Political relations and political practice. Theory and practice of political decision-making In theory and practice, political activity

Political activity is a form of social life of politics. Politics in the proper sense of the word is a sphere of activity associated with the realization of the needs and interests of various groups of people, the core of which is the conquest, retention and use of state power.

Each sphere of society's life: economic, social, spiritual, etc., is characterized by a set of inherent forms and types of activity and public relations... A special place is occupied by political activity, constituting the main content of politics, political life. Defining the content of political activity means giving an essential definition of politics. And, apparently, it should start with the definition of the concept of "activity". In the scientific literature, activity in the broad sense of the word is understood as a specific form of active attitude to the surrounding world, the content of which is its purposeful change and transformation in the interests of people. The activity of a person or a group of people appears as an ordered process consisting of a number of interrelated elements: an object and a subject, the purpose of the activity, the means of activity, the result of the activity. The above provisions can be entirely attributed to politics, which is one of the most widespread types of human activity.

Political activity, therefore, can be defined as the systematic deliberate intervention of individuals and groups of people in the system of political relations in order to adapt it to their interests. In turn, political activity appears as a continuous series of specific political actions, which can be called certain actions, actions of intention or spontaneously undertaken by an individual or a group of people in order to cause certain political results, consequences.

The essence of political activity is revealed when characterizing its structural elements:

The subjects of political activity are direct participants in political actions - social groups and their organizations;

The objects of political activity are the existing social and political system, which the subjects of political activity seek to change and transform. The political structure is the unity of the social-class structure of society, the totality of social relations and the constitutional mechanism of politics, that is, the political system;

The goal of political activity in the broad sense of the word is either to strengthen the existing type of political relations, or to partially transform, or to destroy them and create a different socio-political system. The divergence of goals of various social subjects gives rise to the acuteness of their political confrontation. Defining the goals of political action is difficult scientific challenge and at the same time - art. Absolutely and relatively unrealizable goals are called political utopias. However, in politics, the possible is often achieved only due to the fact that its participants strove for the impossible behind it. French poet and publicist Lamartine called utopias "prematurely expressed truths."

The motive of political activity is what prompts people to be active, what they start to act for (from the French motif - I move). Among the motives of paramount importance belongs to the interests of society as a whole: ensuring security, public order. Then follow the interests of class and those social groups close the scale of interests, the interests of small social groups and individuals. In order for a political action to take place, it is important that the social subject understands his needs and interests. A theoretically expressed awareness of interests is called ideology.

The means of political action in dictionaries are defined as techniques, methods, objects, devices used to achieve goals. With regard to methods, in politics as means (methods) can be considered any actions, actions performed individually or collectively and aimed at preserving or changing the existing political reality. It is impossible to give a sufficiently complete list of means in politics, but some of them are: rallies, demonstrations, manifestations, elections, referendums, political speeches, manifestos, meetings, negotiations, consultations, decrees, reforms, uprisings, negotiations, putsches, revolutions, counter-revolutions, terror, wars.

The results of political action are expressed in those changes in the socio-political structure, which were the result of the actions undertaken, both general and local. Specifically, they can be expressed depending on the type of existing political actions - revolution, reform or coup, - their results can be varying degrees of change in the system of organization of power: replacement of the subject of power (revolution); changes in the strength of power (reform); an increase in the volume of power, personal changes in power (coup).

Depending on the changes that political actions bring about, three main types of actions can be distinguished:

Revolutions, uprisings, counter-revolutions as political actions differ: in the sphere of relations of domination and subordination - by the change of the ruling social class; in the sphere of power - the change of the ruling group by means of violence against the former groups;

Reform and counter-reform as political actions do not lead to the destruction of the foundations of the existing power of the ruling groups, but only fix concessions on their part, they are carried out "from above" using legal means;

Political coups - a state or "palace" coup, putsch, conspiracy as political actions lead to changes only within the existing government, primarily to personal changes in the center that makes political decisions.

All three of these types of political actions are important for the organization of political life, but the actions carried out by the ruling elite, the entire system of social institutions controlled by it, and, above all, the state and called domestic and foreign policy, are even more significant.

A different structuring of political activity is also possible, when such basic blocks are distinguished in it as:

Professional political activity, in turn, realized as political functioning (the activities of the political bureaucracy, officials, apparatuses) and political leadership - constituting the core of the management of social processes in society. However, to identify political leadership with any kind social management unlawful. The main content of political leadership: development, adoption and implementation of decisions that regulate the activities of political and civil society;

Political participation refers to a variety of individual and group non-professional activities related to politics. The forms of political participation can be very diverse in direction, meaning, and effectiveness. Distinguish between active, proactive, passive, supportive participation. Most significant species political participation can be: activities in political organizations, movements, parties; attending political meetings; electoral activity. The literature distinguishes between: direct and indirect participation; autonomous and mobilized. The most important function of political participation is the formation of policy and control over its implementation, the formation and establishment of political culture, control over the behavior of political elites.

The political activity of people is inextricably linked with their behavior. In the literature, there is no unambiguous understanding of the category of "political behavior", there are three points of view on this issue:

1. Behavior is an external manifestation of political action;

2. Political behavior and political action are identical concepts;

3. Political behavior is a specific form of political activity.

The specificity of political behavior is as follows:

This is primarily a subject-subject relationship, while political activity is primarily a subject-object relationship;

Political behavior is a type of activity that is directed at the subject himself and expresses his state in the process of action.

G.P. The eternal considers behavior as a type of activity aimed at changing the state of the subject, and not at changing what is outside the subject.

The foregoing allows us to note that the concept of "behavior" refers to any political actions that characterize the state of the subject during activity. This interpretation of this concept corresponds to its definition from a psychological point of view. The specificity of political behavior, in contrast to activity, is manifested in the specific varieties of its subjects. These are individuals, groups, masses, crowds. Accordingly, the types of behavior differ: individual, group, mass. In addition, behavior can be classified: based on motives - conscious, unconscious, arbitrary, spontaneous; according to situational characteristics - stable, unstable, crisis, unexpected; by means of manifestation - riot, protest, mass discontent; by duration - long-term, short-term; in direction - conscious, controlled, uncontrolled (impulsive, pathological).

Thus, despite the fact that political behavior is inseparable from political activity, its analysis does not duplicate the explanation of political activity, but allows one to reveal the state of subjects of various levels and modifications in various processes of this activity.

Literature

1. Melnik V.A. Political Science: Textbook for Universities. - Mn., 1996. - Ch. 9. - § 1.

2. Zerkin D.L. Fundamentals of Political Science: A course of lectures. - Rostov n / D., 1997 .-- S. 306-325.

3. Political Science: A Course of Lectures / Ed. M.N. Marchenko. - M., 1999 .-- S. 301-316.

4. Demidov A.K. Political activity. - Saratov, 1987.

Political relations are defined as the interaction of social groups, individuals, social institutions about the structure and management of society. They arise from the moment when the eternal need for management and power regulation of social processes and relations begins to be realized with the active participation of the state.

The process of realizing political interests is continuous. At the level of everyday awareness, this process takes place in the form of the development of political knowledge, assessments, orientations, which, in turn, determine practical activity, social activity and civic position.

To realize their fundamental interests through state (political) power, certain social groups create their own political parties.

The fundamental political interest of society consists in the constant development of democracy, in the consolidation and expansion of true democracy and self-government of the people. In the mechanism of action of democracy, taking into account, capturing, expressing the objectively determined interests of social groups is of particular importance. Much here depends on the methods of identifying, coordinating and subordinating these interests. In addition, it is necessary to systematically clarify the extent to which general political interests are perceived by citizens as their own, to what extent they become the source of the behavior of specific individuals and groups. The complication of interests, the increase in their versatility in modern conditions, presupposes the constant improvement of those superstructure structures, with the help of which the accounting and realization of political interests is carried out.

Political participation and political activity as forms of realization of political interests can, with good reason, be considered as criteria for the development of the political organization of society.

A citizen in a democratic political system is distinguished by a manifestation of interest in politics, involvement in political discussions, participation in elections, the presence of certain knowledge in politics, competence, everything that is necessary to influence government activities. In general, these qualities can be summarized as activity, involvement, rationality. At the same time, these qualities are also inherent in a citizen in the system of a one-party dictatorship.

One form of participation is a system of representative democracy in which representatives of the people exercise power on behalf of the people. Another form of citizen participation in the power system is through referendums, civil initiatives or the recall of deputies.

More on the topic Political relations and political practice .:

RESEARCH OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN RUSSIA: YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW
§one. Development of theoretical foundations and features of the development of legal regulation of public relations in the conditions of the NEP

In political science, the transition from one type of political system to another is designated by the terms "political development" or "political modernization." Modernization is conditioned by objective (socio-economic and cultural) and subjective (the ability of political leadership to effectively change the political system) factors. Political modernization is a part of social modernization, when transformations occur in all the main spheres of the social system: economy, social sphere, culture, education. etc. The choice of the modernization option begins in the sphere of politics - with the manifestation of political will to change. Consistently carried out political modernization serves as a factor guarantor of ensuring the consistency of modernization in other spheres of public life. The goals of modernization are aimed at achieving such social values as economic growth, equality, democracy, stability, welfare, justice, order.

The following goals of political modernization are distinguished:

- creation of new political institutions to solve the constantly expanding range of social and economic problems;

- changing the political orientations of the elite and leaders towards open struggle;

- the formation of a rational bureaucracy.

The main directions of modernization in modern world:

- processes of industrialization and informatization of society;

- the formation of an ecological society, the introduction of nature-saving technologies; - the democratization of society, increased participation of the population in the management of public affairs, the responsibility of the authorities to society; - the orientation of the social sphere towards increasing the welfare of the bulk of the population, overcoming the social gap between members of society; - ensuring the availability of education and its high quality, which guarantees the possibility of active activity and success in a new, changing system social relations;

- expanding the sphere of human freedom, increasing the possibility of choice and independence from the pressure of traditions, environment, place of residence.

Two historical types of modernization are distinguished: The first type, the so-called original modernization, is characteristic of the United States and Western European countries, which made the transition to a rational social order as a result of a long natural internal development... The second type - secondary modernization - was characteristic of countries that lagged behind in their development and tried to catch up with the advanced ones at an accelerated pace by using the experience of developed countries. This group includes developing countries that have freed themselves from colonial dependence (countries of South America, South-East Asia),

a 3 Currently, there are many international organizations in the world that resolve issues in all areas of the sphere of human life; both economic and political. The most acute problems today are the problems of war and peace, disarmament and the resolution of military conflicts. The concern of states for their security led to the creation of military-political organizations. One of which was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). NATO was created on April 4, 1949. NATO countries decided to unite their efforts for collective defense, preservation of peace and security.

The main goal of NATO is to ensure the freedom and security of all members by political and military means in accordance with the principles of the United Nations. NATO is committed to ensuring lasting peace in Europe and maintaining strategic balance throughout Europe. NATO members are committed to resolving all international disputes by peaceful means so as not to jeopardize international security. According to the NATO structure, an armed attack on one of the NATO members is considered an attack on all countries of the North Atlantic Treaty. These are the main provisions of the NATO charter. Like any international organization, NATO has its own structure.

The block's governing bodies are the North Atlantic Council, the Defense Planning Committee, the Nuclear Planning Group, other committees, and the Secretary General. NATO's military structure consists of military committees, a standing military committee and an international military headquarters. NATO headquarters is located in Brussels. At present, NATO includes 16 states: the USA, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Portugal, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Greece, Turkey, Spain, Germany. But Iceland does not have its own military forces and is not part of the NATO military structure, it only has observer status in the Defense Planning Committee. France in 1966 also withdrew from the NATO military structure.

21. Political activity as the basis of the political life of society. The political process consists of actions. Political action is defined as the intervention of an individual or group in the power relations of a given system in order to adapt it to their interests, ideals and values. The activity of social groups or individuals is associated with the desire to improve or change the socio-economic and political order. Political actions orient the political system towards achieving certain goals that express the interests of various groups. These interests are clothed in a theoretical, ideological form. From what ideology the participants in the political process adhere to, whether their activities are aimed at revolutionary changes in society or at reforming it. Political action is always performed "here" and "now", that is, in a specific situation. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the objective state of affairs, specific conditions, before starting to act. It is necessary to identify the specifics of each situation in order to choose the right methods and means of political action. The toolkit with which the situation is assessed is also important. It is reasonable to change our schemes and dogmas if political reality does not fit into them, for it is always richer than any schemes. Persons acting in politics must have a solid store of knowledge and be competent. In addition, they must creatively apply their knowledge in a given situation. Theory in politics makes sense when it can give an adequate answer to a specific problem. In any political system, there are certain norms, rules of the game, which participants in the political process must observe. As a rule, these norms are violated by those who want to change the political system through violence. However, in the event of the conquest of power, they establish their own norms of action, their own rules of the game. So, it differs positive political action , which is to do something to achieve a specific goal, and negative , which is to "stop doing something." The abstinence position is not neutral, as it always has certain consequences. Political action can be characterized as rational and irrational . Rational action means that his agent has a clear idea of the goals, knows methods adequate to these goals, is able to effectively apply them, setting a system of priorities, and is also able to change strategy if it does not lead to the desired results. As for an irrational political action, it usually ends in failure due to the inability of politicians to link ends and means, a blind attitude to reality, which is considered in accordance with their dogmas and schemes. This is the soil of political illusions, which often lead to dire consequences for society. Political action can be viewed as inertial and creative . Inertial actions reproduce the accepted norms of behavior, the existing political system, preserve it. Creative actions bring changes, new moments, dynamics into politics. Political action can be spontaneous or organized ... As a rule, the actions of the elites are more organized, which gives them the opportunity to maintain their dominance, develop strategies and tactics, and implement their plans. However, in any political action there may be a share of spontaneity, chance, inconsistency. Types of political action depend on the type of social transformations, on the attitude of political forces to reality. Revolution, rebellion, uprising, counter-revolution, peasant war have the maximum radius of action. The revolution represents the overthrow of the ruling groups, the transformation of society as a whole. Counterrevolution Is a political movement led by groups ousted from power, their representatives, those who have broken with the revolution. Riot- the result of indignation of the masses by actions local authorities escalating into disorder, pogroms. Reforms lead to social change without undermining the foundations of the existing system and power ruling class. Political coups lead to changes in the sphere of power, primarily personal, through the use of physical violence. Examples of specific political actions are rallies, demonstrations, strikes, meetings, picketing, processions, etc. Special types of political action are elections and election campaigns, referendums, official visits state, party delegations to other countries, diplomatic negotiations.

22. In political science, the term "political participation" used to refer to the forms of political behavior of citizens. Political participation is considered as the involvement of members of a given community on an individual, class-group, national-ethnic, religious or other basis in the process of political-power relations. People's participation in politics is one of the means of expressing and pursuing their interests. Political participation reveals the real role of the citizen, separate layers, groups, classes, both at the local level and in the political system of society. If citizens take an active part in the formation of the elite, in defining the main goals of politics, monitoring its implementation, then such a political system can be considered based on participation. Political participation is expressed in two main forms: straight(direct) and mediated(representative). Direct participation takes place within small political communities, where the masses at meetings make decisions by majority vote. It is characteristic of local government and self-government exercised by citizens through local Councils of Deputies, bodies of territorial public self-government, local referendums, assemblies and other forms of direct participation in state and public affairs. At indirect participation the masses elect their representatives to exercise political power. The larger the society, the less opportunities for self-government. Indirect participation provides more opportunities for distorting the will of the masses, since elected representatives, deputies can pursue their own interests, which do not coincide with the interests of those whom they represent. The masses can lose control over their representatives, and the degree of their political participation decreases. One of the most developed schemes of political participation include the following elements:

Reaction (positive or negative) to the impulses emanating from the political system, not associated with the need to participate in any actions; - participation in the delegation of powers (elections). This is electoral behavior; - participation in the activities of political and other organizations; - the performance of political functions within the framework of state and other political institutions (including in parties, etc.). This function is carried out by professional politicians, officials, deputies, leaders and functionaries of parties; - direct actions (participation in meetings, demonstrations, etc.).

The types of participation are highly unequal. Some of them occupy a modest place in political life, while others are highly developed, which makes it possible to judge the political culture of a particular society. Political participation can be directed against the actions and decisions of the authorities, expressing protest, indignation, rejection of this political line. Political protest- this is a type of negative reaction of an individual (group) to the current political situation in society or a specific action of certain state bodies and political opponents. The forms of political protest include such actions as political and civil disobedience, petitions, boycotts, damage to property, sabotage, murder, kidnapping, terror, guerrilla actions, revolutions, wars. The level of political participation is influenced by such social factors as education, socio-economic status, age, gender, place of residence, profession, access to political information, socio-economic situation.

Abstract on the topic: Democracy: theory and political practice

1. Ancient and medieval concepts of democracy

The term "democracy" (from the Greek. Demos - people and kratos - power), first encountered by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, means "power of the people" or "democracy".

The first, most developed form of democratic government is considered to be established in the ancient world - in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, in the ancient city-policies - direct democracy. It involved a public - sometimes directly on city squares - discussion of the most important issues of state development: the approval of laws, the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace, the appointment of senior officials, the passing of sentences. Participation in government was considered not only a right, but also a duty of a free citizen, be he a wealthy aristocrat or a poor man, was encouraged financially and was rated as the most worthy occupation of the free.

Let's highlight the differences between the ancient understanding of democracy and the modern one:

1) the democratic state system did not guarantee the freedom of the individual, which was considered as part of the state (society - the state - the individual acted in an undivided form);

2) the existence of slavery and class division of free citizens was perceived as natural.

Many symbols of democracy came to us from the times of Ancient Greece and Rome (the ideas of the rule of law, equality of citizens before the law, equality of political rights have become an integral part of democratic traditions).

The greatest thinkers of antiquity saw dangerous tendencies in the strengthening of the power of the spontaneous crowd, which, in their opinion, did not possess high intelligence (this power is defined by the term "ochlocracy"). They considered it reasonable under a democratic government to have a ruling elite and to grant civil rights different groups population in accordance with their property status and professional interests.

Further development of ancient democracy confirmed the correctness of their conclusions: under the conditions of an increase in the share of the lower class - fetas - more and more turned into a "riot of mob", and this process led first to an oligarchic tyrannical coup, and then to the complete elimination of ancient civilizations.

The medieval period in the history of the development of mankind is characterized by the establishment of the absolute power of monarchs, a rigid class division of society, the strengthening of the role of the church in state and public life, and the restriction of the rights and freedoms of broad strata of the population. Despotic forms of government permeated all levels of state and public life, completely subordinated the economic and cultural activities of citizens, their personal life to the power of the suzerain - the supreme ruler, the feudal owner.

At the same time, the Middle Ages were marked by the emergence of the first representative institutions (1265 - Parliament in England; 1302 - States General in France; XVI century - Zemsky Councils in the Moscow State, etc.). Already in the early Middle Ages, three essential elements modern parliamentary democracies: the publicity of power, its representative character and the presence of a mechanism of checks and balances (the purpose of which is to prevent the concentration of all power in the hands of any one institution, class or estate).

The socio-economic and political-ideological situation also affected the views of medieval thinkers, their ideas about the state structure and the role of man in the life of society.

In secular political thought, the ideas of local and estate democracy and self-government prevailed.

First, the possibility was substantiated of the participation of representatives of various, primarily possessing, estates in parliamentary activity, which, although it was of an extremely limited, consultative nature, provided an opportunity to participate in the development and adoption of management decisions, in government activities.

Secondly, the content and functions of local forms of self-government were determined (for example, zemstvos in Russia, “free cities” such as Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, in Germany, or the veche form of government in Ancient Novgorod and Pskov). Although such forms of democratic expression of will were under the complete control of the monarch and the local aristocracy, at the same time they provided the population with the opportunity to exercise certain civil rights, primarily the right to manage the affairs of their locality. The development of the guild organization of handicrafts and trade, the emergence of political and religious guilds - prototypes of future political parties served the same goals.

Another direction in understanding the problems of state structure and democracy in the Middle Ages was the search for the source and boundaries of the monarch's power, his right to invade the spiritual life of his subjects. This analysis was carried out by scientists-theologians who, while substantiating the need for socio-economic inequality of estates, the divine origin of absolute monarchy, the dominant position of Christian ideology, at the same time defended the equality of all people before God, the inadmissibility of humiliation of their human dignity and the interference of secular authorities in the field of human spiritual life, and the accountability of the power of the monarch to divine laws.

The largest representatives of the philosophical and theological thought of the Middle Ages, defending the position of "medieval democracy", were A. Augustine and F. Aquinas.

Thus, Aurelius Augustine (354-430), believing in the divine origin of the earthly state power, at the same time defined it as "a great robber organization." Citizen in socially completely subordinate to this authority, but has the right to respect for his human dignity, for the supreme judge over him still remains God.

Thomas Aquinas (1225 or 1226-1274) already at the end of the Middle Ages also substantiated the class structure of society and the need for a state that has a divine origin. Like ancient thinkers, he condemns democracy as a form of oppression of the rich by the poor, ultimately leading to tyranny. He considers the correct form to be a monarchy that ensures the stability of the state; at the same time, man must have a set of human rights determined by the eternal divine right.

Thus, the ancient and medieval concepts of power and democracy, which contributed to the formation modern concepts democracy can be summarized in the following provisions:

democracy is one of the forms of the political structure of society, based on the broad participation of various social groups of the population in its governance;
the most important characteristic of democracy is the ability of every citizen to enjoy rights and freedoms, first of all - to be independent from other members of society, to have freedom of opinion, to participate in public and state life on an equal basis with other citizens; ownership;
democracy is inseparable from the duty of the citizen and the system of government as a whole to obey the laws and not violate the rights of other people - members of society;
democracy is incompatible with ochlocracy - the power of the masses, the crowd, suppressing the individual, supremacy in solving state issues, which ultimately leads to tyranny and terror;
the best form of the democratic structure of society is its division into managers and governed, who transfer the government to the worthy and under their leadership perform productive functions; at the same time, they retain the right to control the powers that be and early termination of their powers, as well as the possibility local government;
rulers must take care of the welfare of their subjects and the strengthening of the state, rationally, relying on the law, organize the life of society, ensure the opportunity for every citizen to use his inalienable rights and freedoms.

2. Modern theories of democracy: democracy of classical liberalism, collectivist, pluralistic democracy

The crisis of absolutism, which came as a result of major socio-economic transformations in Europe: the accomplishment of the industrial revolution, the strengthening of trade and economic ties, the growth of cities, the destruction of the medieval system of government, changed the idea of the political structure of society, the role of a person in society, his rights and freedoms, the possible participation in political life. In their most complete and detailed form, they were formulated at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. in the concepts of democracy of classical liberalism by T. Hobbes, J. Locke and C. Montesquieu. The main ideas expressed by these thinkers can be summarized as follows.

At the pre-state stage, humanity was in a natural state, man lived according to natural laws, possessed a wide range of freedoms and used them at his own discretion. Thus, the initial state of human nature, its essence is individual freedom. However, its use should not lead to the violation of the rights of other people, otherwise it can cause, according to Hobbes, "a war of all against all," the enmity of people, disrupt the vital activity of the social organism. Even if relations between people in a state of nature presuppose, according to J. Locke, "mutual benevolence", at a certain stage of social development they require consolidation, settlement in the form of a contract, which is called "social".

A social contract presupposes an unspoken form of agreement between people on the transfer of the functions of regulating relations between them to the state, which is the guarantor of preventing anarchy and enmity between members of society, ensuring individual rights and freedoms of citizens.

Power should be divided into parliamentary, judicial and military (according to J. Locke) or into legislative, executive and judicial (according to C. Montesquieu). According to the creators of the concept of political pluralism, only the separation of powers prevents abuses by the rulers, restrains their ambitions, prevents any forms of despotism, thereby ensuring guarantees of citizens' freedom.

Thus, the liberal idea of a social contract as the basis for the creation of a state and the concept of separation of powers as a condition for limiting the power of a sovereign (ruler) determined the principles and conditions of the relationship between a citizen and the state, the permissible boundaries of state intervention in the field of personal rights and freedoms of citizens:

equality of all citizens in the exercise of their natural rights;
the autonomy of the individual in relation to the state and society, a person is the only source of power, who has granted the state the right to exercise control over the entire society and requires it to guarantee personal rights and freedoms;
a person has the right to defend his position in relation to other members of society, to legal basis to challenge decisions of public authorities;
the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial, a clear definition of their functions and powers, as well as limiting the scope of the state itself, which does not allow it to interfere in the private life of citizens and the economic sphere of the life of society;
a parliamentary form of representative democracy, which provides for the transfer by citizens, as a result of elections, of the functions of government to those persons who can protect the legal rights and freedoms of their voters.

The concept of liberalism first received its legal embodiment in the Bill of Rights (England, 1689) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (France, 1789), which proclaimed the principles of freedom, property, personal security, and the right to resist violence as inalienable natural rights of the individual.

The concept of liberal democracy is criticized primarily for the absolutization of individualism, the focus of a person on solving his personal problems, on achieving personal success, which can (and does) lead to his withdrawal from public, political life, selfishness and isolation, unfriendliness towards other people. dulling feelings of compassion. At the same time, the state, having no right to interfere in the economic and financial sphere, limited in the ability to provide social support to the poor and “losers”.

Finally, like any form of representative democracy, liberal democracy narrows the rights of voters, does not allow actively influencing politics, controlling the activities of state bodies, and the very choice of representative bodies of power can be random, formal and incompetent, determined by the mood and emotions of the voter at the time of voting.

One of the concepts opposed to the individualist model of liberal democracy is the theory of collectivist democracy. It appeared in the era of the French Enlightenment, one of its creators is the famous philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), although many of his ideas are consonant with the theoretical constructions of liberalism. He, like many supporters of the liberal type of democracy, proceeds from the idea of the natural state of people in the period before the state development of society and the conclusion by them of a social contract on the creation of a state for a more favorable development of social relations, strengthening private property, and approving the ideas of humanism and spirituality. However, he further disagrees with the position that society consists of separate individuals, and says the need for a person to transfer his natural rights to the state after its creation. A harmony of social interests arises in the state, since the purpose of its creation is to take care of its citizens, to fulfill the common will of the people, who are “always right”. The government only gets executive branch, and the legislative power should be exercised by the people themselves through direct discussion and adoption of laws during a plebiscite (referendum).

This concept of democracy removes a number of disadvantages of liberalism (absolute individualization, non-participation in political life, property inequality), however, the absolutization of the "common will" lays the theoretical basis for the practice of suppression of the individual, the invasion of the state into the private life of a citizen, depriving him of the right to express his own opinion, different from the opinions of everyone.

These ideas were reflected in the Marxist theory of the state and democracy and in the practice of the functioning of the political system of socialism and socialist democracy.

On the one hand, under the conditions of socialist collectivist democracy, a citizen is actively involved in the political process, participates in mass political actions (demonstrations, meetings, elections), can control the activities of deputies of all levels, give them orders, participate in the activities of self-government bodies at the place of residence and work. ... This increases the civic activity of a member of society, a sense of responsibility for its development, patriotism and collectivism. However, collectivist democracy presupposes strict control over the behavior of every citizen, forced inclusion of him in politics, political, ideological and moral and ethical subordination of a person to the will of the majority, prevention of pluralism of opinions and political opposition to the “leading and guiding force of society” - the communist (socialist) party. As a result, the citizen lost his individuality and could not realize the political rights and freedoms written in the constitution.

On the other hand, this led to the omnipotence of the Communist Party itself, its apparatus, its replacement of state bodies, the strengthening of authoritarian, despotic methods of government on the part of the party elite. Thus, collectivist democracy, formally opening up the possibility of direct, active participation each citizen in political life, making it his duty, in fact limited individual rights and freedoms, leading to strict control of his spiritual and personal life, contributing to the emergence of anti-democratic, totalitarian regimes.

The limitations of both the liberal concept of democracy and its alternative - collectivist democracy - led to the creation and real implementation in many countries of the concept of pluralistic democracy, developed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Its creators are M. Weber, J. Schumpeter, G. Laski, S. Lipset and others.

Political pluralism (from Latin pluralis - plurality) means the inclusion in the political life of the country of many social movements and parties that have different political goals, ideological concepts and are fighting among themselves for power. The main forms of such a struggle are to defend their electoral programs in front of the voters, to win as many of their votes in the elections and thereby to obtain the maximum number of parliamentary seats or to win the presidential elections. The main difference between pluralistic democracy and its liberal type is that during the election campaign and activities in parliament, political parties and movements represent the interests of specific social groups, through which the interests of the individual are realized. By entering a political party or supporting it in elections, a citizen can show greater political activity, more persistently influence the activities of the parliament, defending his economic, political, cultural interests as common to this group, social stratum.

The economic basis of pluralistic democracy is the diversity of forms of ownership, the social division of labor and the corresponding division of society into social groups with different volumes and types of property and performing numerous professional, social and cultural roles in society. Hence the diversity of economic, socio-political and spiritual interests of the representatives of these groups, competition in their defense.

The political foundation of pluralistic democracy, its legal form are: a constitutionally enshrined system of rights and obligations of citizens and the associations formed by them, first of all - freedom of speech and conscience, ensuring equal participation in political life; the principle of separation of powers; parliamentary form of government; assertion of the rule of law in all spheres of society.

The social basis of pluralistic democracy is to ensure the right of every member of society to participate in all forms of his life, be it work and rest, family life, business, health protection, sports, culture and education. Of course, the degree of such participation is different for each person, which is determined by both his individual characteristics, abilities, and social status, material and financial capabilities and other factors. However, in a pluralistic democracy, the state guarantees the very possibility of equal access to social values, as well as a minimum of benefits that provide an opportunity for the manifestation of independent activity, an active principle.

The spiritual and ideological basis of pluralistic democracy is the creation of an atmosphere of transparency in society, the promotion of diversity of opinions, the development of creativity, the inadmissibility of regulating the spiritual life of a person and imposing uniform ideological and political and ideological dogmas on him. This is also related to the study and consideration of public opinion of the population in the work of administrative bodies, ensuring the free activity of the media.

The disadvantage of the concept of pluralistic democracy is that it proceeds from the ideal model of the citizen as an active participant in the political process, supporting the group and the movement that potentially represents his interests with his activities. In fact, it is not the mass electorate that stands behind the political movements and parties, but only the most active part of it. The rest of the voters either shy away from the elections, or do not delve deeply into the content of the election programs and make their choice by chance. Therefore, voters' votes go either to two or three large political parties, whose programs are not very diverse, or to small electoral associations, that is, they will still be absorbed by larger and more authoritative parties and movements. In addition, control over the activities of parliamentarians by ordinary voters is impossible.

Thus, an analysis of the three main modern concepts of democracy - liberal, collectivist and pluralistic - shows that for all their shortcomings and limitations, each of them proceeds from the fundamental principle: a citizen has the right to express his political will and defend his own socio-economic and political interests.

Supporters of different concepts are unanimous in identifying common features of democracy:

recognition of the people as a source of power (sovereign) in the state: popular sovereignty is expressed in the fact that it is the people who own the constituent, constitutional power in the state, that it is he who chooses his representatives and can periodically replace them, has the right to directly participate in the development and adoption of laws through referendums ;
equality of citizens: democracy presupposes at least equality of electoral rights of citizens;
subordination of the minority to the majority in making decisions and their implementation, respect for the rights and interests of the minority;
election of key state bodies.

Any democratic state is built on the basis of these fundamental features. At the same time, modern, based on the values of liberalism, democracies strive to comply with additional principles: human rights, the priority of individual rights over the rights of the state, limitation of the power of the majority over the minority, respect for the right of the minority to have their own opinion and defend it, the rule of law, etc. ...

In recent years, the theory of "waves of democratization" has become widespread in political science, the creators of which believe that the establishment of modern institutions of democratic government took place in three stages, and at each of them this process affected different groups countries, and that the rise of democratization was followed by its rollback. S. Huntington in his book “The Third Wave. Democratization at the end of the XX century. " (1991) gives the following dating: the first rise - 1828-1926, the first decline - 1922-1942, the second rise - 1943-1962, the second decline - 1958-1975, the beginning of the third rise - 1974.

The concept of the "third wave of democratization" is based on the following main provisions:

the transition to democracy in different countries means that there is a lot in common between various transitional processes and forms of democratization and they should be considered as special cases of the world political movement;
democracy is an intrinsic value, its establishment is not associated with pragmatic, instrumental goals;
the plurality of possible forms of democratic organization is recognized (recognition and support for the existence of various, autonomous from each other and from the state, associations pursuing different, sometimes contradictory goals);
democratization at the end of XX century. the process of political changes in the world does not end, the history of democracy does not end - the concept of the "third wave" presupposes a sinusoidal nature of development democratic process, which can lead to a rollback of some countries back, and to the "fourth wave", but already in the XXI century.

3. Electoral systems and elections

Elections are not only an essential feature, an attribute of democracy, but also its necessary condition. "Democracy can be defined as a regime in which rulers are appointed through free and fair elections," the authoritative French scholars P. Lalumiere and A. Demichel say. And the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1948, says: “Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely elected representatives. The will of the people must be the basis of the power of government; this will must find expression in periodic and unfalsified elections, which must be held with universal and equal suffrage, by secret ballot or through other equivalent forms that ensure the freedom of voting. "

Improving the electoral system is one of the most urgent tasks of the political development of the young Russian democracy.

What is an electoral system?

The electoral system is the procedure for organizing and holding elections to representative institutions or an individual leading representative (for example, the president of the country), enshrined in legal norms, as well as in the established practice of state and public organizations.

The electoral system is included as an integral part of the political system, but itself, like any system, is subdivided into structural components, of which two are distinguished as the most common:

suffrage - theoretical and legal component;
electoral procedure (or electoral process) - a practical and organizational component.

The right to vote is a set of legal norms governing the participation of citizens in elections, the organization and conduct of the latter, the relationship between voters and elected bodies, or officials, as well as the procedure for recalling elected representatives who did not justify the confidence of voters.

The term "suffrage" can be used in another, narrower meaning, namely as the right of a citizen to participate in elections: either as an elector (active suffrage) or as an elected (passive suffrage).

The classification of elections is based on the principles of electoral law and several criteria: the object of elections (presidential, parliamentary, municipal - to local, usually city, self-government bodies), terms (regular, extraordinary, additional), etc.

The most interesting is the classification of elections according to the principle of electoral law, reflecting the degree of legal, democratic development of a particular country, its electoral system. In this case, the classification takes the form of paired opposites:

general - limited (qualifying);
equal - unequal;
direct - indirect (multi-stage);
with secret - with open voting.

The signs that characterize a high degree of democracy in the electoral system are the first. Most of the countries of the modern world have proclaimed in their constitutions or special electoral laws the rights of citizens to general and equal elections by secret ballot. Let's take a closer look at these principles.

The universality of elections presupposes the right of all citizens who have reached the legal age to participate in elections, and this right means both active and passive electoral rights. However, both of these in a number of countries are limited by the so-called electoral qualifications: property (possession of property or income of a certain amount), residency qualification (residence in a given territory for at least a certain period of time), educational (for example, knowledge of the state language of the country), age and etc.

The census of passive suffrage is usually much stricter than census of active suffrage. So, in Canada, only a person who owns immovable property can enter the Senate; in the UK, in order to be eligible to be elected, an electoral deposit in the form of a fairly large amount is required. The age limit for deputies of the upper house of parliament - where it is bicameral - is especially high: in the USA and Japan - 30 years, in France - 35, in Belgium and Spain - 40. At the same time, it should be noted that the process of democratization in the world does not bypass the census restrictions. For example, starting in the 1970s. the age limit for voters in most developed countries has been lowered to 18 years.

Elections are considered equal if a single norm of representation is ensured - the number of voters represented by one candidate for an elective seat. This principle is easy to violate the most different ways... For example, with the help of the so-called "electoral geometry" ("electoral geography"), that is, such a cutting of the country's territory into electoral districts that on the side of the ruling party, in whose interests such a cutting has been carried out, the largest possible number of districts with supporting this party by voters.

Regarding elections in collegial bodies the authorities can note the following pattern: elections to local bodies, unicameral parliaments and lower chambers of bicameral parliaments are direct everywhere (in a number of countries, such are elections to the upper house, in particular to the US Senate); the voting is secret, which is now typical for all civilized countries of the world.

A specific form of electoral activity of citizens is a referendum (from Lat. Referendum - what must be communicated), sometimes called (usually when solving territorial disputes) a plebiscite (from Lat. Plebs - common people and scitum - decision, resolution). The first ever referendum was held in 1439 in Switzerland. A referendum is a popular vote, the object of which is any important state issue, on which it is necessary to find out the opinion of the entire population of the country. For example, it can be a question about the nationality of a particular territory (plebiscites of 1935 and 1957 about the Saar region of Germany, bordering with France) or about its independence (a 1995 referendum in Quebec, a French-speaking province of Canada), the question of the form of state government (referendums in 1946 in Italy and 1974 in Greece to replace the monarchy with a republic), etc.

Like elections, referendums are different types depending on the subject of voting, method of holding and scope. A referendum is called constitutional if it is used to approve the constitution or amendments to it, or legislative if the subject of the referendum is a draft act of current legislation.

It should be noted that the political nature of the referendum is twofold: on the one hand, a referendum is capable (and ideally is intended) to reveal the will of the people on a particular issue or a set of issues, on the other hand, the organizers of a referendum can make it the subject of an insignificant issue in order to distract people's attention from really pressing problems. It also happens that the will of the people, expressed in a referendum, is ignored and trampled upon by those in power.

As already mentioned, the electoral procedure constitutes the practical and organizational part of the electoral system.

It is necessary to distinguish between such often identified concepts as "electoral procedure" and "electoral campaign".

The electoral procedure is the measures of the state for the organization and conduct of elections. An electoral campaign (pre-election campaign) is the actions of direct election participants, competing parties in the elections (parties, various public organizations, the candidates themselves).

In addition, the electoral procedure as a set of organizational rules can remain relatively unchanged for quite a long time, during which more than one election campaign will take place. The electoral procedure regulates and regulates the electoral campaign, like a policeman at a street intersection, regulating the flow of cars.

The electoral procedure includes: the appointment of elections; creation of electoral bodies responsible for their conduct; organization of electoral districts, districts, precincts; registration of candidates for deputies; some financial support for the elections; maintaining order during their conduct; determination of voting results.

An electoral (pre-election) campaign provides for the nomination of candidates by opposing political forces, campaigning for them, etc.

The electoral campaign officially begins on the day of the announcement of the act on the appointment of elections (usually this is the prerogative of the state) and continues until the date of the elections. In fact, it takes its first steps long before the official start, as soon as it becomes known about the intention to hold elections.

The electoral struggle is the main field of activity of a political party in a democratic society as opposed to a totalitarian one. Each party takes care of expanding its electorate. The electorate (from Lat. Elector - voter) is a contingent of voters who vote for any party in the elections. For example, the electorate of the Social Democratic parties consists mainly of workers, intelligentsia, office workers, small owners; the Democratic Party of the United States, as a rule, includes the colored population of the country. The electorate is not some strictly defined social group, although some relative stability is inherent in it. From elections to elections, the electorate of a particular party changes both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, after Labor ousted the liberals from the bipartisan system of Great Britain, the electorate of the former was largely replenished at the expense of the electorate of the latter.

Taking into account the fact that in the states of the modern world continues (and in Russia goes in full swing) social differentiation, accompanied by the emergence of more and more political parties and social movements, each of which claims to be the spokesman for the interests of the entire people, the question of the formation of electoral blocs and unions becomes very urgent, because none of the parties is often able to achieve victory in alone. Therefore, during the pre-election campaign, parties and public organizations often form political blocs and alliances, concluding agreements for joint actions to ensure victory for candidates from parties with similar positions.

However, this kind of pre-election diplomacy is not enough to win the elections. Needed whole line other factors: presence financial resources allowing widespread pre-election campaigning; authority, acceptability of the party in the eyes of voters; political novelty challenging the old way; the political and personal attractiveness of the candidates nominated by the party, that is, their image (from the English. image - image); thoughtfulness of the election program (platform) of a party or political bloc.

The culmination of the election campaign is Election Day. Unlike the noisy election campaign, the voting procedure itself is a secret, and therefore the most interesting thing about this procedure we learn when the secret is either violated or has not yet been legalized. The latter is typical for societies with an underdeveloped culture.

It is known, for example, that when Napoleon Bonaparte decided to "legitimize" his dictatorship through a popular plebiscite, voting was conducted openly, under the strict supervision of the authorities, and in the army - by regiments, with the soldiers voting in chorus.

And today there are similar examples. More recently, in Zaire, parliament members were elected on city squares by exclamation of approval of candidates from the list read out by the mayor of the city; which are waiting for them candidates to the electoral college of deputies of parliament.

However, with the formation of civil society, the growth of its legal consciousness and the improvement of legal institutions, such methods of voting acquire the features of anachronism.

In some countries, the number of candidates running in each constituency is limited to avoid “electoral crush”. So, in the UK, this number should not exceed five. In addition, each candidate pays a fairly large cash deposit, which will be withheld if the applicant does not collect at least 5% of the total number of votes. The 5% threshold has been set in a number of countries (including Russia) and for parties. In many countries, the day before the elections, pre-election campaigning is prohibited so that the voter can calmly weigh who should vote.

Thus, the majoritarian system contributes to the formation of a majority in the government and puts up with the disproportion between the votes gained and the mandates received.

The proportional system means that mandates are distributed strictly in proportion to the number of votes cast. This system is more widespread in the modern world. In Latin American countries, for example, elections are held only on a proportional basis. It is used in Belgium, Sweden and many other countries. The proportional system has two types:

a proportional electoral system at the national level (voters vote for political parties nationwide; no constituencies are allocated);
proportional electoral system in multi-member constituencies (deputy mandates are distributed based on the influence of parties in constituencies).

The electoral system in Russia has a relatively short history - about 90 years, counting from the law on elections to the first State Duma of December 11, 1905. The law, which put the curial system at the forefront, can hardly be called democratic, since it ensured unequal representation of different strata population. Even worse was the law of 1907, which existed until the very end of the pre-revolutionary Duma.

IN Soviet era the elections have become purely formal. Only in 1989 did the situation begin to change radically. But even then, during the elections of People's Deputies, a part of the seats was reserved in advance for “public organizations” (indicating “to whom - how many), which, in essence, was a modification of the same curial system. This order was rejected a year later as anti-democratic.

On March 17, 1991, the country's first national referendum was held, and on June 12 of the same year, the first presidential elections in the history of Russia took place.

The current electoral system of Russia is determined by the new Constitution of the Russian Federation, adopted by a popular vote on December 12, 1993, and federal laws"On the presidential elections Russian Federation"And" On the election of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation "(1995).

The Constitution proclaims: "Citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to elect and be elected to state and local government bodies, as well as to participate in a referendum."

Citizens of the Russian Federation receive active suffrage from the age of 18, passive - the right to be elected to the State Duma - from the age of 21 (for the presidency - from 35 years old, subject to a 10-year permanent residence on the territory of the Russian Federation). At the same time, participation in elections is declared voluntary, carried out on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.

450 deputies are elected to the State Duma, of which 225 are in single-mandate constituencies (1 constituency - 1 deputy) and 225 are in the federal constituency in proportion to the number of votes cast for federal lists of candidates nominated by electoral associations and blocs. In the first case, a person is elected, in the second - a party, a bloc of parties or other public association.

The Russian Federation has a mixed electoral system. In single-mandate constituencies, elections are held on the basis of a plurality majority system.

In the federal district, selection is carried out according to the proportional principle, but this proportionality applies only to those parties, blocs, etc. that have crossed the 5% threshold, i.e. received at least 5% of the votes from among those who participated in the elections. Those who do not reach this figure lose their votes, as well as the right to representation in the Duma.

The current Russian electoral system is based on the experience of a number of states that both have rich legal traditions and have only recently begun building the rule of law. Of course, much in it is subject to verification and correction, perhaps very thorough, but what is important is that the electoral mechanism in our country has been created and is working.