formation of conditioned connections based on the satisfaction of primary needs or physical contact 1. On the contrary, K. Buhler 2, who investigated this problem together with his numerous colleagues, considers social smile to be a specific and primary reaction to a human face. Dennis 3 tried to solve this problem by establishing an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a social smile. To this end, he observed two twins under strictly experimental conditions and was forced to come to the conclusion that there is no more primary stimulus than the presence of a person. Spitz and Wolf 4 even managed to identify those parts of the human face that are especially important and cause the child's reaction.

Despite the negative results, Dennis continued to believe that the child smiles at the sight of a human face because he perceives it as a signal that heralds the satisfaction of a particular physiological need. However, all attempts to make the child smile at the sight of the nipple from which he regularly received food ended in failure 5. From Buhler's point of view, the human face has a special meaning for a child. We can probably talk about a specific susceptibility in humans, which underlies a certain primary need for social contact. As Spitz showed, the disappearance of a person's face is accompanied by reactions of displeasure in the child.

1 See: Watson J.B. Behaviorism. N. Y .: People's Inst. Publ. Co., 1924.

2 See: Biihler C. Die ersten sozialen Verhaltungsweisen des Kindes // Soziologische und
psychologische Studien uber das erste Lebensjahr (Quellen und Studien zur Jugendkunde,
No. 5). Jena: Fischer, 1927. P. 1-102; Buhler C The social behavior children // Murchison C.
(Ed.). Handbook of child psychology. Worcester: Clark Univ. Press, 1933. P. 374-416.

3 See: Dennis W. A comparison of the rat "s first and second exploration of a maze unit /
/ Amer. J. Psychol. 1935. 47. P. 488-490.

4 See: Spitz RA., Wolf KM. The smiling response // Genet. Psychol. Monogr. 1946.34.
P. 57-125.

5 See: Dennis W. A comparison of the rat "s first and second exploration of a maze unit
// Amer. J. Psychol. 1935.47.P. 220.

X. Heckhausen

[RESEARCH ON THE MOTIVES OF AFFILATION,

AUTHORITIES, ASSISTANCE AND AGGRESSION] 1

Another type of social psychological motivation- desire to reach the level of famous, popular and successful personalities. This is manifested in the imitation of youth idols, copying the model of behavior and style of singers, actors, politicians, etc.

Proceeding from everything, the conclusion suggests itself that the ratio of social motivation and rational human behavior are interrelated concepts in which the desire of the individual grows into needs.

20) First of all, a big question was raised about the possibility of distraction from the system of preferences that is formed within a person. This is a system of values, goals, stereotypes of behavior, habits of individuals, psychological and religious types, which directly indicates that the individual makes a choice himself. That is, institutionalists determine rather the nature of the situation in which the choice is made, rather than consider the result obtained in the framework of the interaction of many people. Therefore, this approach involves the connection of the historical aspect, which looks at the evolution of a person attached to a specific culture, society, group and existing at a certain time.

The next feature of the institutional theory follows from the previous one: since the assumption about the exogeneity of the system of restrictions is incorrect, then, consequently, if a person does not have the full amount of information necessary for free orientation in the world around him, then he is not able to fully reflect the processes of individual and social life. Then how can one trace the process of making the selection of reality and their interpretation as a prerequisite for making a choice?

To address these issues in the framework of modern neoinstitutional economics, two behavioral prerequisites are used - limited rationality and opportunism.

Simon proposes to replace the principle of maximization with the principle of satisfaction, since in difficult situations, following the rules of satisfactory choice is more profitable than trying to global optimization.

This provision can be consistent with the concepts of the Austrian school, in which, instead of maximizing utility, the assumption is used about the comparative importance of needs and the best satisfaction of them, with the smallest possible number of benefits.

He notes that in economic theory the concept of satisfaction does not play such a role as in psychology and the theory of motivation, where it is one of the most important. According to psychological theories, the impulse to action comes from unsatisfied aspirations and disappears after their satisfaction. The conditions of satisfaction, in turn, depend on the level of aspiration, which depends on life experience.

Adhering to this theory, we can assume that the company's goal is not to maximize, but to achieve a certain level of profit, to maintain a certain market share and a certain volume of sales.

This is confirmed by statistical data. This is also consistent with research by Hall and Hitch (cost plus standard markup pricing) and Cyert and March (firms that are stable in the marketplace, are less vigorous).

Therefore, we consider it necessary to replace the concept of rationality the concept of subjective validity of action. Based on this premise, we are interested in two facts: 1) what is the justification for this or that decision, 2) the degree of freedom of making this decision (i.e., into which system of coordination of economic activity the subject is integrated). Thus, decision making is an “equilibrium” decision as a result of assessing the validity and limitations of decision making.

21) Ethical norms are those constraints, ignoring which it is often impossible to explain some economic phenomena... Ethics, morality, traditions are the rules of behavior or institutions that are present in the theories of neoinstitutionalism. Therefore, these theories describe human nature as it is observed in reality, using the concepts of bounded rationality and opportunism.

For example, the opportunistic behavior of economic agents can be limited not only by formal institutions created by the state. Indeed, if minimizing opportunism reduces transaction costs and, consequently, increases the efficiency of the system, then the various institutions that contribute to this will evolve and become entrenched in society. One of such informal institutions are the norms of ethics or morality (the concepts of ethical and moral norms are often used as identical ones, on the basis that ethics is "a philosophical doctrine of morality that studies the conditions for the emergence of morality, its essence, conceptual and imperative forms" ).

Ethical norms in many cases are more effective in reducing transaction costs than formal legal norms. Indeed, traditional norms of behavior in society cause a significant amount of costs.< рыночных трансакций.

The system of traditions, moral and ethical norms of economic behavior is not something given and unchanged. Throughout the evolution of human civilization, each stage of its development has been associated with certain norms of behavior.

In a primitive society, these norms contributed to the emergence of rules of conduct that cultivated collectivism, submission to the tribal leader, a certain division of rights and responsibilities within the tribe. In the future, with the transition from tribal and nomadic life to a sedentary one, with the development of a deepening division of labor, the emergence of trade, the consolidation of property rights for a specific and individuals arises. Exchange is expanding both within groups and between groups of people.

Moral rules of conduct are undergoing changes: To congenital moral rules based on instincts (solidarity, altruism, group decision-making) are added benefit acquired. Hayek wrote about this: “... There are acquired rules (thrift, respect for property, honesty, etc.) that created and maintain an extended order ... The extended order depends on this morality, and it arose due to the fact that the groups that followed its basic rules outpaced others in increasing numbers and wealth. " ... Precisely these acquired institutions, persisting and evolving, allowed the emergence of a modern civilization based on economic and social exchange between people and between states. On the basis of such rules of conduct, legal norms have arisen, systems of law have been formed that facilitate and facilitate exchange.

But the development of traditions,< создающих условия для существования расширенного порядка, не происходит однонаправлено, прямолинейно. Наряду с выше изложенными процессами эволюция moral rules occupies a leading role in determining the norms of behavior of entire peoples, for example, rules based on the tribal spirit, collectivism, opposing the individual to a group, etc. Thanks to such traditions and norms of human behavior, civilizations have been formed that deny the importance of exchange, trade, the institution of private property and individualism in general. Such societies, as Karl Popper put it, are "closed" ... History provides many examples of "closed" societies or totalitarian states that base their economic and social systems not on a market mechanism and freedom, but on coercion and adherence to higher goals and plans that are known only to a tyrant, dictator, leader or some other supreme body authorities.

Thus, the value of the costs of market transactions depends not only on the legal rules governing the rules for concluding transactions or guaranteeing the security of property rights, but equally on the traditions of market behavior of counterparties of exchange. If in society there are no moral rules of respect for property rights, honesty in the observance of contracts, then control by law (even the most perfect one) will not significantly reduce transaction costs, both average and absolute. This can be clearly seen in the conditions of a transitional economy. During transformation processes, relations between the subjects of the emerging market develop faster than traditional norms of behavior inherent in the market order are created. Therefore, transaction costs, even with the creation of an ideal legal system, will remain rather high for a relatively long time, until new ethical rules characteristic of the extended order are inculcated in the population.

In the conditions of centralized planning, transaction costs do not exist at all, since there is no market exchange mechanism. However, there was a shadow market, in which a certain part of the population was employed, and the majority of the population in one way or another faced it in the era of general deficit. In the shadow market, transaction costs were extremely high because the exchange took place in an illegal framework. Under the influence of this situation, people closely associated with the "black" market formed a kind of moral and ethical norms that govern their behavior. Following such an ethic of the shadow economy made it possible to achieve success. These norms of economic behavior were based on legal nihilism, since under the conditions of real socialism, production or trade outside the framework of state institutions was illegal. With the transition of the economy to the market path of development, the “black” market was legalized. But under the new conditions, his agents cannot immediately change the rules of their behavior, in market conditions they continued to violate the legal norms of regulating economic activity. Such behavior is opportunistic and, therefore, sharply increases the costs of the functioning of the economic system.

Institutions of ethics are not a product of the purposeful activity of an individual or a group of individuals. They are formed as a result of evolutionary cultural selection. Individuals, making decisions in the process of economic activity, take into account those limitations that are determined by the well-established and accepted as traditional matrices of behavior. Ignoring the ethical norms prevailing in society, it is difficult for an individual to count on the success of his business.

But the most important thing is that, acting according to the rules that have become entrenched as a result of evolutionary selection, the business entity uses more information about the acceptability of his actions than he can receive and comprehend, guided by only rationality. It is no coincidence that Hayek notes on this matter: "Rationalism can be wrong, and traditional morality can in some respects provide a more accurate guide to human action than rational knowledge." .

Moral norms affect the formation of subjective mental structures in an individual. Douglas North stresses that "the subjective mental constructs with which individuals process information lead to decisions that determine the individual's choice." ... Having different ways perception (mentality) of economic phenomena, individuals in similar economic situations make different decisions. "The mental constructs of the players, given by the complexity of the surrounding world, limited informational feedback with the results of activities inherited by cultural traditions, determine their perception." Consequently, the success of market reforms largely depends on changes in the mentality of the population.

22) The concept of a transaction was first introduced into scientific circulation by J. Commons.

A transaction is not an exchange of goods, but the alienation and appropriation of property rights and freedoms created by society ... Such a definition makes sense (Commons) due to the fact that institutions ensure the spread of the will of an individual outside the area within which he can influence the environment directly by his actions, that is, beyond the scope of physical control, and therefore, turn out to be trans promotions as opposed to individual behavior per se or the exchange of goods.

Commons distinguished three main types of transactions:

Transaction transaction - serves for the implementation of the actual alienation and appropriation of property rights and freedoms and in its implementation, mutual consent of the parties is required, based on the economic interest of each of them. In a transaction transaction, the condition of symmetry of relations between counterparties is observed. Hallmark Transaction transaction, according to Commons, is not production, but the transfer of goods from hand to hand.

Management transaction - in it, the key is the relationship of management of subordination, which implies such interaction between people when the right to make decisions belongs to only one party. In a management transaction, behavior is clearly asymmetric, which is a consequence of the asymmetry of the position of the parties and, accordingly, the asymmetry of legal relations.

Rationing transaction - asymmetry is preserved legal status parties, but the place of the managing party is taken by a collective body that performs the function of the specification of rights. Rationalizing transactions include: company budgeting the board of directors, the federal budget by the government and approval by the representative authority, the decision of the arbitral tribunal on the dispute arising between the acting subjects through which the wealth is distributed. There is no control in the rationing transaction. Through such a transaction, wealth is endowed with one or another economic agent.

The presence of transaction costs makes certain types of transactions more or less economical, depending on the circumstances of time and place. Therefore, the same operations can be mediated by different types of transactions, depending on the rules that they order.

23) Criticism of the situation neoclassical theory that exchange occurs without costs, served as the basis for introducing a new concept into economic analysis - transaction costs.

The concept of transaction costs was introduced by R. Coase in the 30s in his article "The Nature of the Firm". It has been used to explain the existence of hierarchical structures that are opposite to the market, such as the firm. R. Coase linked the formation of these "islands of consciousness" with their relative advantages in terms of saving on transaction costs. He saw the specifics of the functioning of the company in the suppression of the price mechanism and its replacement with a system of internal administrative control.

Within the framework of modern economic theory, transaction costs have received many interpretations, sometimes diametrically opposite.

So K. Arrow defines transaction costs as the costs of operating the economic system ... Arrow compared the effect of transaction costs in economics with the effect of friction in physics. Based on such assumptions, it is concluded that the closer the economy is to the Walrasian general equilibrium model, the lower the level of transaction costs in it, and vice versa.

In D. North's interpretation, transaction costs "consist of the costs of evaluating the useful properties of the object of exchange and the costs of securing rights and enforcing them." These costs are the source of social, political and economic institutions.

In the theories of some economists, transaction costs exist not only in market economy(Coase, Arrow, North), but also in alternative ways of economic organization, and in particular in the planned economy (S. Chang, A. Alchian, Demsets). So, according to Chang, the maximum transaction costs are observed in a planned economy, which ultimately determines its inefficiency.

24) Typology of transaction costs Transaction and transformation costs

There are many classifications and typologies of transaction costs in the economic literature. The most common typology is the following, which includes five types of transaction costs:

Information search costs. Before a deal is made or a contract is concluded, you need to have information about where you can find potential buyers and sellers of the relevant goods and factors of production, what are the current prices. Costs of this kind consist of the time and resources required to conduct a search, as well as losses associated with the incompleteness and imperfection of the acquired information.

Negotiation costs. The market requires the diversion of significant funds to negotiate the terms of exchange, to conclude and execute contracts. The main tool for saving this kind of costs is standard (model) contracts.

Measurement costs. Any product or service is a complex of characteristics. In the act of exchange, only some of them are inevitably taken into account, and the accuracy of their assessment (measurement) is extremely approximate. Sometimes the qualities of the goods of interest are generally immeasurable and to evaluate them one has to use surrogates (for example, to judge the taste of apples by their color). This includes the cost of the appropriate measuring equipment, the actual measurement, the implementation of measures aimed at protecting the parties from measurement errors and, finally, losses from these errors. Measurement costs increase with increasing requirements for accuracy. Huge savings in measurement costs have been achieved by mankind as a result of the invention of standards for weights and measures. In addition, the purpose of saving these costs is due to such forms of business practices as warranty repair, branded labels, purchase of batches of goods according to samples, etc.

Costs of specification and protection of property rights. This category includes the costs of maintaining courts, arbitration, government agencies, the time and resources6 required to restore violated rights, as well as losses from their poor specification and unreliable protection. Some authors (D. North) add to this the costs of maintaining a consensus ideology in society, since educating members of society in the spirit of observance of generally accepted unwritten rules and ethical norms is a much more economical way of protecting property rights than formalized legal control.

The costs of opportunistic behavior. This is the most hidden and, from the point of view of economic theory, the most interesting element of transaction costs.

There are two main forms of opportunistic behavior. The first is called moral hazard. Moral risk arises when one party relies on the other in a contract, and it is costly or impossible to obtain actual information about its behavior. The most common type of opportunistic behavior of this kind is shirking, when the agent works with less output than is required of him under the contract.

Particularly convenient soil for shirking is created in the conditions of joint work by the whole group. For example, how to highlight the personal contribution of each employee to the cumulative result of activities<команды>factory or government agency? We have to use surrogate measurements and, say, judge the productivity of many workers not by the result, but by the costs (like the duration of labor), but these indicators are often inaccurate.

If the personal contribution of each agent to the overall result is measured with large errors, then his remuneration will be weakly related to the actual efficiency of his work. Hence the negative incentives to shirk.

In private firms and in government agencies, special complex and expensive structures are created, whose tasks include monitoring the behavior of agents, detecting cases of opportunism, imposing punishments, etc. Reducing the costs of opportunistic behavior is the main function of a significant part of the management apparatus of various organizations.

The second form of opportunistic behavior is extortion. Opportunities for it appear when several production factors have been working in close cooperation for a long time and are so rubbed against each other that each becomes irreplaceable, unique for the rest of the group. This means that if some factor decides to leave the group, then the rest of the cooperation participants will not be able to find an equivalent replacement in the market and will incur irreplaceable losses. Therefore, the owners of unique (in relation to this group of participants) resources have an opportunity for blackmail in the form of a threat to leave the group. Even when<вымогательство>only a possibility remains, it always turns out to be associated with real losses (The most radical form of protection against extortion is the transformation of interdependent (interspecific) resources into jointly owned property, the integration of property in the form of a bundle of powers that is common for all team members).

The above classification is not the only one, for example, there is also K. Menard's classification :

Separation costs (similar to 5 (shirking).

Information costs.

Scale costs

Costs of behavior.

With the introduction of transaction costs into the analysis, it is necessary to clarify the cost structure of the firm.

In a market economy, the costs of a firm can be divided into three groups: 1) transformational, 2) organizational, 3) transactional.

Transformation costs - the costs of transforming the physical properties of products in the process of using production factors.

Organizational costs are the costs of maintaining control and allocating resources within the organization, as well as the costs of minimizing opportunistic behavior within the organization.

Transactional and organizational costs are interrelated concepts, an increase in some leads to a decrease in others, and vice versa.

In modern economic analysis, transaction costs have received operational use. So in some studies, the impact of transaction costs on supply and demand is similar to the introduction of taxes.

Also, the use of transaction (TS) costs allows us to express through them the function of demand for institutions in the analysis of institutional equilibrium and institutional dynamics. Collective action costs (CAC) act as the supply of institutions “in the institutional market”.

CAC is the marginal cost of creating institutions, CU - express the marginal utility of institutions, expressed through their opportunity cost in the form of transaction costs.

25) This problem is investigated mainly within the framework of the modern theory of property rights. The main task of the theory of property rights is to analyze the interaction between economic and legal systems.

The theory of property rights is based on the following fundamental principles:

property rights determine what costs and rewards agents can expect for their actions;

restructuring of property rights leads to shifts in the system of economic incentives;

the reaction to these shifts will be the changed behavior of economic agents.

The theory of property rights proceeds from the basic idea that any act of exchange is essentially an exchange of bundles of powers.

According to Demsetz: “When a deal is made in the market, two bundles of property rights are exchanged. A bundle of rights is usually attached to a particular physical good or service, but it is the value of rights that determines the value of the goods exchanged ... Economists usually take a bundle of rights as given and look for an explanation of what determines the price and quantity of the commodity to be exchanged, to which these rights relate.

The wider the set of rights associated with a given resource, the higher its usefulness. Thus, an own thing and a rented thing have different utility for the consumer, even if they are physically completely identical.

Economic agents cannot transfer more powers in exchange than they have. Therefore, the expansion or contraction of their property rights will also lead to a change in the conditions and scale of exchange (an increase or decrease in the number of transactions in the economy).

As a starting point for analysis, Western theorists usually turn to the regime of private property. The right to private property is understood by them not just as an arithmetic sum of powers, but as a complex structure. Its individual components mutually condition each other. The degree of their interconnection is manifested in the extent to which the restriction of any authority (up to its complete elimination) affects the implementation by the owner of the remaining powers.

The high degree of exclusivity inherent in private property has two behavioral consequences:

exclusivity of the right (usus fructus) assumes that all the positive and negative results of the activities carried out by him fall on the owner and only on him. He therefore turns out to be interested in taking them into account as fully as possible when making decisions;

the exclusivity of the right of alienation means that in the process of exchange the thing will be transferred to the economic agent who will offer for it highest price, and thus an efficient allocation of resources in the economy will be achieved.

Western economists' defense of the private property system rests precisely on these efficiency arguments. They consider the precise definition of the content of property rights to be the most important condition for the effective functioning of the economy.

To exclude others from free access to a resource is to specify ownership of it.

The specification of property rights contributes to the creation of a sustainable economic environment by reducing uncertainty and creating stable expectations among individuals about what they can get from their actions and what they can expect in relations with other economic agents. To specify the right to property means to define precisely not only the subject of property, but also its object, as well as the way of endowing it.

Incompleteness of the specification is interpreted as attenuation of property rights. The meaning of this phenomenon can be expressed by the phrase - "no one will sow if the harvest will go to another."

The erosion of property rights can occur either because they are inaccurately established and poorly protected, or because they are subject to various kinds of restrictions, mainly from the state.

Since any restrictions rebuild the expectations of the economic agent, reduce the value of the resource for him, change the terms of exchange, so the actions of the state appear to theorists of property rights under a priori suspicion.

It is necessary to distinguish between processes of differentiation (splitting) and erosion of property rights. The voluntary and bilateral nature of the splitting of powers guarantees, in their eyes, that it will be carried out in accordance with the criterion of effectiveness. The main benefit from the dispersal of powers is seen in the fact that economic agents get the opportunity to specialize in the implementation of a particular partial power, which increases the efficiency of their use (for example, in the right of management or in the right to dispose of the capital cost of a resource).

In contrast, the unilateral and coercive nature of the restriction of property rights by the state does not provide any guarantees of its compliance with the performance criteria. Indeed, such restrictions are often imposed in the selfish interests of various lobbying groups.

In reality, it is very difficult to separate the processes of splitting from the processes of erosion of property rights, therefore, an economic analysis of the problem of the erosion of property rights does not mean a call for an exact definition of all entitlements to all resources at any cost.

The specification of property rights, from the point of view of economic theory, should go to the point where further gains from overcoming their blurring will no longer pay off the associated costs.

The problem of specification of property rights, and the influence of transaction costs on this process, is considered in the "Property Theorem"

26) Transaction costs and contractual relationships

As already noted in the lecture, the formation of a firm provides savings on total costs by transforming the transaction costs of independent agents in the open market into organizational costs within the firm. Therefore, to analyze the nature of the firm, it was necessary to expand the content of the concept of a contract (transaction) far beyond the framework of a single purchase and sale agreement. Thus, it became possible to interpret the nature of the firm as a problem of choosing the optimal form of the contract. The variety of contractual arrangements is derived from the variety of transaction costs.

The problem of contracts and related transaction costs is based on the formation of formal and informal rules that reduce these costs (or, on the contrary, increase). The source of the rules is society, then they descend to the level of property rights and then to the level of individual contracts.

Contracts reflect the structure of incentives and disincentives, rooted in the structure of property rights and the mechanisms for their enforcement. Thus, the set of alternatives that open up to the players and the forms of organizations they create when concluding specific contracts stem from the structure of property rights.

Business practice has developed three main types of contracts, each of which has its own primary field of application. .

Classic contract. The classic contract is impersonal, and its distinguishing feature is the presence of clearly specified clauses ("if, ... then"). Therefore, all possible future events are reduced in it to the present moment. In a classic contract, the identity of the counterparty does not matter - anyone can be its participant. The classic contract tends towards standardization. The written terms of the transaction prevail in it over the oral ones, the main emphasis is on formal documents. With the completion of the transaction, it ceases to exist. The contract is of a bilateral nature: the sanctions for violation of the sanctions of the contract are clearly stipulated and all disputes over it are resolved in court.

Neoclassical contract. This is a long-term contract in the face of uncertainty. Not all future events can be negotiated as conditions upon signing it. Optimal adaptation to some events cannot be foreseen until they occur. Therefore, the parties to such a contract agree to involve an arbitrator, whose decision they undertake to fulfill in the event of the occurrence of events not specified in the contract, therefore the contract becomes tripartite. Disputes on it are decided not by the court, but by the arbitration bodies.

Relationship (or binding) contract. Such contracts are formed in the conditions of long-term, complex, mutually beneficial relations between the parties. Mutual interest in continuing the relationship plays a decisive role here. Discreteness of relations inherent in the two previous forms of contracts here completely disappears - relations become continuous. Informal conditions prevail over formal clauses, sometimes the contract is not drawn up in the form of a document at all. The personality of the participants is crucial here. Therefore, disputes are resolved not by resorting to formal law or the authority of an arbitrator, but in the course of informal negotiations, bilateral bargaining. The norm to which the parties refer is therefore not the original contract, but the relationship as a whole.

Each contract form corresponds to a specific mechanism for managing contractual relations:

An impersonal market mechanism. Suitable for one-time and recurring transactions for standard items.

Arbitration. Applies to irregular transactions for goods of medium and high specificity.

Two-way governance structure. This type is typical for relational contracts. The scope of this management mechanism is in regular transactions for goods of medium specificity.

Unitary management (hierarchy). The relationship between the parties to the agreement is governed by direct commands and orders, not market signals.

The participants in transactions, replacing the classical market exchange with more complex forms of contracting (including non-market methods of economic coordination), on the one hand, tend to monopolize and realize the goals of monopoly, on the other hand, they strive to minimize the corresponding costs (monopolistic efficiency approaches to contracts).