Holistic marketing examples of companies. Modern Marketing Concept: A Holistic Approach. Element # 4. Effective marketing

A group is often spoken of as an organism. One of the proofs of this is the willingness of group members to converge opinions and psychological qualities. As a result, the group can solve joint tasks.

Often, the group is faced with tasks in which it is difficult to find an objective indicator of the correctness of the solution. Then the opinion of the majority turns out to be the only guideline of behavior for everyone. The situation becomes critical when a group member discovers that his point of view contradicts the opinion of others. Then he has an internal conflict: "to believe himself or the opinion of other people." The way out of this difficult situation depends on a number of circumstances, among which the following are the main ones:

the complexity of the task that has to be solved: an increase in the complexity of the task leads to a decrease in self-confidence;
experience in solving this type of problem: if the experience is large, the problem is solved easily, but if it is not enough, then there are difficulties with orientation in the task - to focus on yourself or other people?
the authority of the individual in this group: if it is high, then you can rely on your abilities, but if it is low, then the opinion of others may become preferable;
the significance of the group for the decision-maker: if a person respects the opinion of the group, and he needs it, then the issue is resolved by agreeing with the opinion of the group, if the group is not significant, the choice is focused only on his own opinion.

Studies have found that the mere presence of other people is enough to change a person's feelings, emotional states and behavior.

Usually, differences of opinion at the beginning of the formation of a group are greater than with the formed structure of relations. To a large extent, common tasks affect the convergence of opinions of group members. In the minds of everyone, they form a willingness to agree rather than challenge the state of affairs. True, exceptions are possible if there is a struggle for leadership in the group. This struggle dictates to the members of the group their own rules of conduct. Leadership struggles often split a group in two, each with its own leaders. This situation is called dual leadership. The emerging groups feed the leaders' pride, and they complete the split in the group. In this case, a single task acquires two meanings - a separate one for each of the subgroups. Rapprochement of opinions becomes the most problematic in such a situation.

At the heart of the change and convergence of opinions is the mechanism of imitation and suggestion. Academician V.M.Bekhterev believed that imitation and suggestion are often poorly understood by a person. People differ in the degree of awareness and criticality in those cases when they have to change their own judgments. One, for example, realizes the fact of contradictions and agrees with the opinion of the group or the leader-leader, but then returns to his own judgment. Another, unconscious of the effect of imitation and suggestion, is so influenced that he ceases to notice the substitution of his own judgment by someone else's (group, leadership). Researchers identify the following circumstances that determine the degree of compliance of group members:

The maximum inspiring pressure on a group member is exerted by three people with a common opinion. Especially if these persons have authority.
The influence of the group depends on the position of the person in the group. The least susceptible to suggestion are those who are weakly dependent on the group, but highly valued by it. Typically, these people are more capable than the rest of the group, leading most to go after a highly regarded leader. It is easier for the more capable to choose between the groups in which he has to function.
Unity of opinion is stronger in groups with a democratic system of relations than in authoritarian groups, but there is more order and precision in the authoritarian type of groups. This is due to the fact that in groups with democratic relations its members switch to interpersonal communication. If the situation is far from extreme, critical, then the efficiency decreases. joint activities... The authoritarian system of relations turns out to be more effective in difficult, crisis situations. A more rigid distribution of roles and functions not only streamlines the behavior of everyone, but also increases the accuracy of solving managerial problems.
Opinions expressed aloud are more suggestive than those received in writing. The exception is the documents of higher authorities, which are of particular importance in authoritarian societies. Living witnesses are always more valuable because papers can be destroyed.
Compliance with group pressure depends on the order of the opinions expressed. Group members who have expressed their opinion earlier than others have a greater influence on the behavior of others. The consensus of opinion of the majority of the group members has a stronger influence on the statements of the last speakers. To increase the inspiring effect of the leader, the leader can express his opinion not only at the beginning, but also summarize at the end, choosing the optimal line of behavior.
Exposure to influence from others is significant if there is a difference of opinion, but it is not significant. A certain degree of reliability of discrepancies, which does not reach the point of absurdity, is optimal.
In tight-knit groups, the pressure of consensus on individual members is stronger than in less tight-knit groups. The established positive relationship binds the members of the group with obligations to each other. In less close-knit groups, members have little to value other than their own opinions, which is why they experience less pressure from each other.
With the threat of punishment, the effect of public consent most often arises with internal rejection. Dissent, suppressed in every possible way by totalitarian regimes, leads to external like-mindedness, which ensures the self-preservation of members of groups and society as a whole. However, this external like-mindedness makes people indifferent, passive, lack of initiative, which leads to a gradual decrease in labor efficiency with external well-being.
The opinion developed by the group is more stable than the individual opinion of the ordinary members of the group. Group opinion becomes the norm, a “role model”. It is no coincidence that lawmaking at the stage of completion and adoption requires mandatory discussion and voting.

Psychologists have defined the types of behavior of people who have to solve a dilemma: to be independent, but rejected by the group, or to be dependent, but accepted by the group. It was allocated three independent and three non-independent types of behavior:

The first type of independent people is characterized by complete trust in their own intellectual abilities and life experience. Usually these are people of the older generation with high authority in the past, and even more so in the present.
The second type of independent people is characterized by their withdrawal from the pressure of the group while maintaining their own opinion. This behavior is possible in the presence of other significant groups and authorities.
The third type of independent people is characterized by significant tensions and doubts in the conditions of choice of decisions. Yet they, as a rule, remain unconvinced.
The first type of dependent people shows sufficient confidence in their intellectual abilities, but the unwillingness to be rejected by the group forces them to accept other people's judgments. They can be considered prudent people.
The second type of dependent people relatively easily accepts the point of view of the majority, since they have little confidence in their own intellectual capabilities.
The third type of dependent people does not notice that their opinion is determined by the point of view of the majority.

Explanations of people of dependent types are varied. Some justify their behavior by the lack of information for making correct decisions. Others unequivocally believe that the majority is always right, so there is no need to strain.

Exposure to group influences depends on the type of professional activity. Technicians trust their own knowledge more and the group's opinion is less important to them. Humanitarians and especially social scientists are less confident in the reliability and validity of humanitarian knowledge and are more likely to change their judgment in the face of group pressure.

The concept of a group is interpreted in different ways.

Some researchers distinguish conditional groups, i.e. consider the group to be a conditional union necessary for analysis and statistical accounting.

Others consider the group to be a real formation, where there is a unit of activity, certainty of conditions, and thoroughness of features.

The classification of groups can be different.

A small group is 2 or more persons (no more than 30) interacting with each other in such a way that each person influences others and is influenced by others.

The main characteristics of the group:

1.composition, i.e. set of characteristics by gender, age, prof. Accessories.

2. the structure, which is determined by the objectives of the study, conditions.

3.group processes, i.e. roles, status, communication processes, interactions, cohesion processes, group formation, formation, pressure, leadership, organization of joint activities, decision-making by a group.

4. group norms are elements of group culture, rules of proper behavior.

The composition of the group, norms and processes determine the potential of the group, which manifests itself in joint activities.

An activity is considered joint if:

1. employees have a common goal, common motivation, common end results.

2. if the activity is divided into functionally related components that are distributed among the participants.

3. there is a combination of individual activities and their coordinated implementation, i.e., the presence of management and self-government.

4. spatio-temporal unity of performance by different sections of the components of activity distributed between them.

Forms of joint activities:

1. jointly - individual activity (team of machine operators);

2. together - sequential operation (conveyor);

3. jointly - interacting (construction team);

4. jointly - creative.

In the functional divisions of the organization, domestic researchers distinguish three levels of interconnectedness of work:

1. parallel - individual;

2. cooperatively - individual;

3. cooperatively network - the activity of some is impossible without the simultaneous or previous activity of others.

The task of the manager is to form business connections. Joint activity becomes more successful in conditions of integration, which is achieved when the efforts and actions of each participant are subject to the norms and tasks of the group as a whole. It is in the course of integration that disparate actions are combined into collective activity - cooperation.

The internal mechanism of cooperation is cooperation, which involves the pooling of efforts of group members and specialization, coordination of actions.

Specialization changes as participants begin to try themselves in different roles.

Coordination of actions is possible only in conditions of coordination and ordering of actions of employees. The group can also track collectivist or individual relationship... Leadership can be formal or informal.

With individual labor, isolation and alienation are often manifested.

It is in group work that it is easier for a leader to become a leader if his behavior conforms to the norms accepted in the group, and he is “immersed” in the work of the group.

In individual work, the manager becomes only a connecting link, carrying out the distribution, planning and control of work.

In a small group, it is important that the leader compensates for the qualities of his employees with his qualities.

In this case, his subordinates trust him, and he justifies their expectations. This state is called the effects of mutual - compensatory cooperation.

The studies revealed the following pattern:

- the lower the group in terms of its development, the fewer demands it makes on the leader, self-confidence, rigidity, aggressiveness on the part of the leader, which is fair.

- the higher the group in terms of its level of development, the better the set of qualities of the leader.

Group Behavior Factors:

2 discoveries:

Competitions

- Hutthorn experiments

In the course of the research, tendencies towards an increase in labor productivity in conditions of joint activity by 35-40% compared with individual labor, and 10% under competitive conditions.

The Hutthorn experiments also showed that labor productivity depends on group norms in the context of interpersonal relations.

In subsequent studies, a pattern was revealed: the group norm can increase several times if the results of each work affect the success of the others and depend on their overall success.

The development of group behaviors is determined by the following factors:

1. professional harmony, which is formed by joint work and is manifested in the fact that those groups where it is inherent in interchangeability, complementarity, mutual responsibility.

This factor is complemented by the satisfaction of workers with their work, which in turn can compensate for some of the limitations, costs associated with the personality of a person, and with shortcomings in working conditions and in the organization.

2.interpersonal compatibility, which involves linking professional interests in the group field of activity. She suggests psychological readiness to cooperation.

3. moral and psychological cohesion, in which norms of mutual assistance and mutual support are formed on the basis of a common understanding of oneself.

Factors of professional harmony and moral and psychological cohesion make up the core of the group.

Figure 19 - Models of group behavior (methodology of Yu.D. Krasovsky)

Prof. responsiveness

interpersonal compatibility moral - psychological

cohesion

Prof. consistency

Characteristic today

What could be

A strong group has both of these factors, which are biased in proportion, and this is the indicator of the highest professional development group led by a leader.

If one of the factors under the influence of the leader is actualized, then this is already a less developed group, business relations will no longer be the main ones, i.e. conflicts are inevitable and people will not be busy.

In less developed groups, the leader is not always the leader, which affects the performance of the group.

The success or failure of the work of the group characterizes the purposefulness, ideology, productivity and satisfaction with the results of work.

There are also situational variables: group level of claims, interactions with others. professional groups, leadership positions, group norms, etc.

2. Forming a cohesive group.

Cartwright put forward the model of cohesion as the result of the motivation of group membership, that is, it is the result of the motives that induce the members of the group to maintain membership in this particular group, i.e. compatibility of needs and values.

This result is nothing more than a motivating property of the group, reflected in its goals, programs, methods of action, prestige.

Cohesion, in his opinion, is the expectation or subjective likelihood that membership will have positive consequences.

The fourth component of cohesion, in his opinion, is a kind of average subjective assessment of the consequences of a person's stay in different groups.

Group properties:

- attractiveness of group members;

- similarities between members of the group;

- features of group goals;

- the originality of the relationships of the members of the group;

- satisfaction with group activities;

- the nature of the leadership;

- making decisions;

- the size of the group;

Group atmosphere.

Complementing Cartwright's model, other researchers introduce the concept of intergroup conflict. It is in this kind of conflict that the members of the group perceive their group as a whole.

From Cartwright's point of view, group cohesion has not only causes but also consequences:

1.retention of group membership

2.increasing influence on its members

3.increased participation of group members

4. growth of individual adaptation in the group

5.reduced anxiety

6. productivity.

A. V. Petrovsky: highest level group development is a team characterized by cohesion.

The labor collective is one of the central concepts - social organization which is characterized by joint significant activity. The unity of the goals of the group, the unity of value orientations, the leadership of the discipline - this creates conditions for normal work.

Classification of collectives:

- formal;

- informal;

- primary - these are collectives on the scale of a department, service, site, which are united on the basis of a separate technological process;

- secondary - on the scale of the shop, which are combined on the basis of a large volume of technological functions.

The process of forming a team goes through several stages, which the manager should pay attention to.

Cohesion is characterized by the following factors:

- time spent together;

- overcoming difficulties by joining a group;

- the size of the group and its composition;

- external conditions;

- previous successes or failures.

"Growing up", motivating and uniting the group:

- group formation;

- organization of positional dynamics;

- cooperation;

- productive conflict.

IN real life all these forms can be mixed, replaced by other types of activity. For example, growing a group is associated with an acquaintance, which may not happen immediately, but only after a few hours of working together. Group formation is critical because in this process, the foundations for the specialization of actions are laid. It is here that coordination and integration of efforts is outlined, i.e. it is a process during which it is determined whether individual participants will become a collective subject, whether a synergistic effect arises.

Group formation is a procedure that involves supporting naturally occurring acquaintances and bringing participants closer together.

If the group turns into a collective, then it will quickly catch up.

The organization of positional dynamics means the roles, functions, and positions represented in the group.

1. change in people's behavior towards greater creativity and self-confidence.

2. mastering a variety of roles.

3. the acquisition of greater psychological flexibility.

4. the ability to consistently carry out the actions required by a given position.

The concept of position is different from the concept of role, although they are close.

Position is a place in the structure of activity that determines a special way of seeing the perception of ongoing events, a special direction of actions.

A role is a socially expected pattern of behavior.

It is necessary to distinguish between position and personality, especially in a conflict.

In group work, there are three types of positions: functional, role, personal.

The functional position corresponds to the professional job of the person.

The role-playing position is allocated depending on the place that the group member occupies in meaningful work.

Notable characteristics of roles:

- polymath

- analyst

- diagnostician: has developed imaginative thinking

- idea's generator

- developer: indispensable when refining other people's ideas

- simulator: creates the appearance of the work

- critic

- integrator

The cohesion of the group is of a controversial nature, is often accompanied by role contacts, the reasons for which may be:

1. the contradictions originally inherent in the content of the role;

2. the contradiction between a person and his assigned role in the organization;

3. the contradiction between the role and its perception, organizational environment;

4. the contradiction between this role and some other roles.

These contradictions can be eliminated:

1. changing the content and ways of performing the role (i.e. changing your work).

2. change of the individual himself (towards self-improvement).

3.permutation of people

Formal is the position of a person in the formal hierarchy, the distribution of influence on activities, i.e. these are the power rights of the performers. It can also be determined by the environment of the organization.

Informal - transmitted to a person by the people around him (depends on the personal characteristics of the performer of the role). The informal can exalt the meaning of the role and vice versa.

When talking about personal aspects, you should pay attention to the individuality of the person.

Individuality is made up of:

1.difference from others;

2. similarities with others;

3. dissimilarity from others.

Each has in common with the others and is unlike the others.

Individuality manifests itself more in a long period of time, because individuality is stable, although it can change (slightly) under the influence of experience.

Individuality is formed under the influence of 3 groups of factors:

1. Heredity and physiological characteristics;

2. environmental factors (family, immediate environment, general culture, society).

3. traits and characteristics of a person's character (i.e., individuality influences its formation).

Personality can be described as follows:

- how a person behaves in relation to others;

- observing sensitivity to other people;

- risk perception;

- dogmatism (character trait of people with limited views);

- the sphere of control.

If a person believes that his behavior depends on him, then he has an internal sphere of control.

If a person believes that his behavior depends on the circumstances, then he has an inherent external sphere of control.

In this regard, a distinction is made between:

- internals (believe in their own strength);

- externalists (deny personal responsibility).

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Types of group behavior

In social psychology, there are four main types of behavior of people in a small group.

Isolating type. Individual orientation is well expressed. The optimal solution of problems is possible only in conditions of relative isolation from the group, independently.

Driven type. A tendency towards conformity, imitation, voluntary submission is expressed. The optimal solution to a group problem is possible in contact with more confident and competent members of the group.

Leading type. The individual is power-oriented in the group. The optimal solution of problems is possible if other members of the group are subordinate to oneself.

Collaborative type. The individual constantly strives for joint problem solving with others and follows the group in cases of reasonable decisions.

Knowledge of the types of behavior of group members helps the psychotherapist in the distribution of roles, contributes to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of psychological incompatibility of its individual members.

The coincidence of the formal and informal leader in one person simplifies the situation, the discrepancy makes the group process more difficult.

Group process

The concept of a group process (group dynamics) was first introduced by Kurt Lewin in 1936. The central idea of this concept is that the laws of behavior of individuals in groups should be sought in the knowledge of the "social and psychological forces" that determine them.

Later, this concept in relation to psychocorrectional groups was developed by Rogers, Shut-

cem et al. (see section: "Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy").

Kelman (Kelman, 1963) considers group psychotherapy as a "situation of social influence" and identifies three stages in the group process: compliance; identification; appropriation.

According to Kelman, members of a psychotherapy group are, first, influenced by the therapist and other members of the group; secondly, they are identified with the psychotherapist and with each other; third, they take over the group experience. Kelman believes that “compliance” with the norms and rules of the group is not enough to achieve a therapeutic effect - it is still necessary to assimilate what has been learned and master it. Group members must learn new feeling skills (compliance), respond to the group (identification), and apply them to specific real-life situations (assignment).

A psychocorrectional group, from the moment of its creation until the completion of the treatment process, goes through several stages (phases) of its development.

Most researchers of this issue come to the conclusion that the group process, starting from the stage of adaptation, through the resolution of intra-group conflicts (the second stage) eventually comes to cohesion and effective problem solving (Tuckman, 1965; Bennis, Shepard, 1974 and etc.).

In the second stage, the need for control of the situation, negativism. There is rivalry and a desire for independence, a desire to stand out, take a leading position. In the third stage, begins to dominate need for affection, Group members form a close emotional bond with each other. To the fore

cohesion, a sense of openness, intimacy, empathy act.

Kratochvil (1978) identifies four phases of group development.

First phase (orientation and dependence). Adaptation to new people and orientation occurs: "What kind of treatment is this?" "What do we do?" "How does this help me?" Group members are anxious, insecure, dependent. Some withdraw into themselves, others talk about their diseases, but at the same time everyone is waiting for information and instructions from a psychotherapist.

Second phase (conflicts and protest). A tendency towards self-affirmation appears, the distribution of roles begins: active and passive, leading and "oppressed", "favorites" and "unloved", etc. Discontent arises both with each other and with the psychotherapist, and in the end result - disappointment in the method itself treatment.

If at the first stage of the formation of the group the psychotherapist was an idol for all members of the group, now he is thrown off the pedestal, reduced to the level of "a bum and a charlatan." Dissatisfaction with the psychotherapist is further intensified if he refuses the leading, authoritarian role. Emotional stress reaches its climax:

the patient's discussion turns into a "comradely court", a conversation with a psychotherapist - into a conflict. If the psychotherapist is not experienced enough, then at this phase the group may break up.

Third phase (development and cooperation). Emotional tension decreases, the number and severity of conflicts decreases. There is a consolidation of group norms and values. The struggle for leadership recedes into the background. There is a need for belonging to a group, a sense of responsibility for common interests becomes urgent. Mutual understanding, sincerity, intimacy arise between the members of the group. Dialogues become more frank and trusting. The individual develops a sense of security, confidence that the group will protect him. There is a desire to open up, relations with the psychotherapist normalize.

Fourth phase (purposeful activity). The group becomes a work collective, a mature social system. Its members think, consult, make decisions. Positive feedback is being established, which is not violated even in those cases when negative emotions and conflicts are deliberately allowed for discussion.

In domestic psychotherapy, it is customary to single out the adaptive, frustrating, constructive and implementation phases of group dynamics (Slutsky, Tsapkin, 1985, etc.). Basically, this dynamics is no different from the dynamics described by Rogers, Kratochwil, et al.

What are the curative factors psychotherapy group? According to Jalom (1975), there are ten.

Cohesion. This is a characteristic of the degree of connectedness, the unity of interpersonal relations in a group. The increase in cohesion helps to strengthen the interaction between the members of the group, intensifies the processes of social influence, increases the satisfaction of everyone.

Inspiration of hope. Belief in the success of the group process itself has a therapeutic effect.

Generalization. People tend to think of their life problems and illnesses as unique. In the process of group development, they begin to realize that others have similar problems and diseases. This identification of one's own problems and experiences has a therapeutic effect.

Altruism. Behavior focused on satisfying other people's interests without consciously considering their benefits for oneself. Behavior aimed at providing disinterested assistance to any member of the group, no matter what social status he takes outside the group.

Provision of information. This refers to the information and reasoning that a group member needs for self-awareness and self-disclosure.

Multiple transfer. Any difficulties in the field of communication and social adaptation, being determined by the events of the present and the past, are obligatory

they are clearly manifested in group communication. The patient's emotional attachment to the therapist and to other members of the group is examined, explored and, if necessary, subjected to a rational and realistic assessment.

Interpersonal learning. The group serves as a testing ground for researching positive and negative emotional responses and testing new behaviors. The members of the group are convinced that they can openly ask for help and support from others and selflessly help themselves.

Development of interpersonal skills. In a group, all its members, either explicitly or implicitly, improve their communication skills. Various techniques are used to develop interpersonal skills, including feedback and role play.

Imitative behavior. Learning appropriate behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others. At the beginning of the group process, the behavior of the therapist or other group members who have received his approval is imitated. Gradually, the group members begin to experiment using the many patterns of behavior offered in the group for maintenance.

Catharsis. Group discussion of hidden or repressed (“unacceptable”) needs, focusing on unanalyzed emotions such as guilt or hostility, lead to self-understanding, self-disclosure, and ultimately to relief.

Kratochvil (1978) gives a different list of therapeutic factors in the psychotherapeutic group:

· Participation in the work of the group;

· Emotional support;

• helping others;

Self-manifestation;

· Response;

· Feedback;

• insight (understanding of previously unconscious relationships);

· Collective emotional experience;

· Testing and training new ways of behavior;

· Receiving new information and social skills.

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that none of the listed factors in isolation has a decisive therapeutic value. The therapeutic effect is exerted by the group process, the whole group as a whole.

Group ethics

The most important in this problem are questions concerning the ethics of the group leader, therapist, and questions of intragroup ethics.

A reasonable requirement that should be presented to a psychotherapist is the level of his professional training. Many believe that any licensed therapist or psychologist can provide group therapy. This is a deep delusion, generated by ignorance, first of all, of the mechanisms of the therapeutic effect of group psychotherapy.

Training of competent specialists for group psychotherapy, it is a rather complicated and laborious business and should include at least three stages of training.

The first stage is training in the therapeutic fundamentals and techniques of group psychotherapy; the second is an internship in a group led by an experienced specialist, and the third is personal participation in the group process.

Theoretical basis and the main forms of group psychotherapy are mastered during primary specialization.

But experience shows that this is not enough.

The best option the second stage of training is to work "in tandem" with an experienced psychotherapist. The role of the leader is always played by a more trained physician, but sometimes it is useful to transfer this role to the trainee in the course of training, so that he can take responsibility for leadership, and most importantly, “feel” the group. Subsequently, the leadership of the group can be temporarily assigned to the trainee, but subject to the presence, supervision and support of a professional.

It is very important for the psychotherapist to acquire personal experience group member. A good testing ground for this is

There is a training group. The leaders in such a T-group can be appointed in turn, with the rest acting as participants. Participants of the T-group in such conditions gain an understanding not only of how the group leader feels, but also of how the participants feel when they are experiencing difficulties of frustration, interpersonal relationships, and self-disclosure.

In the West, for example, at the Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology in Warsaw, programs of 2-year and 4-year training courses for doctors for group psychotherapy have been developed (Kosevska and Chabala, 1990).

Intra-group ethics includes a range of issues, the most important of which are:

Consent or disagreement to participate in the group process;

Freedom of choice to participate in certain activities of the group;

Prevention of mental trauma.

Parloff (1970) emphasizes that professional leaders groups should confine themselves to modest advertising and speak openly about the boundaries of their competence and capabilities.

At the same time, information about the goals, methods, duration and principles of group psychotherapy, on the contrary, should be as complete as possible. This allows the patient to correctly decide whether to participate in this type of treatment or not.

Group and group behavior

At the same time, neither the leader of the group, nor the group itself should exert undue pressure on such a participant, let alone force him to sincerity and self-disclosure.

The third question is closely related to the second. Careful selection of individual members when forming a group is also important.

Finally, confidentiality is imperative for the leader and the team as a whole. Everything that is discussed in the group should not go beyond it. Otherwise, the batch process may be interrupted.

TRAINING GROUPS

General Provisions

The history of the creation of training groups is closely connected with the name of the sociologist and psychologist Kurt Lewin. Working first in the laboratory, and then in the "field" conditions, Levin came to the conclusion that people in a group constantly influence each other. He argued: "To identify their inadequate attitudes and develop new forms of behavior, people must learn to see themselves as others see them" (Lewin, 1951). His "field theory" laid the foundations for "group dynamics" and became a cornerstone in the creation of group psychotherapy.

However, the first training group (T-group) came about by accident. Several natural scientists (Leland Bradford, Ronald Lippitt, Kurt Lewin) formed a group in 1946 of business people and businessmen, the purpose of which was to study together basic social laws (for example, the law of employment) and "playing out" different situations associated with their application. In addition to developing optimal options for decisions and behavior associated with the application of laws, this group carried the first experience of self-disclosure and self-awareness through receiving feedback.

Bands quickly gained popularity as new effective method training, and the following year, a National Training Laboratory (NLT) was established in Bethel, Maine. The main tasks of T-groups, or, as they were then called, "groups of training basic skills", was to teach its participants the basic laws interpersonal communication, the ability to lead and make the right decisions in difficult situations. Naturally, such groups were initially not therapy-oriented.

Later, T-groups, according to their purpose, began to be divided into groups of skills (training leaders, business people), groups of interpersonal relations (problems of family, sex) and groups of "sensitivity" (groups focused on growth and self-improvement

personality, overcoming indecision, etc.). Nevertheless, for a long time, the emphasis in T-groups was placed on teaching healthy people such role functions as communicating with bosses and subordinates, developing optimal solutions in difficult situations, looking for methods to improve organizational performance, etc. (Shein, Bennis, 1965 ).

The founders of the T-groups at the heart of their, as they believed, the teaching method saw the following positive principles:

Application of social sciences (psychology, sociology) in practical life;

Orientation to democratic (as opposed to authoritarian) teaching methods;

Ability in the learning process to establish relationships of mutual understanding and mutual assistance ”readiness to delve into the problems of any member of the group.

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In the entire chain of interrelated personnel management activities, from hiring an employee to leaving the organization, from 50 to 80% of managers' time is spent on group activities. The effectiveness of any manager's work is closely related to understanding the characteristics of group work and the ability to properly act as a member of the managerial group and manage their own work group. Research in recent years has shed light on some of the forces at work in groups that affect performance.

Most of the materials in this section are taken from the developments of M.A. Rober and F. Thielman, as well as the works of Handy, where short review scientific research on work in groups. Moreover, Handy gives a systematic overview, not by groups in general, but in relation to managerial groups created in organizations to solve current issues of activity.

Most HR courses provide guidelines for improving group performance. These include issues such as: leadership style; methods used to solve problems and develop solutions; processes that help the group focus on the task at hand and smooth out conflicts between group members. These questions are the most important for understanding the topic included in the section heading.

Before proceeding to consider the factors affecting the effectiveness of the work of managerial groups, we will try to list at least most of the ideas and provisions concerning groups in general, and not just groups created to solve any problems in organizations. And in order to really understand what kind of complex phenomenon we are talking about, let us recall the classic experiment of M. Sheriff, where the unconscious influence that a group can have on individual perception was demonstrated. He placed the group in a dark room and asked everyone to focus on the spot of light. Then each member of the group was asked in turn to say which direction the light was traveling and how far it moved.

The concept of group and group behavior.

Although the light did not actually move at all, there were many differences in the individual responses to this question. However, when all individually gave their answers, the group very quickly came to an agreement on the direction and amount of the movement of light, and a group decision was reached, although it differed in many cases from the specific opinions that people had previously expressed.

Individual behavior can seem very strange, especially if there is no obvious explanation for this behavior, but the behavior of people in groups can be even stranger. So:

People live in groups in a state of constant interdependence.
bridges.

Members of the same group share common norms and pursue common
goals.

Groups have different functions. They are all more or less
her specialized. In fact, their specialization depends
sieve from the needs of people.

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Individuals participate in many groups. The group is natural
an essential and inevitable part of human life. There are constant
casual, temporary and casual groups.

Some groups are free. They are entered by
desire. Others are mandatory (having been born,
we do not choose family, ethnic group or nation).

Working groups can be formal or informal.
Formal groups are characterized by an organized structure.
Social relations here are impersonal and
are assigned through predefined roles. These roles have
the tendency towards formalization in accordance with the norms, defined
we are external environment, culture. In an informal group, there are
personal social relations which are carried out in ro
are defined by internal environment... The content of these roles is -
the result of interaction within the group.

It is always difficult to influence group norms. It's easier to de
from the inside and it is very difficult to do it from the outside, if only a person
who carries out this influence from the outside, does not have confidence
and the respect of the group.

All groups pressure their members to stagnate
to make them correspond to the norms of the group (norms of behavior, speech,
productivity, attitude to management, production, over
lesson work, etc.).

Groups as a whole generate fewer ideas than individual members.
we are groups, but the group comes up with the best ideas: with the best elaboration,
with a comprehensive assessment, with a greater degree of responsibility for
them.

Groups (oddly enough) accept riskier
solutions than individual members of the group. In all likelihood, once
a certain type of "group thinking" develops, in which
the group feels invulnerable. This trend became known as
risk bias phenomenon.

Conflict between groups and within a group is quite natural
a military phenomenon (we and they, those who are in the group and outside the group). Can
to be: personal conflicts, interpersonal, conflicts belonging
ness, intergroup, social. Consequences of conflicts - about
subgroup formation, removal of dissenting members, selection of "goats
la scapegoat ", organizational changes in a group, appearance
or a change of leader, the collapse of the group.

Understanding groups (and the forces that shape and influence them) is essential to good governance.

7.3.1. General goals of the group

It is known that the behavior of a person is a reaction aimed at changing the situation in order to satisfy his needs. The purpose of behavior is to change the situation. When the goal is not achieved and the situation cannot be changed, a new state sets in, which leads to new actions. Now let's take the case where two people behave in the presence of each other in such a way that their goals are mutually achieved. For example, an inventor has an idea but no money. The other person has the means, but he has no idea. It should be noted that their needs, motivations and goals can be quite different. But at the level of their behavior, there is an interdependence. Their meeting relieves tension. It's a good day for both!

Or - a group of friends: satisfaction from interaction, satisfaction from communication, while motivations and personal goals may be different.

Thus, interdependence and interaction are the starting point of group dynamics. This process explains:

a person's belonging to a group, attractiveness of a group and membership in a group;

the formation of informal groups;

the emergence of roles in the group (some personalities more than others meet the needs of the group and contribute to the improvement of the situation in the group. This happens, for example, when there is a cheerful person in the group, the soul of the team, the bearer of ideas, etc.).

Thus, we can say that a group is a collection of people resulting from their interaction. They mutually relieve everyone's stress and allow everyone to achieve their own goals. But this is not enough to achieve the effectiveness of the work of formal groups created at the enterprise to solve certain problems.

Perhaps the following definition is more useful: a group is any collection of people who perceive themselves as a group with some common purpose.

What is a "common goal"?

Note at the outset that group goals, like the goals of each individual, are not necessarily clear and conscious.

In addition, we emphasize that common goals are not purely formal goals imposed by an organization on its members. Here we are trying to explain the fact that

the members of the group really have common goals, whether they are proposed by the organization or not. And third, the similarity of personal goals is not enough to give the group a common goal.

For example, three young men want to marry the same girl. Their goals are similar, even the same. But this is not a common goal. This is not the purpose of the group.

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The interaction of a person and a group is always two-way. A person by his work, by his actions contributes to the solution of group problems, but the group also has a great influence on a person, helping him to satisfy his needs for security, love, respect, self-expression, personal regulation, elimination of worries, etc. It is noted that in groups with good relationships, with an active intragroup life, people have better health and better morale, they are better protected from external influences and work more efficiently than people in an isolated state, or in free groups affected by insoluble conflicts and instability ...

The group protects the individual, supports him and teaches him both the ability to perform tasks and the norms and rules of behavior in the group.

But the group not only helps a person to survive and improve his professional qualities, it changes his behavior, making a person often significantly different from what he was when he was outside the group. These group effects on a person have many manifestations. Let's point out some significant changes in human behavior that occur under the influence of the group:

· Under social influence, changes occur in such characteristics of a person as perception, motivation, scope of attention, assessment system, etc. A person expands the scope of his attention by increasing attention to the interests of other members of the group. His life turns out to be dependent on the actions of his colleagues and this significantly changes his view of himself, his place in the environment and those around him;

· In a group, a person receives a certain relative "weight". The group not only assigns tasks and roles, but also determines the relative position of each. Group members can do exactly the same job, but still have different weight in a group, and this will be an additional essential characteristic for the individual, which he did not possess and could not possess, being outside the group, for many members of the group this characteristic may be no less important than their formal position;

· The group helps the individual to find a new vision of his "I". A person begins to identify himself with the group, and this leads to significant changes in his perception of the world, in understanding his place in the world and his mission.

· Being in a group, participating in discussions and developing a solution, a person can also give out suggestions and ideas that he would never have given out if he did not comprehend the problem alone;

The effect of brainstorming on a person significantly increases creative potential person.

In a group, a person is much more inclined to take risk than in a situation where he acts alone, in some cases this feature of changing a person's behavior is a source of more effective and active behavior of people in a group environment than if they acted alone, it is wrong to think that the group changes the person the way it wants. Often a person resists many influences from the group for a long time, he perceives many influences only partially, some he completely denies.

Can not understand anything?

The processes of adaptation of a person to a group and adjustment of a group to a person are ambiguous, complex and often quite lengthy.

Entering a group, interacting with the group environment, a person not only changes himself, but has an impact on the group, on its other members. While interacting with the group, the person tries to different ways to influence it, to make changes in its functioning with that. so that it is acceptable to him, convenient for him and allows him to cope with his duties. Naturally, both the form of influence and the degree of a person's influence on the group substantially depend both on his personal characteristics, his ability to influence, and on the characteristics of the group. A person usually expresses his attitude towards the group from the position of what he believes, while his reasoning always depends on the position he occupies in the group, on the role he performs, on the task assigned to him and, accordingly, on what goals and he personally pursues interests.

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Roles associated with a team task	Team Support Roles
Initiating Offers new ideas, ways to overcome difficulties and problem solving. Changes perspective on group problems and goals Developing Develops and develops ideas and proposals put forward by other participants Coordinating Combines ideas, suggestions and tries to coordinate the actions of group members Orienting Guides the group towards its goals by assessing what is happening and identifying deviations from the agenda	Encouraging Encourages and supports the participation of others. Demonstrates understanding of other people's ideas and opinions Harmonizing Acts as a mediator between participants in case of disagreement and availability different points vision. Reduces tensions during conflicts Compromising Submits his opinion in something, coordinating it with the opinion of others to establish group harmony Protecting and performing Supports, encourages others by making it easier for them to participate and regulating the course of communication
Evaluating- criticizing Critically evaluates the proposals of the participants, comparing them with the existing standards for the performance of the task Inspiring to action Pushes and encourages the group to take action, to make decisions	Setting standards Applies standards in the group to assess the quality of the group process Passively next Passively follows the group, acts as a listener in group discussions and when making decisions

The creation of favorable conditions for the work of the group is facilitated by a positive emotional atmosphere, which reduces psychological tension, reflection, as well as mastering the basic rules of behavior during classes. The basic rules of the group work include:

1) activity, assuming the inclusion of all participants in the work of the group, the manifestation of intellectual, emotional, physical activity;

2) communication according to the principle "here and now", presupposing an appeal to the present, to what excites the participants right now, a discussion of what is happening in the group;

3) revealing positive qualities personality each participant;

4) sincerity and trust in communication;

5) inadmissibility of direct assessments a person (not the qualities of the participants are evaluated, but only their actions);

6) confidentiality everything that happens in the group.

Let's dwell on the procedural aspects of the training groups. The optimal size of the group, as indicated by the researchers of the training, is 10-12 people who are included in the lesson on the basis of the principle of voluntariness, that is, the free choice of this type of training. The practice of connecting people of different sex, age, education, degree of acquaintance in one group is justified. A group of participants working in the same institution or organization can also be created, but it is more difficult to work with. The cycle of training sessions is usually designed for 30-50 h., average duration of each lesson - 3 h In some cases, marathon classes are held, the duration of one lesson is 8-12 h

Training technologies are widely described in the literature. In the very general view personality-oriented trainings are carried out as follows:

The training is conducted by two educational psychologists; at the very beginning of the lesson, they present each other;

An introduction to the problems of the training is carried out, ensuring the openness and trust of the participants to each other;

A readiness for mutual cooperation, motivation to achieve the training objectives is formed;

The development of psychotechnics of new professional behavior and the development of socially and professionally important skills, qualities and abilities is carried out;

The professional and psychological potential of specialists is being updated;

Correction of the professional and psychological potential of the specialist's personality is carried out.

When conducting training sessions, leading educational psychologists are required to comply with ethical rules and the code of practical psychologist.

The leader is assigned an important role in all types of psychotechnology. He acts to a greater extent in the role of a facilitator - a person who facilitates the manifestation of initiative and personal interaction of the participants, providing psychological support, and not evaluating. The presenter himself acts as a model of a self-revealing personality, talking about himself frankly, like the rest of the participants. By showing concern and concern, he creates an environment of acceptance and empathic understanding in the group.

The implementation of personality-oriented communication determines the use of pedagogical facilitation technologies 1, which maximally take into account the psychological characteristics of all aspects of interpersonal communication. The main principles for the selection of such technologies are:

Ensuring cooperation of all educational facilities;

Building communication on an equal footing;

Recognition for each participant of the right to their own position and opinion;

Recognition of each subject of communication as a unique person;

Open manifestation of one's own feelings and emotional experiences;

Facilitation organization of the communication space 2.

Here are the technological methods of training sessions that are adequate to these principles.

The teacher reacts not to the superficial emotional reactions of the trainees, but to their hidden feelings, thereby helping to understand why the trainees experience such feelings and experiences. Educational empathy includes the following levels:

Rational (understanding the emotional state);

Emotional (empathy with the state of the student);

Effective (providing real help in overcoming negative emotions);

Leading (predicting possible emotional states).

An effective facilitation technique is the teacher's self-presentation, self-disclosure by him of his life and teaching experience. The use of this technique contributes to the acceptance of the teacher's personality by the members of the training group and thereby allows to remove the psychological barriers of alienation between all subjects of personality-oriented pedagogical communication.

K. Rogers identified three levels of humanization of any interpersonal relationship, providing constructive personal changes: 1) non-judgmental positive acceptance of another person; 2) active empathic listening; 3) congruent (adequate, genuine, sincere) self-expression in communication. The followers of K. Rogers emphasize that training should become a means of personal growth of students and teachers.

The results of personally oriented professional trainings and the criteria for their effectiveness are:

Increasing autopsychological, psychological and professional competence;

Transition of specialists to a new level of professionalism;

Development of readiness for self-change, self-development and self-realization in the field of professional activity;

Creation of an optimistic professional perspective and mastering the techniques (technologies) of professional self-preservation;

Overcoming destructive professional changes and preventing the loss of the meaning of professional life.

Conducting personality-oriented professional training requires adherence to a number of ethical rules, and from the participants - a vigilant and careful attitude to training with a clear understanding of what kind of impact they will have on them, what consequences this may lead to. From this point of view, it is important that when conducting professional training its goals and objectives were precisely specified, that is, it was determined which professional qualities specialist he is sent.

Consider the main ethical contradictions,

1 arising from training, which can become sources of value and moral problems:

Between the interests of society, organization, enterprise and specialist, which cannot always

coincide;

Between the right of a specialist to professional growth, a career and the inability to fulfill this need based on the results of the training;

Between the lofty goals and objectives of the training and the pragmatism of the participants seeking specific recommendations and clear instructions.

In social psychology, there are four main types of behavior of people in a small group.

Isolating type. Individual orientation is well expressed. The optimal solution of problems is possible only in conditions of relative isolation from the group, independently.

Leading type. The individual is power-oriented in the group. The optimal solution of problems is possible if other members of the group are subordinate to oneself.

Collaborative type. The individual constantly strives for joint problem solving with others and follows the group in cases of reasonable decisions.

The coincidence of the formal and informal leader in one person simplifies the situation, the discrepancy makes the group process more difficult.

Group process

Later, this concept in relation to psychocorrectional groups was developed by Rogers, Shut-

cem et al. (see section: "Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy").

Kelman (Kelman, 1963) considers group psychotherapy as a "situation of social influence" and identifies three stages in the group process: compliance; identification; appropriation.

A psychocorrectional group, from the moment of its creation until the completion of the treatment process, goes through several stages (phases) of its development.

This staged development of the group follows from Schutz's theory of interpersonal relations (Schutz, 1958). According to Schutz, in the early stages of a group's development, its members tend to inclusion in the situation. At this stage, a sense of belonging to the group begins to form and the desire to establish adequate relations with all its participants. In the second stage, the need for control of the situation, negativism. There is rivalry and a desire for independence, a desire to stand out, take a leading position. In the third stage, begins to dominate need for affection, Group members form a close emotional bond with each other. To the fore

cohesion, a sense of openness, intimacy, empathy act.

Kratochvil (1978) identifies four phases of group development.

What are the curative factors psychotherapy group? According to Jalom (1975), there are ten.

Inspiration of hope. Belief in the success of the group process itself has a therapeutic effect.

Altruism. Behavior focused on satisfying other people's interests without consciously considering their benefits for oneself. Behavior aimed at providing disinterested assistance to any member of the group, regardless of what social position he occupies outside the group.

Provision of information. This refers to the information and reasoning that a group member needs for self-awareness and self-disclosure.

Multiple transfer. Any difficulties in the field of communication and social adaptation, being determined by the events of the present and the past, are obligatory

Kratochvil (1978) gives a different list of therapeutic factors in the psychotherapeutic group:

· Participation in the work of the group;

· Emotional support;

• helping others;

Self-manifestation;

· Response;

· Feedback;

• insight (understanding of previously unconscious relationships);

· Collective emotional experience;

· Testing and training new ways of behavior;

· Obtaining new information and social skills.

Group ethics

The most important in this problem are questions concerning the ethics of the group leader, therapist, and questions of intragroup ethics.

Training of competent specialists for group psychotherapy, it is a rather complicated and laborious business and should include at least three stages of training.

The theoretical foundations and basic forms of group psychotherapy are mastered during primary specialization. But experience shows that this is not enough.

The best option for the second stage of training is to work "in tandem" with an experienced psychotherapist. The role of the leader is always played by a more trained physician, but sometimes it is useful to transfer this role to the trainee in the course of training, so that he can take responsibility for leadership, and most importantly, “feel” the group. Subsequently, the leadership of the group can be temporarily assigned to the trainee, but subject to the presence, supervision and support of a professional.

It is very important for the therapist to gain personal experience as a member of the group. A good testing ground for this is

Intra-group ethics includes a range of issues, the most important of which are:

Consent or disagreement to participate in the group process;

Freedom of choice to participate in certain activities of the group;

Prevention of mental trauma.

Parloff (1970) emphasizes that professional group leaders should confine themselves to modest advertising and be open about their boundaries of competence and capabilities. At the same time, information about the goals, methods, duration and principles of group psychotherapy, on the contrary, should be as complete as possible. This allows the patient to correctly decide whether to participate in this type of treatment or not.

The second question concerns the more intimate mechanisms of the group process. Therefore, each participant has the right not to participate in certain actions or situations during the work of the group. At the same time, neither the leader of the group, nor the group itself should exert undue pressure on such a participant, let alone force him to sincerity and self-disclosure.

The third question is closely related to the second. Careful selection of individual members when forming a group is also important.

Finally, confidentiality is imperative for the leader and the team as a whole. Everything that is discussed in the group should not go beyond it. Otherwise, the batch process may be interrupted.

TRAINING GROUPS

General Provisions

However, the first training group (T-group) came about by accident. Several natural scientists (Leland Bradford, Ronald Lippitt, Kurt Lewin) formed a group of business people and businessmen in 1946, the purpose of which was to study together basic social laws (for example, the law of employment) and "play" different situations associated with their application. In addition to developing optimal options for decisions and behavior associated with the application of laws, this group carried the first experience of self-disclosure and self-awareness through receiving feedback.

The groups quickly gained popularity as an effective new teaching method, and the following year, a National Training Laboratory (NLT) was established in Bethel, Maine. The main tasks of T-groups, or, as they were then called, "groups of training basic skills", was to teach its participants the basic laws of interpersonal communication, the ability to lead and make the right decisions in difficult situations. Naturally, such groups were initially not therapy-oriented.

The founders of the T-groups at the heart of their, as they believed, the teaching method saw the following positive principles:

Application of social sciences (psychology, sociology) in practical life;

Orientation to democratic (as opposed to authoritarian) teaching methods;

Ability in the learning process to establish relationships of mutual understanding and mutual assistance ”readiness to delve into the problems of any member of the group.

The concept of "small group" in modern sociology

Definition 1

Small group is a concept that is used by specialists to refer to a sustainable association of people. They exchange information, experience and knowledge, and in general their contacts are mutual. Unlike large groups, small social groups are very few in number (from 3 to 15 people). They are united by a common activity, the purpose of which is meaningful, does not have spontaneity and chaos.

Since in a small group communication between each member is not determined by any means (direct), this contributes to the emergence of some emotional relationships, which can be not only positive. Of course, small group members can make personal contacts outside of joint activities, create families, communicate with each other as friends. But do not forget that in small groups it is always assumed that there is a leader, and for this position there can be, in a sense, competition, which leads to negative consequences.

The distinguishing features of a small social group from the rest are the following:

The presence of each member in both spatial and temporal equivalents. This gives the opportunity to enter into personal contacts, create interpersonal relationships, which strengthens ties;
The presence of a single, conscious goal to which each member strives, carrying out any activity;
There is a leadership in the group. This is a person who is either chosen by the members of the group, or is defined as an informal leader who offers the main options for the development of events and solutions to urgent problems that stand out in the course of the activities of the groups.

Small group classification

Small groups can generally be subdivided into formal and informal. In formal small groups, all members are united by formal ties, following the achievement of a prescribed goal. The structure of this group is regulated, there is a clear division into a leader and subordinates.

As for informal small groups, they differ from formal ones in that they do not have an officially prescribed and established structure. All relationships between group members and actions in relation to each other to achieve the set goal are spontaneous. Basically, their personal relationships both to the problem and to each other come to the fore. Nevertheless, they are united by common values, the hierarchy is built in accordance with internal values.

One of the types of small groups is the reference group (or the so-called "reference"). This is a special group, whose norms and values are recognized by the individual as the main, the most valuable. Often, such a group is set as an example, you want to move forward after it, repeat its features in order to be as successful as its members. For example, an organization specialist focuses on a group of more successful colleagues who are several steps of the career ladder higher than himself. For an athlete, the reference group is more successful record holders, champions whose names are inscribed in world sport.

Thus, the social group is mainly aimed at strengthening the capabilities of the individual. But there are also such small groups that suppress them. These include criminal groups, persons united by criminal goals and deviant (asocial) behavior. These small groups destroy the value attitudes of individuals, incline them to commit crimes that can destroy not only their lives, but also the lives of loved ones.

Social behavior in a small group setting

Social behavior that is formed within small groups is always based on behavior that is associated with the implementation of group norms and values. It directly depends on the person who is the bearer of norms and values.

Remark 1

Behavior is acceptable and adequate if the person's internal attitudes do not contradict those attitudes that the small group defines for themselves.

Researchers look at social behavior in a small group from different angles. Of course, much attention is paid to precisely adequate behavior, when preferences, value orientations and, in general, a person's needs coincide with group attitudes. This includes correct behavior that complies with accepted norms and rules, responsible behavior, when the individual is aware of his responsibilities to the rest of the small group. Also, syntonic behavior is referred to as adequate behavior, which generates harmony and harmony, meets the needs of a person. To some extent, it is also revealed as sacrificial, because in order to achieve the goals of the group, an individual person can give up his desires for something more.

Remark 2

But behavior in small groups can develop in other aspects. for example, erroneous behavior in small groups that does not comply with norms and rules due to ignorance or error of a group member. Conflicting behavior reflects the intentional desire of a person to create tension in a small group, which leads to conflict and the possible collapse of group relations between people.

Other types of inappropriate social behavior in small groups include the following:

Victim behavior - a person's actions, his intentional actions with the aim of provoking a desire to attack him, to injure him;
Deviant behavior - asocial behavior that does not correspond to generally accepted norms and rules of behavior in society. in other words, it is an offense, a deliberate action of a person that can harm him and those around him;
Delinquent behavior in small groups is illegal behavior that not only deviates from the norms, but also transcends the law. Often this behavior belongs to the category of criminal, manifests itself in actions (action or inaction) that harm both individuals and whole vast social groups.