Reading and writing disorders according to Levina's classification. General characteristics of the problem of violations of written speech. Objectives of this study

Introduction

general characteristics speech development

§ 1. General characteristics of the development of children's speech

§ 2. Classification of the functions of children's speech

§ 3. Psychology of formation written speech in children

§ 4. Psychology of reading assimilation

Classification of writing and reading disorders

§ 1. History and current state of the problem of writing and reading disorders in children

§ 2. Specific reading disorders - dyslexia

§ 3. Specific writing violations - dysgraphia

Practical part

§ 1. One of the conversations

§ 2. Echolalia

§ 3. Monologue

§ 4. Collective monologue

§ 5. Criticism and ridicule

§ 6. Orders, requests, threats

§ 7. Results

Conclusion

INTRODUCTION

Speech development is an important task of teaching a native language. Speech is the basis of all mental activity, a means of communication. The ability to compare, classify, systematize, generalize is formed in the process of mastering knowledge through speech and is also manifested in speech activity. Logically clear, evidence-based, figurative oral and written speech of a child is an indicator of his mental development.

Just as there is objectively a connection between language and thinking, between the level of development of speech and the degree of mental development of a person, so there is an organic connection between oral and written speech. Awareness of these objectively existing connections made it possible to identify the main principled the provisions that, starting with K. D. Ushinsky, have constantly evolved in the methodology, are the basis of the program and on which the modern practice of work on the development of speech in school is based, namely:

The relationship of work on the development of speech with the development of thinking

The relationship between oral and written speech in the work on the development of students' coherent speech skills.

Pedagogical practice verified the positions of psychologists and methodologists on the importance of work on the development of speech for the development of thinking and work on the development of thinking for the development of speech.

The problems of speech development in children in Soviet times were developed by such scientists as: V. Ya.Liaudis, I.P. Negure, N.I. Politova, M.I.Buyanov, A.N. Leontiev, L. S. Vygotsky and many others.

The state of the study of the problem of the formation of written speech in primary schoolchildren does not correspond to its significance for the development of their mental functions. In most works on this topic, the question of the mastering of motor skills of writing, spelling, punctuation by students was developed, while the process of developing written speech as an activity of constructing semantically complete texts remained unexplored. In particular, the conditions that motivate the process of mastering written speech by schoolchildren have not been studied, and the composition of actions that ensure its functioning as a specific form of speech has not been identified.

The urgency of this problem is also due to the fact that in the real practice of teaching speech skills at school, serious shortcomings are found. It is known that the majority of junior schoolchildren cannot independently build a text that expresses their thoughts and feelings.

The purpose this study is: the identification of the conditions for the formation of oral and written speech as a specific means of communication and generalization in preschool children; determination of the prerequisites for various speech disorders.

The objectives of this study:

1) Determine the prerequisites for the normal development of both oral and written speech in children;

2) Present the typology of speech disorders in children;

3) Consider the social, psychological and other causes of violations of children's speech;

4) Identify the needs that the child seeks to satisfy when he speaks.

We used mainly two methods: the method of linguistic description and the method of quantitative calculation.

Observations of children's speech served as the material for the work.

§ 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN'S SPEECH

Most children begin to make sounds that have some meaning at about a year old. But there are perfectly normal children who are in no hurry to speak. This seems to depend mainly on the temperament and personality of the child. A friendly, cheerful child tends to speak early. A calm child, inclined to contemplation, watches for a long time what is happening around him before he has a desire to express his opinion.

The atmosphere in which the child grows up and the attitude of those around him also play an important role. If, due to nervous tension caused by something, the mother is always silent in the company of the child, then he, not feeling from her side the desire for communication, also withdraws into himself. Adults sometimes go to the other extreme: they constantly talk with the child and command him, depriving him of any initiative. Such a child will feel uncomfortable with people and withdrawn into himself. He has not yet grown to the age when he can either argue with an adult, or just leave. People of all ages - old and young - feel the need to talk, to speak out when they are with outgoing, sympathetic friends. A child is no exception, only first he must want to learn how to speak.

It is believed that those children who are served by the whole family start talking late, not giving them independence, preventing his every desire. Such a child will indeed be slower to replenish his vocabulary, but he is unlikely to be silent at all. But if, in addition to this, the parents restrain the child's desire for communication and constantly pull him back, then he will really be silent.

It happens that the mother speaks to the child in such long sentences that he does not have time to highlight and remember a single word. But this is rare, since we instinctively speak with children in short phrases with an emphasis on the most important word.

If the child does not begin to speak for a long time, the first thing that comes to mind for parents is whether their child is lagging behind in mental development. Indeed, some mentally retarded children start talking late. But many of them speak their first words at the same age as normal children. Of course, if the child is very much behind in physical development (for example, at the age of 2 he has just learned to sit), then he will start talking too late. Evidence shows that most children who barely talk until they are 3 years old have normal mental development or even turn out to be unusually intelligent.

Most children pronounce all the words incorrectly at first, but gradually they speak better and clearer. Some children don't make certain sounds. Sometimes the reason for this is the clumsiness of the language or other organ of speech. Sometimes a child pronounces a word incorrectly, although he pronounces the same sounds in other words correctly. A slight lag in the development of speech does not mean anything if in other respects the child is developing normally, if he is cheerful and everything is fine in his life.

§ 2. CLASSIFICATION OF CHILDREN'S SPEECH FUNCTIONS

We can divide all children's conversations into 2 large groups, which can be called egocentric and socialized[Piaget J., 1999]. When pronouncing the phrases of the first group, the child is not interested in who he is talking to and whether they are listening to him. He speaks either for himself or for the pleasure of introducing someone to his immediate action. This speech is egocentric primarily because the child speaks only about himself, and precisely because he does not try to take the interlocutor's point of view. The interlocutor for him is the first one he meets. The child does not feel the desire to influence the interlocutor, to really tell him something.

Can be broken egocentric speech into three categories:

1. Repetition (echolalia). Here it is only a matter of repeating words and syllables. The child repeats them for the pleasure of speaking, without thinking about turning to anyone, or even about pronouncing meaningful words. This is one of the last remnants of infant babbling, apparently containing no social element in itself.

2. Monologue. The child speaks to himself as if he were thinking out loud. He doesn't address anyone.

3. A monologue for two or a collective monologue... The internal contradiction of this name expresses well the paradoxicality of children's conversations, during which each introduces the other to his thought or action in this moment but does not care about actually being heard or understood. The position of the interlocutor is never taken into account.

As for socialized speech, the following categories can be distinguished here:

4. Adapted information... Here the child does indeed exchange thoughts with others; here there is either a message to the interlocutor about something that may interest him or affect his behavior, or a real dispute or even cooperation in achieving a common goal.

Thus, if the child takes the point of view of the interlocutor, if this interlocutor is not easily replaced by the first comer, then this is adapted information; if, on the contrary, the child speaks only about himself, not caring about the position of the other, not trying to make sure whether the interlocutor is listening, then this is a collective monologue.

5. Criticism. This group includes all comments about the work or behavior of others that are of the same nature as the adapted information - so to speak, specific comments in relation to the interlocutor. But these remarks are more affective than intellectual: they confirm the superiority of my self and belittle the other's self. The distinction between adapted information and criticism can only reveal context.

6. Orders, requests, threats. There is a clear impact of one child on another.

7. Questions. Most of the questions asked by children to children evoke an answer, so they can be attributed to socialized speech.

8. Answers. These are the answers given to the actual questions and orders, and not the answers given during the dialogue.

These are the eight main categories that we will distinguish between.

§ 3. PSYCHOLOGY OF WRITTEN SPEECH FORMATION IN CHILDREN

Up to 5-6 years old, the only graphic form of message transmission available to children is a drawing. A.R. Luria (1969), in his study on the genesis of writing in a child, showed that the acquisition of a graphic sign in children takes place in two stages:

A) conditionally imitative writing (scribbles that only superficially resemble a written text);

B) image recording - a pictogram, which is later differentiated into an alphabetic recording.

Writing is a special sign system that is new for a child. The difficulty of its assimilation is connected not only with the fact that these are symbols of the second order (symbolic designation of words that are themselves symbols of the second order). Another difficulty is due to the high degree of productivity of the act of writing and the presence of a complex sensorimotor base in it. For mastery of writing to be possible, the child's language and cognitive abilities must reach a certain, minimum required level of maturity. Since chronologically this stage coincides with the moment the child enters school, this state is called "school maturity." In different countries it happens at different ages: in India - at 4 years old, in England - at 4-5 years old, in Sweden, Germany - at 6-7 years old, in the USA - at 6 years old. This adaptation concerns both the content and methods of teaching and the style of relationships with children in the classroom. Thus, the concept of "school maturity" should be correlated with the level of requirements and teaching methods inherent in a particular program.

§ 4. PSYCHOLOGY OF READING ASSISTANCE

Essentially, reading assimilation from a psychological point of view can be presented in narrow and broad senses. In the narrow sense, it is the mastery of a skill, reading technique. In a broad sense, it is the formation of the activity of reading as a communicative-speech process, including the emergence of a specific reader's motivation or “reader's interest”.

Reading skill has two main components:

B) understanding the meaning of written texts [Elkonin DB, 1976, 1989].

A. Decoding process when teaching by the analytical-synthetic method on initial stage mastering reading includes several operations:

1) determination of letter-sound correspondences,

2) syllable merger,

3) recreation of the sound appearance of the whole word.

At the same time, the main difficulties are usually associated with the second and third operations, while the success of the implementation of the second ensures the successful implementation of the third.

B) The process of understanding written texts are much less studied than the decoding process. At the same time, understanding meaning reading seems to be a more elementary process. It includes understanding the meaning of each word read and the sentence as a whole. Understanding meaning the meaning of the text is more complex and multifaceted. In most cases (when reading fiction, information and reference materials, etc.), each phrase is included in a certain semantic context and has a certain meaning arising from the text and subtext. As in the case of understanding oral texts, here it is necessary to understand not only the meaning, but also the meaning of the statement. Only in the latter case does the reading become communication process: dialogue between the author and the reader. When reading fiction or scientific literature, hidden remarks, comments, objections may arise, confirming that there is a process of communication between the reader and the author of the text.

Obviously, the strategy and quality of understanding should substantially depend on the nature of the text (coherence, concreteness, familiarity of the context, lexical characteristics) and the psychological attitude of the reader (reading for formal understanding as educational task, reading to satisfy interest in the event side of the text, reading to get practical business information). In the strict sense of the word, the development of reading comprehension continues to develop after graduation and even into adulthood.

Formation psychology reading activities implies the presence of independent reading motivation, that is, the need for reading as an emotionally significant process, a form of communication, a source of a special kind of experience. At the same time, stable preferences are formed in the choice of literature of a certain genre, certain authors, etc. Reading activity, like communicative-speech activity, includes the use of different forms of reading, depending on the goals and objectives facing the reader (the so-called "slow reading", selective reading, etc.). All this presupposes the formation of the lower-level skills, that is, mastery of the reading technique. Therefore, a detailed consideration of this aspect is not included in our tasks.

CHAPTER 2

CLASSIFICATION OF WRITING AND READING VIOLATIONS

§ 1. HISTORY AND CURRENT STATE OF THE PROBLEM OF WRITING AND READING DISORDERS IN CHILDREN

The study of writing and reading disorders in children begins at the end of the last century and coincides in time with the introduction in the most developed countries of Europe of public schooling, accessible to the wide masses of children. At the same time, it became obvious that, in addition to children who are unable to study due to mental retardation, there are others who cannot master literacy, despite normal intellectual development.

In 1896, the English physician P. Morgan described a 14-year-old boy who had great difficulties in reading and writing. He was a smart child, had time for algebra, but learned the alphabet with great difficulty and could not learn to read. In 1897 a similar case was described by the Englishman J. Kerr, and in 1905 the work of S. Thomas was published, summarizing the observations of a hundred cases of such violations. Later, the symptomatology of such conditions was thoroughly studied and detailed in the works of S. Orton (1937), M. Critchley (1970), Z. Matejček (1972) and other researchers.

The definition and terminology for more than half a century of studying the problem have changed many times, and nevertheless, a single, satisfying all formulation has not yet been found. No one doubts that there are children with selective reading or writing disabilities. However, the essence of this phenomenon is understood in different ways. For some, this is one of the manifestations of underdevelopment. oral speech[Spirova LF, Yastrebova AV, 1988], "primary disorder of the sound structure in written speech." For others, it is a genoa, idiopathic monosymptomatic disorder.

§ 2. SPECIFIC READING DISORDERS - DISLEXIA

Speaking of dyslexia, we mean conditions, the main manifestation of which is a persistent, selective inability to master the skill of reading, despite the sufficient level of intellectual and speech development for this, the absence of impairments to the auditory and visual analyzers and optimal learning conditions. The disorder is based on disorders of specific cerebral processes, which in general constitute the main functional basis of the reading skill.

The existing classifications of reading disorders can be divided into four categories:

1) Etiopathogenetic, in which the primary reading disorder and secondary forms of reading disorder caused by organic brain pathology, sensory defects, low intelligence, neurotic disorders are distinguished;

2) Symptomatic classifications in which the typology of errors is taken as the basis of systematics. At the same time, kinetic (or verbal) dyslexia and static (or literal) dyslexia are distinguished.

3) Psychological classifications in which the alleged mechanisms of reading impairment are taken as the basis of taxonomy. In this case, "phonemic" dyslexias and dysgraphias, optical or optic-gnostic dyslexias and dysgraphias, spatially apraxic, motor, mnestic and semantic are distinguished.

4) Clinical and pathogenetic classification of disorders of writing and reading by Z. Matejček, summarizing the many years of clinically oriented psychological psychiatric hospitals in Dolny Pochernitsa. The author combines all cases of dyslexia, meaning reading and writing disorders, into the following groups:

a) Hereditary;

b) Encephalopathic;

c) Mixed (heredity-encephalopathic);

d) neurotic;

e) Unspecified.

§ 3. SPECIFIC VIOLATIONS OF LETTER - DISGRAPHY

Based on an analysis of existing studies on this issue, and own observations we offer the following definition of dysgraphia. Dysgraphia should be called a persistent inability to master writing skills according to the rules of charts (that is, guided by the phonetic principle of writing), despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech development and the absence gross violations vision or hearing. Errors arising from this can be divided into several categories.

a) errors of sound-letter symbolization (replacement of letters phonemically or graphically close),

b) errors of graphic modeling of the phonemic structure of a word (omissions, permutations, insertion of letters, assimilation, perseveration),

c) errors in the graphic marking of the syntactic structure of the sentence (the absence of dots at the end of the sentence, capital letters at the beginning, the absence of spaces between words or the creation of inadequate spaces in the middle of words).

Especially it would be necessary to highlight mistakes that repeat verbal paraphrasies (the so-called "tongue-tied in writing"). From our point of view, these errors reflect the problems of oral, not written speech and can only conditionally be included in dysgraphic ones.

According to the literature, dysgraphia occurs 2-3 times more often than dyslexia [Kovshikov VA, Demyanov Yu. G., 1967; Valtin A. Et al., 1981; Kosc L., 1983]. Reading disorders in most cases are accompanied by writing disorders. However, according to our observations, serious difficulties in reading do not always contribute to dysgraphia. The literature also describes cases of so-called "pure" dyslexia, in which writing skills do not suffer. Thus, although these two groups of syndromes overlap, they do not coincide. There is reason to believe that dysgraphia and dyslexia can have significantly different causes and mechanisms.

CHAPTER 3.

PRACTICAL PART

We have adopted the following working technique. For almost one month, we followed two children (boys) at home and in class in kindergarten carefully writing down (with context) everything the children said. In the group where we watched them, the guys draw and build whatever they want, mold, participate in games, etc. This activity is completely free: children are not limited in the desire to speak or play together, these rooms are an excellent ground for observing and studying the social life and speech of the child.

After collecting our materials, we use them as follows. We start by numbering all of the child's phrases. In general, the child speaks in short phrases, interrupted by prolonged silence or the words of other children. Each phrase is numbered separately. After the text is broken down into phrases, we try to classify them into elementary functional categories.

§ 1. ONE OF THE TALKS

First, we present one of the documents collected in the way described above, and analyze it in all its complexity:

1. Nikita (to Anton, drawing a tram with a trailer car): “But have they have no flags, trams that are hitched at the back. "(No answer.)

2. (Speaking of your tram): "They don't have trailed cars ..."(Nobody addresses. Nobody answers.)

3. (Addressing Pauline): “ This is a tram that does not have a carriage. "(No answer.)

4. (Addressing Dima): “ This tram has no cars, Dima, you understand, you understand, it is not red, you understand ... "(No answer.)

5. "Tram - I'll leave it white."

6. (Anton, who also draws, says: “ I'll make it yellow. ") Nikita: "No, you don't have to make it all yellow!"

7. "I'm making a ladder, look!"(Polina responds: "I can't come tonight, I have a rhythm lesson.".)

8. "What are you saying?"(Polina repeats the same phrase.)

9. "What are you saying?"(Polina does not answer. She forgot what she said and pushes Lena.)

10. Nikita (addressing Polina): "Leave her."

11. (The teacher asks Anton if he wants to go with her). Nikita: "Anton, go, it's not over yet"

12. (Not addressing anyone): "I make black stones ...".

13. (He): "Pretty ... these pebbles ...".

14. (To Anton): "Better than you, huh? .."(No answer: Anton did not hear the previous phrase.)

15. (Stas speaks loudly: "Funny guy!"- at a short distance, without addressing either Nikita or anyone else.) Nikita: “ Funny guy! "(continues to ride his tram.).

We chose this example from the statements of Nikita (6 years, 2 months) because it represents the most energetic social activity he is capable of: he draws at the same table with Anton, his inseparable friend, and talks to him incessantly. In this case, it would be natural if the only function of speech was to communicate thought. But let's take a closer look. On the contrary, it turns out that from a social point of view, these phrases or fragments of phrases have extremely diverse meanings. When Nikita says: "They dont have…" etc. (2) or: "I do ..." etc. (12), he does not address anyone. He just thinks out loud before his drawing. Here we have the first category of speech - monologue... When Nikita says to Polina or Dima: "This is a tram" etc. (3) or "This tram has ..." etc. (4), then it seems that in this case he wants to be understood, but upon closer examination we see that, on the one hand, he is not very interested in the interlocutor (he goes from Polina to Dima to say the same), on the other hand, it doesn't matter to him whether the interlocutor is listening or not. He is sure that he is being listened to. In the same way, when Polina gives him an answer that is completely unrelated to what he just said (7), he makes no attempt either to be understood or to understand himself. They both stop each on their own thoughts, and are satisfied with this (7-9). The interlocutor here plays only the role of the pathogen. Nikita speaks to himself, as if he were giving a monologue; but to this is added the pleasure he experiences in thinking that he is of interest to others. This will new category that we mentioned in the classification - collective monologue. It differs from the previous one, but also from a real exchange of thoughts and information. The latter will constitute a separate category, which we will call adapted information, to which phrases 1 and 11 can be attributed. The child in this case addresses certain interlocutors and speaks so that the interlocutors listen and understand. Along with this exchange of a stating or objective order, one can also note an exchange of a more imperative or subjective order, consisting in orders (10), or in ridicule, criticism, confirmation of one's own superiority, etc. (14). In addition, simple repetitions, devoid of meaning (4), questions and answers can be noted.

§ 2. Echolalia

It is known that in the first years of life, a child likes to repeat the words that he hears, to imitate syllables and sounds even when they have no meaning. The functions of this imitation, however, are difficult to define in one formula. In the aspect of behavior, imitation is an ideomotor adaptation due to which the child reproduces, then simulates the gestures and thoughts of the persons around him [Piaget J., 1999]. But from the point of view of personality and from the point of view of social imitation is, as Baldwin and Janet assert, a confusion between "I" and "not-I", a confusion of the activities of one's own body and the body of another person; in the period when the child imitates most of all, he does it with his whole being, identifying himself with the subject of imitation. But such a game, which seems to be a purely social situation, remains at the same time exclusively egocentric. The imitated gestures and actions by themselves do not interest the child in the least, and the "I" does not adapt to the other; we have here a confusion, thanks to which the child does not know that he is imitating, and he maintains his role as if he himself had created it. Thus, even by the age of 6-7, when the child is explained something and then immediately asked to re-convey the explained, he imagines that he has independently found what he is only repeating. Here imitation is completely unconscious, as we have often noticed.

Such a mental state constitutes a band of the child's activity - a band that can be found at any age with only a different content, but always identical in its functions. In the two children we observed, some of the recorded conversations have the properties of pure repetition, or echolalia. This echolalia plays the role of a simple game; the child enjoys repeating words for their own sake, for the sake of the entertainment they give him, without addressing absolutely anyone. Here are some typical examples:

(Teacher E. tells Misha the word "celluloid") Stas, working on his drawing at another table: "Luloid ... leleloid ..." etc.

(In front of the aquarium. Nikita is out of the group and does not react. The word "newt" is pronounced.) Nikita: "Newt ... newt."

Stas (after the clock rang "kuku"): "Ku-ku ... ku-ku".

These pure types of repetition, however, are rare at the age of Nikita and Stas and are of no interest. They are more interesting when they arise during a conversation, for example:

Dima says to Anton: "Look, your panties are coming out." Nikita, on the other side of the room, immediately repeats: "Look, my underpants and shirt are coming out."

There is not a word of truth in this. The pleasure of repeating for the sake of repetition makes Nikita say this phrase; he feels pleasure because he can use the words he hears, and not in order to join the conversation, but simply to play with them.

US. 17 an example was given with Nikita, who, upon hearing Stas say: "Funny uncle", - repeats this phrase for fun, despite the fact that he himself is busy drawing a tram (phrase 15). One can see how little repetition distracts Nikita from his own occupation.

(Anton says: "I want to ride the train from above"). Nikita: " I AM I want to ride the train from above "

The process is always the same. Children are busy with their drawings or games. They all speak alternately, not listening to each other. But the thrown words are caught on the fly, like balls. They are either repeated like sentences of the real category, or they provoke monologues together, which we will now talk about.

As for the repetition rate, for Nikita and Stas it is approximately 2 and 1%, respectively. If their speech is divided into parts of 100 phrases, then in each hundred there will be such a percentage of repetition: 1, 4, 0, 5, 3, etc.

Even independently of the question of origin, it has been established by real observation that the word for the child is actually much closer to action and movement than it is for us. Hence, there are two important consequences for understanding the child's speech, and especially the monologue:

1) A child, acting, must speak, even when he is alone, and must accompany his movements and games with shouts and words. Of course, there are also moments of silence, and even very curious ones, when children are gathered together to work, as, for example, in the halls of a kindergarten. But along with these moments of silence, there are so many monologues in the collective that children who are alone in a room, or children who, while talking, do not address anyone!

2) If a child speaks in order to accompany his action with words, he can modify this attitude and use words to pronounce something without which the action could not have taken place on its own.

Hence - an invention, which consists in creating reality by means of a word, and magic speech, the essence of which is the effect of a word, and only by it, without any touching objects or persons.

It is remarkable that the monologue also has great importance for children 6-7 years old. A child of this age speaks monologues even when he is in the company of other children, such as in the halls where we worked. At certain moments you can see about a dozen children, each at his own table or in groups of two or three, each talking to himself and not thinking at all about his neighbor.

Here are some examples of a simple monologue (the first type), where the child only accompanies his actions with loudly spoken phrases:

Stas settles down at the table, without comrades: “ I AM want to do this drawing ... I want to do something to draw. You need a lot of paper to do it. "

Stas turns the game over: “ And that's all turns over! " Stas has just finished drawing: "Now I I will do something else».

Stas is a toddler, very busy with himself (6 y., 3 months). He must constantly announce to everyone what he is doing. Therefore, such a monologue can be considered caused by a tendency that turns it into a collective monologue, where everyone talks about himself without listening to others. Nevertheless, being alone, he continues to announce what he wants to do, content with himself as the interlocutor. In such cases, it is pure monologue.

Nikita's monologue is less common, but in a more frank form; it happens to the child to speak, indeed, with the sole purpose of rhythmizing his action, without a shadow of self-satisfaction. Here is Nikita's context, where, however, the monologue is interrupted by other forms of speech:

16 ... Nikita takes a notebook with numbers and turns its pages: “ 1, 2 .., 3, 4 5.6, 7 .., 8 ... 8, 8, 8, 8 and 8 ... 9. Number 9. number 9, number 9[sings], I am want number 9[this is the number that he represents in the form of a picture] » .

17. (Looking at Pauline, who stands in front of the accounts, but does not speak to her.) "Now I I want to do 9. 9. I I do 9, I do 9.(Draws.)

18. (The teacher passes by the table, saying nothing.) "Here, look, 9. 9, 9 ... number 9."

19 ... (He goes to the accounts to see what color he will paint his number to match column 9 in the accounts.) "Pink pencil ... need 9". (Sings.)

20. (To Anton, who walks by): "I do 9."(Anton :) "What will you do? - Small circles "

21 ... (The pencil broke.) " Oh no no no!..».

22. "Now I have 9."

Therefore, the sole purpose of this monologue is to accompany the given action. But there are two deviations here. Nikita wants to attach the interlocutor to his intentions (phrases 18 and 20); however, this does not in the least interrupt the monologue, which continues as if Nikita were alone in the room. The word here fulfills only the function of the causative agent, but in no way the message. Undoubtedly, Nikita takes pleasure in being in a room where there are people. , but if he were alone, he would then utter similar phrases.

Hence the second type of children's monologue, when the word serves not so much to accompany and accelerate the action, but to replace it with an illusory satisfaction. This latter group includes cases of children's magic with the help of the word; but these cases, however frequent they may be, are observed only in utter loneliness. On the contrary, usually the recitation of monologues gives the child such pleasure that he forgets to act and only speaks. Then the word becomes a command to reality. Here is an example of pure monologue and collective monologue (see next category) that leads to these kinds of infatuation orders for things and animals:

“Well, she's moving[turtle], she moves, she moves, she moves. Get away. Yes, she is moving, she is moving, she is moving. Go, turtle! "

A little later, looking at the aquarium, he says a monologue: "Oh, how is she[gold fish] surprised by this giant[big fish] » and exclaims: « gold fish, you have to eat fish! "

In short, this is a mechanism of single games, during which, after thinking out loud about his action, the child switches to commanding things and creatures by virtue of both verbal enthusiasm and voluntary illusion.

In conclusion, it must be said that a common feature of monologues in this category is that the word has no social function. The word does not serve in such cases to communicate thought; it serves to accompany, deepen or displace action. Can we say that here is a simple evasion from main function speech and that the child orders himself and things or speaks to himself as he learned to command and speak with others? It is possible that without primitive imitation of others and without the need to call their parents and influence them, children would never have learned to speak: in a known sense, a monologue owes its existence only to the opposite effect of words acquired depending on the speech of others.But it must be remembered that during the entire period of language learning the child is a constant victim of confusion between his own point of view and that of another. On the one hand, he doesn't know what he is imitating. On the other hand, he talks to himself as much as to those around him, and as much for the pleasure of babbling or continuing the experiences he has experienced, as for giving orders. Therefore, it cannot be said that the monologue precedes or follows the socialized forms of language; both the first and the second come from a certain undifferentiated state, when the cry and the word accompany the action; then they try to continue it, and both mutually influence each other at the beginning of their development.

But we have to admit that as we move from early childhood to adulthood, the monologue, which is a primitive and childish function of speech, gradually disappears. In this respect, it is remarkable that Nikita and Stas given form both make up about 5 and 15% of all words they use. This is a large percentage, especially if we take into account the conditions under which our notes were made. As for the difference in percentage between our two subjects, it is quite consistent with the difference in their temperament: Nikita has a more positive mind than Stas, more adapted to real life and, therefore, to the company of other children. When he speaks, it’s usually in order to be listened to. We saw, however, that when Nikita speaks to himself, his monologue is more frank than Stas's monologue, but Nikita does not utter so many smug phrases in which the child endlessly announces to himself what he is undertaking, and which, obviously , indicate a certain excess of imagination.

§ 4. Collective monologue

This is the most social form of the egocentric varieties of the child's language, because it adds to the pleasure of speaking the pleasure of speaking a monologue in front of others and thereby attract - or believe that you are attracted - their interest in his own action or in own thoughts... Anton and Stas are building a house of blocks together: “You can make a roof out of this.-I want to put the pipe on. "

We can now refine the criteria that will distinguish collective monologue from adapted information. Collective monologue takes place whenever the child talks about himself, except when the child talks about himself while working with the interlocutor (as in the previous example of building a church) and with the exception of dialogues. We assume that dialogue will take place when the interlocutor responds to a sentence by talking about the subject in question (as in the previous example of a tram pass), without speaking nonsense, as in a collective monologue.

So, adapted information takes place whenever a child informs the interlocutor about something other than himself, or when he, speaking about himself, starts cooperation or just a dialogue; but while the child talks about himself, without cooperating with the interlocutor and without starting a dialogue, we have a collective monologue.

These definitions and unsuccessful attempts to involve others in the speaker's action with the help of a collective monologue make it even more surprising that Nikita and Stas have half the number of statements in the form of adapted information than collective monologues.

Here are examples of these static, or descriptive, messages:

Stas and Nikita: "It's 420"; "No, 10 o'clock"; “The roof is not like that[talking about drawing] "; "This is a village, a big village" etc.

Even when children talk to each other about natural phenomena, their mutual messages do not relate to causality:

Stas: “Thunder, it's rolling. - No, it doesn't roll.- This is water. - No, but it doesn't roll.- Thunder, what is it? - Thunder is... [does not finish]

This lack of causal explanation must be especially noted when it comes to cars, bicycles, etc., about which children sometimes talk to each other, but always from the same static perspective:

Stas: " This is the same rail "; "Funny car"; "Bicycle on two wheels".

But each of the children individually is able to explain the mechanism of a bicycle: Polina is satisfactory, and Stas is very good. Each of them has a lot of ideas about mechanics, but they do not talk about them among themselves. Causal connections remain unspoken, and everyone thinks about them to himself, probably because the child thinks of them in images rather than words. Only one static entity is expressed through words.

This property is especially striking when it comes to the cooperation of children in a common game.

For example, Nikita and Anton are engaged in drawing together at home.

Nikita: "There you need a button for the light, you need a button for the light ..."; "Then I I will make ethricity ... "; “Two ethricities, look. There will be two ethnicities. All sites there are etric. "

These are the arguments of a child with a child, noted by us in Stas and Nikita, which most of all resemble a causal explanation; they remain almost exclusively descriptive:

Stas: “We need some water. It is very hard, green paint, very hard ... "; “Made of cardboard, don’t you know? You know how to do it, but it's a little difficult for you, and for everyone. "

Regarding the nature of the disputes between children, it is remarkable that here there is a complete correspondence with the described phenomenon: just as our two subjects do not communicate to each other their thoughts concerning the cause and basis of the phenomena, in the same way they do not motivate their statements by means of logical ones in the dispute. because "or" since ". Their argument, with only two exceptions, consists of a simple clash of statements without logical justification. It belongs to the type that in our work on the stages of conversation between children (see the next chapter) we will call “primitive dispute” and we will characterize precisely the absence of motivation.

The example just cited (a discussion between Stas and a child of the same age about thunder) proves this very clearly. Here are three other examples, the first two are very clear, the third is in between:

Nikita. “[Dasha says to Nikita:] You’ll marry me, I don’t I'll marry you. No, you will marry me. - No.- Yes ... "and so on.

Stas. “Look what a pretty one I have 6.- Yes it is 6, but in truth it is- 9. - No, it's 6. Zero. - You say zero, and that's not true, that's 9. It's true.- No. - Yes.- It was already done before.

But no, you lie! He- crazy".

Stas. “[Looks at what Dima is doing:] Two moons.- No, two suns. The suns are not like that, not with the mouth. The suns are up above, like that.- They are round. - They are round, but they have no eyes, no mouth.- But no, they can see. - No, only God sees it. "

The first two of these disputes are only simple clashes of opposing statements, without mutual concessions and motivation. The latter is more complicated. Of course, when Stas says: "Only God ..." or "They- like these ones",- in his proposals there is a beginning of the proof, something more than a simple statement. But there is no clear justification, no attempt to prove. Dima affirms, and Stas denies. Dima does not try to give reasons why he thinks that the sun has eyes, does not say, for example, that he saw the pictures that led him to this idea, and so on. Stas, for his part, does not take Dima's point of view and does not defend his own by means of clear reasons. In general, there is only a simple encounter, quite different from the following two small disputes, of which one, however, is a dispute between a child and an adult.

These are the only recorded examples of a child trying to prove a statement. These should be carefully noted, given the rarity of this phenomenon before 7 or 8 years:

Stas addresses the teacher G.: “You ate paint.- No, which one? - Red paint.- No. - No, yes, because it is on your lips. "

The correct use of "because" is noted here at 6 and a half years.

Here is another case, also with Stas:

“It's 420.- But this is not the house number. - Why?"House number, it's on the door."

Here we can note the use of "why" in the sense of "on what basis." So it is clear how much these disputes are higher than the previous ones.

So, from all these facts, we can conclude the following:

1. Adapted information constitutes, with most of the questions and answers, as we will see later, the only categories of the child's speech, the function of which is to communicate an intellectual thought; it is the opposite of the various functions of egocentric categories.

2. As for how often adapted information is found, it is 13% for Stas, and 14% for Nikita; this should be noted because it shows how little social the intellectual curiosity of the child is. These figures are all the more striking since the collective monologue makes up 23 and 30% of all speech of the same subjects.

3. In addition, these messages from a child to a child are static in the sense that they have nothing to do with causality, even when it comes to the material that children use during their work, the numerous objects of nature or technical objects that they like to draw. or reproduce in your buildings, etc. (animals, stars, cars, bicycles, etc.).

4. Arguments between children, with only two exceptions, are of the lowest type in the sense that they amount to simply a clash of opposing statements without clear evidence.

§ 5. Criticism and ridicule

The socialized language of children, which is not intellectual in nature, with the exception of questions and answers, can be divided into two categories, very easily distinguished: orders, on the one hand, and criticism and ridicule, on the other.

Here are some examples of criticism, ridicule, etc., which at first glance could be attributed to adapted information, but which, perhaps, should be singled out because their function is not to convey a thought, but to satisfy intellectual instincts, such as like fighting passion, pride, competition, etc.

Stas: “You don't put [the plate on the table] in the middle”; "Not right!"; "NS! You can not do it this way!"; “This is not their house, we made it!”; “The owl is not like that. Look what Nikita is doing! ”; “I know for sure that he cannot!”; "Ours is much more beautiful"; “I have a much larger pencil than yours! I am stronger!" etc.

Indeed, the above phrases have something in common with adapted information, that they are addressed to an individual interlocutor, that they influence him, cause competition, remarks and even quarrels. It is this fact that compels us to attribute to socialized speech those of these phrases (the last ones) that begin with "I" and look like a collective monologue. On the other hand, such phrases differ from real information in that even criticism, apparently objective, concludes very subjective value judgments. These are not statements. They have a passion for struggle, a desire to assert their own superiority, ridicule, etc. Thus, this is a separate category that has the right to exist.

§ 6. Orders, requests, threats

From the very beginning, the child communicates with his own kind not in order to think together and exchange thoughts, but in order to play. As a result, the share of intellectual exchange is brought to the limits of extreme necessity. The rest of the speech will serve the action and consist of orders, etc.

Hence it follows that it is necessary to create a special rubric for orders and threats, such as we have just done for criticism. Phrases in this category, however, are easy to recognize:

Stas (in front of the store). " Not come here, don't go, no money. I'll tell Zhenya![If you go] "; "Give me blue"; "You will make a banner"; "Go, Roma, nafig! .."; "You will be a carriage" etc.

Nikita. “Anton, look at the goldfish”; "Move over, I won't be able to see" etc. About the roof: “ No, take it off, take it off, because I want to put mine " etc.

A lion. "Please, yellow paint"; “I would like some water».

Nikita Stas

1. Repetition
2. Monologue
3. Collective monologue
4. Adapted information
5. Criticism
6. Orders
7. Egocentric Egocentric speech
Spontaneous socialized speech
All socialized speech

It should be noted once again that in these digital data the number of utterances addressed by children to adults is insignificant.

§ 7. Results

What conclusion can be drawn from this fact? It seems possible to assume that up to this age children think and act more egocentrically than adults, and communicate their intellectual quests to each other less than we do. Of course, when children are together, they seem to talk more about what they are doing than adults; but for the most part they speak only to themselves. On the contrary, we talk less about our actions, but our speech is almost always socialized.

Such statements may seem counterintuitive. When observing children of 4-7 years old working together in kindergarten, however, sometimes you are amazed at the periods of silence, which, we repeat, are not at all forced or caused by adults. One would expect not the formation of working groups (because the awakening of the social life of children comes later), but the noise of children speaking at the same time. This is not the case in this case. On the contrary, a child placed in the conditions that we spoke about, it seems to us, speaks infinitely more than an adult. Almost everything he says is accompanied by phrases such as: "I draw a hat," "I do better than you," etc. The child's thinking seems more social, less capable of long research alone. But this is only an appearance. The child simply has less verbal abstinence because he does not know the intimacy of the self. But, continuously talking with his neighbors, he often takes their point of view. He speaks to them for the most part as if he were alone, as if he was thinking loudly for himself.

CONCLUSION

So, after analyzing theoretical data and comparing them with practice, we came to the following conclusions in our study:

1. For the normal development of speech in children, starting with the pronunciation of the very first sound (usually about a year), a favorable psychological and social atmosphere is needed in which the child grows up, as well as the attentive attitude of others around him, which provides the child with a certain independence.

2. As for speech disorders (dysgraphia and dyslexia), the following can be noted here:

Reading disorders in most cases are accompanied by writing disorders. However, according to our observations, serious difficulties in reading do not always contribute to dysgraphia. Thus, although these two groups of syndromes overlap, they do not coincide. Dysgraphia and dyslexia can have significantly different causes and mechanisms.

3. An adult thinks socially even when he is alone, and a child under 7 thinks and speaks egocentrically, even when he is in society.

The reasons for these phenomena are twofold. They depend both on the absence of a well-established social life among children under 7-8 years old, and on the fact that the child's real social language - the language used in the child's main activity - play - is a language of gestures, movements and facial expressions just as much as and words.

I.N.Sadovnikova took the Borel - Mesoni classification as a basis... She identified the following types of dysgraphia: dysgraphia associated with disorders of oral speech, dysgraphia caused by difficulties in spatial orientation, mixed form. In addition, Sadovnikova identified evolutionary or false dysgraphia. It is a manifestation of the natural difficulties of children in the course of initial learning to write, which is associated with the complexity of this type of speech activity.

The study of modern foreign literature on this issue shows that the problem of reading and writing disorders in children is currently very relevant.

According to Becker, 3% of children have deficiencies in reading and writing in grade 1 of a normal mass school, and 22% in grade 1 of speech schools.

In modern foreign literature Mopgo's work Children Who Can't Read (London, 1963) is of great interest. The author seeks to trace the causal factors behind reading defects. He notes that these defects can be associated with the visual aspect (difficulty in distinguishing complex visual images), the auditory aspect (inaccuracy in distinguishing the sounds of speech by ear), the motor aspect (the child does not hold visual symbols and does not form the necessary associations).

The author also draws attention to reading defects caused by incorrect teaching (methodological aspect). The requirement for excessive reading speed leads to the formation of incorrect reading skills (reading by guessing, with missing letters and syllables, etc.).

When studying the above works of domestic and foreign authors, it shows that the problem of dyslexia and dysgraphia in children is relevant, but far from fully developed. Foreign authors, without using in their views on the issue under discussion, the teachings of I.P. Pavlov about two signal systems in the activity of the brain and their interdependence, speak about the psychophysiological mechanisms of dysgraphia extremely inaccurate and contradictory.

In the works of A.R. Luria and S.S.Lyapidevsky, the mechanisms of writing and reading are considered from the standpoint of modern neurophysiology.

As you know, from neurology, at the end of the last century, writing was considered in a very simplified way, as a purely motor process that easily relies on a narrowly limited area of ​​the cerebral cortex. Researchers of that time, along with the centers of visual functions, centers for auditory and motor speech, also spoke of a special "writing center" (the so-called Exner center). In their opinion, this center was located in the middle part of the motor region of the left hemisphere. However, this view from the standpoint of modern physiology cannot be fully accepted. The mechanism of the processes of reading and writing is undoubtedly dynamic, forming gradually. In the process of teaching literacy, strong automated writing and reading skills are developed. “At the heart of their formation,” writes S. S. Lyapidevsky, “there is a chain of overlapping conditioned reflexes entering into interconnection. Thus, the gradual formation of temporary connections (conditioned reflexes) in the process of teaching literacy creates certain dynamic stereotypes, which in the language of psychology is defined by the concept of “skill”.

In Russian speech therapy, as a rule, a symptom complex of writing disorders is described, and correctional work is built not taking into account the form of the violation, but taking into account the typology of errors, this is due to the fact that in the works of students there are errors of various types related to different forms dysgraphia.

A group of leading scientists (R.E. Levina, N.A. Nikashin, GA. Kashe, LF Spirova, G.V. Chirkina, I.K. the relationship between the level of speech development of a child and his ability to acquire literacy. Analysis of written works of schoolchildren who do not succeed in the Russian language primary grades allowed them to distinguish four groups of specific errors:

1. Substitutions of letters ("bopeda" instead of "victory", "Tanu" instead of "Tanya", "drank" instead of "dust", "tistit" instead of "cleans" ...).

2. Violations of the syllable structure and sound filling of words ("kichat" instead of "shout", "sit" instead of "sitting", "dovr" instead of "yard", "bart" instead of "brother" ...).

3. Violations of the use of lexical and grammatical categories:

a) a continuous spelling of service and significant words ("near the pine" - "sosny", "shining moon" instead of "the moon is shining");

b) skipping and replacing prepositions ("the vase is on the table", "the ball fell and the table");

c) violation of the agreement of adjectives and numbers with nouns ("five tables", "dirty shirt");

d) mixing of case endings ("rode a car", "treated a tooth").

4. Errors in the construction of sentences:

a) the admission of both the main and secondary members of the proposal ("Sasha fish". "We began to ski");

b) separate writing of the main clause and the subordinate clause ("When winter came. Children came to ride on sleds and skates");

c) the use of a subordinate clause without the main one ("If it rains").

In the studies of domestic scientists (R.E. Levina, L.F.Spirova, N.A. Nikashina, etc.), the above-described writing disorders are considered as a result of insufficient preparation of the early stages of speech development for the transition to its subsequent stages, i.e. as a result of the underdevelopment of the child's oral speech. Even before entering school, a normally developing child develops practical generalizations about the sound and morphological composition of the word, which prepares him for mastering the skills of competent spelling. Therefore, pronounced violations of the formation of speech entail serious deviations in the formation of the letter.

The nature of the errors is primarily due to two reasons:

a) insufficient level of formation of phonemic hearing;

b) problems in the development of the lexical and grammatical components of the language.

Violation of the sound-syllable structure of the word is called the main types of errors,

Thus, the most reasonable, in our opinion, is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process. The following types of dysgraphia are distinguished: articulatory-acoustic, based on violations of phonemic recognition (differentiation of phonemes), on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.

Speech is the process of a person's practical application of language in order to communicate with other people.

Speech has properties, which include:

• 1) meaningfulness, determined by the number of thoughts, feelings expressed in it and their correspondence to reality;
• 2) intelligibility, which depends on the correctness of the constructions of sentences and the setting of stress in words, the lexical meanings of words, as well as the arrangement of logical pauses;
• 3) expressiveness- depends on emotional saturation;
• 4) impact- the degree of influence of the subject's speech on the thoughts, feelings, behavior, will of other people.

The formation of speech occurs in the process of the general psychophysical development of the child.

Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech are:

• 1) auditory, visual and motor systems;
• 2) the integrity and safety of all brain structures;
• 3) the interaction of the zones of the cortex of the right and left hemispheres;
• 4) preservation of the speech-auditory and speech-motor zones;
• 5) coordinated work of the muscles of the parts of the peripheral speech apparatus;
• 6) the safety of the articulation department.

The peripheral speech apparatus is regulated by the central nervous system. Accordingly, in order to for the formation of speech to occur in accordance with the norm, a combination of the following conditions is necessary:

• 1) the safety of the central nervous system;
• 2) the safety of the visual and auditory systems;
• 3) the presence of an active language environment.

According to the definition of L.M.Belyakova and E.A.Dyakova, in a healthy child gradually, in the period from 1 to 5 years, the formation of phonemic perception, the lexical and grammatical aspect of speech occurs, and normative sound pronunciation develops.

With development corresponding to the norm, the development of speech goes through the following stages.

First half of the first year of life: vocalization, humming, babbling.

Second half of the first year of life: the appearance of conditioned reflexes to verbal stimuli.

By the end of the first year of life: understanding the meaning of a number of words, the beginning of the pronunciation of the first words.

By one and a half years: the emergence of simple phrases, their gradual complication with parallel phonological, morphological, syntactic design of speech.

By the age of three the formation of the basic lexicogrammatic structures of everyday speech ends, the transition to the mastery of expanded phrasal speech is carried out.

By the age of five the development of coordination mechanisms between breathing, phonation and articulation ends.

At five - six years the ability for sound analysis and synthesis begins to form.

At six o'clock - seven years, when creating learning conditions, there is a mastery writing speech.

Early childhood, as noted by LI Kaplan, is a sensitive period in mastering speech. It distinguishes the following critical stages of development: one to two years, three years and six to seven years.

With unfavorable social factors child development (for example, deprivation, dysfunctional family), the phenomenon of hospitalism may occur, which is characterized by inability to speak, poor understanding of speech, mental retardation.

Speech disorders - "a collective term for deviations from the speech norm, adopted in a given linguistic environment, fully or partially interfering with speech communication and limiting the possibilities of social adaptation of a person. "

There are the following types of speech development disorders:

• 1) general speech underdevelopment (OHP);
• 2) phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment (FFN).

Feature general speech underdevelopment, with normal hearing

and primarily preserved intelligence, is a violation of the formation of all components of the speech system, related to both the sound and semantic side.

Allocate (by R. E. Levina) three levels of speech development with OHP:

• 1) complete absence of common speech;
• 2) partial formation of speech (small vocabulary, agrammatical structure of phrases);
• 3) detailed speech with elements of underdevelopment (detected in the entire speech system: sound pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structure, coherent speech). Lexico-grammatical and phonetic-phonemic speech, with a mild general underdevelopment, are not formed. In some cases, the pathological course of speech development proceeds against the background of a violation of the activity of the central nervous system.

At phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment (FFN) there is a violation of the processes of formation of the pronunciation system of the native language due to defects in the perception and pronunciation of phonemes.

It is a fairly common disorder and can be observed in children with various types of speech disorders. Requires purposeful speech therapy work.

The characteristic features of FFN are: incorrect pronunciation of certain sounds; incorrect pronunciation of one or more groups of sounds; insufficient phonemic perception of disturbed sounds; difficulty in perceiving acoustic and articulatory differences between opposition phonemes; replacing one sound with another; mixing sounds; significant difficulties with phonemic analysis and synthesis, as well as learning to read and write.

Pathogenetic basis speech disorders are: local damage to the brain, organic damage to the speech areas of the cerebral cortex, organic damage to the nervous system, cerebral diseases (stroke, tumors) and brain trauma, anatomical defects, for example, disorders of the structure of the articulatory apparatus, including dentoalveolar anomalies, psychotraumatic situations.

Causes of the anomaly: intrauterine pathology; birth trauma; somatic diseases in the first years of life; concussion; autonomic dysfunction; unfavorable development environment.

Types of violations by L. I. Belyakova and E. A. Dyakova:

• 1) dyslalia;
• 2) violations of the voice;
• 3) rhinonalia;
• 4) dysarthria;
• 5) stuttering;
• 6) alalia;
• 7) aphasia.
• 1 .Dislalia- violation of the pronunciation side of speech with normal hearing and intact innervation (provision) of the speech apparatus.

Distinguish mechanical dispatch, caused by a violation of the structure of the articulatory apparatus (malocclusion, improper structure of teeth or hard palate, short frenum of the tongue, abnormally large or small tongue), and functional display, associated with the specifics of the language environment in which the child develops (incorrect speech education of the child in the family, pedagogical neglect, immaturity of phonemic perception, the simultaneous study of several foreign languages).

• by the degree of preservation;
• for reasons of occurrence.

• - dysphonia(partial lack of voice);
• - aphonia(complete lack of voice).

For reasons of violation, there may be:

• - organic- the origin of the defect is based on chronic inflammatory processes of the vocal apparatus or its anatomical changes, for example, chronic laryngitis or conditions after surgical interventions on the larynx and soft palate;
• - functional(voice fatigue, certain infectious diseases, stress).
• 3. Rhinonalia- violation of the timbre of the voice and sound pronunciation, due to anatomical and physiological defects of the speech apparatus. Reason: anatomical defect (open or covered cleft between the nasal and oral cavity (on the upper lip, gums, hard and soft palate), often combined with dentoalveolar anomalies. Rhinonal is manifested in indistinct speech. In extreme manifestations, speech ceases to be understood by others.
• 4. Dysarthria- violation of the pronunciation side of speech, due to insufficient innervation of the speech apparatus. It manifests itself in the form of disorders of sound pronunciation, voice formation, tempo-rhythm of speech, intonation. The severity of the defect is multivariate and ranges from anarthria- complete impossibility of pronouncing speech sounds - up to erased dysarthria- subtle fuzziness of pronunciation. It can occur at any age period as a result of organic damage to the nervous system.
• 5. Stuttering- violation of the tempo-rhythmic organization of speech, due to the convulsive state of the muscles of the speech apparatus (repetition of sounds, syllables, words; lengthening of sounds; break of words; insertions). It manifests itself in certain situations, as a result of which, as a rule, there is a reaction of avoiding such situations and limiting communication.

In most cases, it occurs in children aged two to six years as a result of damage to certain structures of the central nervous system, changes in speech load, and psychotrauma. It manifests itself in the form of muscle cramps when trying to start speaking or at the time of speaking. Accompanied by accompanying movements. In the early adolescence (ten to eleven years), logophobia can begin to form - a persistent fear of verbal communication with an obsessive expectation of verbal failures.

6... Alalia- the absence or underdevelopment of speech due to organic damage to the speech areas of the cerebral cortex. One of the most severe and complex defects. Characteristic features are late appearance and delayed development of speech, limited vocabulary. There are two forms: expressive and impressive(touch).

At expressive form the severity of the defect can vary from a complete lack of oral speech to coherent statements, but with errors. The sound image of a word is not formed, the syllable structure of words is simplified, there are gaps, permutations and replacements of sounds, syllables, words in a phrase. The child understands and responds adequately to speech addressed to him, only within the framework of a specific situation.

At impressive form hearing is completely preserved. It is characterized by a disorder of phonemic perception. It manifests itself as defects in the range from complete nondiscrimination of speech sounds to difficult perception of oral speech by ear. Comprehension of speech is either absent or limited. High level sensitivity to sound stimuli. Without special corrective action, speech is not formed.

7. Aphasia- complete or partial loss of speech (understanding or its production) due to local brain lesions. Forms are distinguished according to their severity. It is more common in old age as a result of brain injury or cerebral diseases, such as stroke. In children, it is diagnosed when organic brain damage occurs after mastering speech. It manifests itself in a violation of the further development of speech, the decay of the formed speech. The consequences of aphasia are behavioral disorders in the form of aggressiveness, irritability, and conflict. Compensatory capabilities in all age categories are sharply limited. Help is provided in medical institutions.

• Titov V.A.Special pedagogy: lecture notes. - M .: Prior-Publishing House, 2004. - S. 224.

Elena Tashlykova
General characteristics of the problem of violations of written speech

Written speech is formed on the basis of oral speech. Written speech is somewhat different from oral speech structure.

Oral differences speeches from written speech:

V functional system supporting processes letters and reading, not only the actual speech structures of the brain are turned on, but also visual analyzers of visual perception, spatial analysis and synthesis, the function of hand movements during letter, the function of eye movement along the line and along the page as in time letters and while reading.

Thus, the processes letters and reading presupposes the maturity of the brain, which ensures the functioning of these structures of the brain.

Unlike oral written speech speech is characterized by a high degree of arbitrariness. Therefore, to master it requires sufficient maturity of the 3rd block of the brain, which provides programming, regulation and control of complex activities. This complexity of the functional organization of processes letters and reading determines the variety of mechanisms for their violations... As well as forms, types writing and reading disorders.

Even the simple dictation process of individual words requires interaction between the prefrontal cortex. (arbitrariness, attention, control); temporal cortex of the left hemisphere (phonemic perception, operative auditory memory); occipital cortex of the left hemisphere (actualization of the visual image of letters); the parieto-occipital cortex of the left hemisphere (clarification of the spatial arrangement of the elements of the letters and on the basis of this differentiation of similar in outline); joint function of the parietal and motor zones of the posterior region of the frontal cortex (translation of images of letters into images of hand movements); proper motor zone (hand movement programs and their implementation); work of the occipital cortex (visual, motor function - eye movement along the line); besides the process letters under dictation assumes a corresponding general tone of the nervous system.

Thus, in providing this type letters all three functional blocks of the brain are involved and whole line individual neuropsychological factors (areas that function interacting.

A modern approach to learning violations of the letter and reading suggests their neuropsychological analysis. For its implementation, it is necessary, first of all, to build on the ideas about the cerebral organization of these processes in the norm. T.V. Akhutina determines the functional composition letters by assessing the role of each of the three brain blocks.

About learning motivation spoke L. S. Vygotsky, then B. D. Elkonin. They talked about the fact that the child may not have independent motivation, a special motivation: emotional coloring; cognitive motivation; communicative motivation.

Mastery written speech, its use for different purposes, in different types activity always involves motivational and volitional regulation, therefore the activity of the levels of regulation written speech important at all stages. At each stage, activity is determined by the specifics of the leading regulatory level. For the 1st stage of development written speech the leading is the emotional level of regulation. Skills learning motivation letters and the reading is given externally. Achievements of the child, encouraged by the teacher and parents, create the basis for the formation of motivation for this type of activity. At the second stage, the cognitive level of regulation becomes the leading one, since on the basis of the use of the processes of reading and letters assimilation of the content of curricula in subjects and the formation of a system of scientific, theoretical and applied knowledge and ideas, as well as the development of educational and cognitive skills and abilities. At the 3rd stage of development written speech the leading is the socio-communicative level of regulation. Successful solution of personally significant problems(professional and civil formation, creative realization) by using written speech reinforces a consistently positive emotional attitude towards this kind activities.

Along with oral pathology speeches there are various violations of written language... it writing and reading disorders... These violations are identified according to various sources in 4-20% of the total number of primary schoolchildren. Violations reading is most common in boys.

Currently, 4 main types are considered in speech therapy violations of writing.

To denote violations of the letter use terms: dyslexia - how reading disorder, dysgraphia - how violations of the letter, dysorphography - violations of the letter due to improper use of a morphological trait (morphological trait - separate morphemes, always require uniformity in spelling), agrammatisms on letter - violation the grammatical structure of sentences, due to the lexical and grammatical underdevelopment of the oral speeches).

The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the lack of formation of certain operations letters(developed by R. E. Lalaeva).

Dysgraphia - partial specific violation of the writing process... On the letter contains errors that are persistent, systematic, non-self-correcting, not related to the study of spelling rules. Dysgraphia due to underdevelopment (decay) VPF carrying out the process letters are normal.

Dyslexia - partial specific disruption of the reading process due to unformed (violation of) higher mental functions and manifested in repeated mistakes persistent character... Dyslexia affects 5 to 12% of people. Alexia is a complete inability or loss of the ability to master the reading process. Dyslexia is caused by the lack of formation of HMFs that carry out the reading process normally (visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, phonemic perception, phonemic analysis and synthesis, underdevelopment of the LH system speeches).

In accordance with the specified approaches in the classifications of speech violations adopted in modern Russian speech therapy, violations of written language presented in different ways.

In the clinical and pedagogical classification, they are included in the general group « Written language disorders» and are designated by the terms - dysgraphia, dyslexia, agraphia, alexia. These terms indicate the degree violations(full or partial)... This approach is related to the essence of the principles of constructing the classification. In the clinical and pedagogical classification, this is an etiopathogenetic principle that focuses on the differentiation of speech violations depending on their causes, mechanisms and symptoms.

In the psychological and pedagogical classification (R. E. Levina) violations of written language in children do not stand out as independent type speech pathology. They are seen as systemic consequences violations of oral speech - OHR or FFNR... This approach is related to the essence of the principles of constructing the classification. In psychological and pedagogical classification, this is the principle of taking into account the linguistic and psychological criteria of the speech system. Reliance on this classification allows the speech therapist to determine the general and particular manifestations of speech impairments in different types of abnormal development. speeches and build a correction process on their basis.

Since reading and letter on general structure associative chain - the processes are very similar, this allows us to talk about the unity of the pathogenetic mechanisms of their disorders. The researchers note that reading and writing disorders rarely occur in isolation - they are usually interrelated.

Children with dyslexia and dysgraphia are very common speech disorders... The literature notes a variety of the nature of violations of oral speech with dyslexia: 1) disturbances in the tempo and rhythm of speech(stuttering, very fast speech); 2) delayed appearance speeches; 3) lack of verbal function (inaccuracy in the use of words); 4) violations grammatical structure of oral speeches; 5) violation of sound pronunciation; 6) violations phonemic development.

More significant in the onset of dyslexia and dysgraphia is late development speeches... With dyslexia and dysgraphia in a large number of cases, there is a delay in speech development. In some cases, this is only a slight lag (speech appeared after two years, in others - a pronounced delay in speech development, when speech appeared after four or more years.

Children with dyslexia and dysgraphia have violation of sound pronunciation, the poverty of the dictionary, the inaccuracy of the use of words. They formulate their speech incorrectly, make mistakes in the use of words, avoid complex phrases, limit themselves to short sentences, and observe inversions.

R.E. Levina believes that the basis reading and writing and speaking disorders lies the lack of formation of the phonemic system.

Reading and writing disorders may be associated with insufficient lexical and grammatical development speeches... So, the replacement of words during reading can be caused not only by their phonetic similarity, incorrect pronunciation or nondiscrimination of individual sounds, but also by the difficulties in establishing the syntactic connections of a sentence.

The question of etiology reading and writing disorders until now remains debatable: (hereditary predisposition,

the presence of pathological factors affecting the prenatal, natal, postnatal periods; the impact of biological and social factors).

The specificity of the errors lies in the fact that they differ from the errors associated with the lack of mastery of the rules, with the lack of learning of the child. Specific errors have a pathophysiological mechanism and reflect non-specificity basic operations writing and reading.

For example: Specularity. Up to 80% of students make mirror mistakes on letter, but not all children have this appearance of dysgraphia - these are growth errors that disappear spontaneously in the process of learning and training exercises.

In children with the above violations a stable motor formula of the letter is developed extremely slowly. The image of each letter occurs with enormous physical costs and requires separate conscious control.

Specific errors in pure dysgraphia are extremely rare. A mixed picture is usually observed. With specific violations of the letter jagged and illegible handwriting, slower pace letters, difficulties in automating the grapho-motor skill.

Along with the pathology of oral speech, there are also violations of written speech. These are violations of writing and reading. It is clear that not a single child can learn at once, suddenly, absolutely correctly, to read and write. All children go through the initial stage of learning, in which they have more or less mistakes. But we are not talking about such errors - natural, natural - when they mean pathology.

As you know, children with normal speech throughout the preschool age acquire the necessary vocabulary, master grammatical forms, acquire a readiness to master the sound and morphemic analysis of words. However, in children with various forms of speech pathology, there is a lag in the development of these processes.

As studies by R. Elevina, N. Nikashina, L. F. Spirova and others show, the readiness for sound analysis in preschoolers is almost two times worse than in normally speaking children. Therefore, children with various speech disorders are usually unable to fully master writing and reading in a mass school environment.

Children with writing disabilities often write in such a way that, without knowing what is dictated to them, it is impossible to read what is written. For example: "chips" (tongs), "sukli" (stockings), "girl on dya" (girl Nadia), "bow" (hand) (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. An example of impaired writing in a child with general speech underdevelopment

Because writing and reading are closely related, impairments to writing tend to be accompanied by impaired reading. To control his writing, a child must read what is written, and, conversely, when reading, he uses the text written by him or another person.

The pathology of writing is denoted by the following terms: agraphia (from the Greek a - a particle meaning negation, grapho - I write) - a complete inability to master the letter and dysgraphia (from the Greek dis - a prefix meaning disorder, grapho - I write) - a specific violation of writing.

Deficiencies in reading are called alexia (from the Greek a - a particle that means negation, and lego - I read) - a complete inability to master reading and dyslexia - a specific reading disorder.

It has now been found to be a violation of writing and reading. In children, they most often arise as a result of a general underdevelopment of all components of the language: phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical. Dysgraphia and dyslexia occur, as a rule, in children with the III level of speech development (FOOTNOTE: See Chapter VII of this manual) *, since with severe forms of general speech underdevelopment (I and II levels) they are generally unable to master writing and by reading. To prepare such children for teaching written language, systematic, over a number of years, classes on the formation of their oral speech are necessary.

This is due to the fact that children do not sufficiently distinguish phonemes by ear that are similar in articulation or acoustic characteristics. In addition, possessing an extremely limited vocabulary, the child does not understand the meanings of some even the simplest words and therefore distorts them, skips, replaces, mixes them up. Insufficiently formed ™ of the grammatical structure of speech leads to omissions, substitutions or distortions of prepositions, to errors in management, coordination, etc.

However, such a view of the causes of violations of written speech was determined relatively recently. Initially, at the end of the 19th century, the pathology of writing and reading was considered as one of the manifestations of mental retardation (T. Heller, I. Wolf).

Subsequently, the German scientist A. Kussmaul in 1877 abandoned such an interpretation and defined violations of written speech as an independent anomaly, not associated with a decrease in intelligence.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. a new theory appears, explaining the defects of writing by the inferiority of visual perception. Proponents of this approach (VMorgan, P. Ranshburg, H. Bashtian and others) designated this defect as "congenital verbal blindness". This theory has become widespread both in science and in practice. According to this approach, the method of overcoming the shortcomings of written speech was reduced mainly to exercises in memorizing letterforms by copying, cutting, cutting out, painting, shading, underlining, modeling from plasticine, etc.

Such a technique, aimed at mechanical training of visual perception, turned out to be ineffective, and impairments in writing and reading remained an insurmountable defect for a long time. Then, at the beginning of the XX century. an attempt was made to explain the defects in writing by violations of other analyzers. In accordance with this, dysgraphia was subdivided into optical, acoustic, motor, ideomotor (K.N.Monakhov).

However, already at that time, researchers appeared who objected to such an interpretation of dysgraphia, for example, the English scientist S. Orton. He pointed out that with an inability to write, difficulties are sometimes observed only with respect to individual letters, but he considered the main obstacle to acquiring the skills of correct writing to be the impossibility of combining letters in a certain sequence, making words out of letters.

Subsequently, in the 30s of the XX century, a more progressive view of the shortcomings of writing appeared, linking them with pronunciation defects. This theory belongs to our Soviet scientists FARau, M. Elvatsev, NN Traugott, Alyaunberzin and others. According to this theory, dysgraphia is defined as "tongue-tied" in writing, as a result of which specific difficulties arise in mastering writing. It was assumed that when correcting defects in sound pronunciation, violations of the writing disappear. However, practice has shown that the correction of pronunciation in most cases does not ensure the elimination of violations of writing and reading. In addition, writing disorders were often noted in children who pronounced all sounds correctly. In the studies of R.M.Boskis and R.Elevina, it was suggested that in the overwhelming majority of violations of written speech are a manifestation of underdevelopment of phonemic perception - a reduced ability of children with normal hearing to catch sound relationships that make up the system of phonemes of the native language.

This is how the cause of dysgraphia and dyslexia - phonemic underdevelopment - was put forward and scientifically substantiated. This point of view on violations of writing and reading in the future not only received full confirmation, but was also developed in subsequent works by R. Elevina, N. Nikashina, L. F. Spirova, G. V. Chirkina, A. V. Yastrebova and others. In the studies of the above specialists, writing and reading disorders are interpreted in accordance with a systematic approach to speech pathology as a manifestation of speech underdevelopment.

The previous tendency - to consider violations of written language as an independent anomaly, not associated with the development of oral speech, was recognized as erroneous. It has also been experimentally proved that dysgraphic and dyslexic children have no difficulties in mastering the visual-spatial arrangement of letters in a word, since they all correctly write off the presented texts.

So, it has now been established that writing and reading disorders in children arise as a result of deviations in the development of oral speech: incompletely formed phonemic perception or, more often, underdevelopment of all its components (phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical). This explanation of the causes of violations of written speech in children is firmly established in Soviet speech therapy. It is also accepted by the majority of foreign researchers (S. Borel-Masonny, R. Becker, etc.).

Detection of violations of writing and reading

Speech therapy examination of children with dysgraphia and dyslexia should establish:

The degree of mastering the skills of sound analysis;

The degree of mastering the skills of writing and reading;

The state of oral speech as a whole, i.e. the level of development of the phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical aspects of the language.

One of the conditions for the development of written speech is the presence of the skill of conscious analysis and synthesis of its constituent sounds, without which the processes of writing and reading are impossible. Thus, first of all, it is necessary to reveal the child's readiness to orally analyze the sound composition of words. There are many different techniques for this purpose:

1. Distinguishing and isolating sounds from the composition of the word

First, the ability to highlight vowel sounds is tested. The speech therapist pronounces loudly and lingeringly the sounds a and o. Invites the child to repeat these sounds after him. Then he names the words where these sounds are at the beginning and are under stress (wasps, Anya, Alya, Olya, etc.), and the child determines which is the first sound in each word. All other vowel sounds are worked out in the same way.

After that, you can invite the child to highlight the consonant sound, which is first at the end of the word, then at the beginning.

The speech therapist calls the words, and the child raises his hand if he hears a word that ends (begins) with a given sound.

2. The child's coming up with words starting with a given sound.

At first, the speech therapist himself calls a series of words starting with a sound, for example: soap, mom, boy, fly, typewriter. And then he asks the child to come up with and name words starting with the sound w, then the sound with, etc.

3. Selection by the child of pictures, the names of which begin with a given sound.

A speech therapist should have several sets of pictures for this purpose. Each such set should contain pictures, the names of which begin:

From a given sound (pictures that the child will need to take away);

From the sounds most often mixed with the given;

With other sounds.

For example, a child must select pictures whose names begin with the sound ш. In this case, he is shown the following set of pictures: a cup, bowl, ball, fur coat, hut, hat, hat, scarf, wardrobe, heron, teeth, dog, beetle, acorns, stockings, chicken, chain, sundress, bench, sleigh, bag , brush, tongs, umbrella, dress, watering can, pencil, table, school, etc.

The child selects only the necessary pictures, and puts the rest aside.

4. The distribution of pictures by the child, the names of which begin with the sounds most often mixed by children.

This technique requires (in contrast to the previous ones) that all the pictures offered to the child should be distributed to them in the appropriate groups.

The child is presented with pictures, the names of which begin with mixed sounds. For example, a set consists of pictures with objects whose names begin with the sounds with and ш. The child should think carefully and arrange the pictures into two appropriate groups.

5. Comparison of words (paronyms) by sound composition.

The child is presented with a set of pictures, from which he must pick up such pairs, the names of which differ only in one sound, for example: cancer - varnish, beetle - onion, house - lump, poppy - tank, scrap - catfish, goat - scythe.

6. Division of sentences into words, words into syllables, syllables into sounds.

The child is given a sentence and words for analysis, they are asked to count the number of words in a sentence and sounds in a word; determine what sounds it consists of, what is the sequence of sounds, then name the sounds in order.

Letter survey

The survey begins with the simplest tasks. The most accessible task for a child is to add words from a split alphabet.

The speech therapist shows pictures with images of objects and adds the corresponding words. At first, to facilitate the task, you can give the child not all the letters of the alphabet, but only those that make up a particular word. For example, if the picture shows a cat, you need to give the child O, T, K. If the task is completed correctly, the child is provided with all the letters of the alphabet.

1. Writing words from pictures.

The child is offered pictures with images of well-known everyday objects. Pictures should be selected so that the words are of varying complexity (a confluence of consonants, a complex syllable structure, a combination of mixed sounds), for example: a frying pan, a nesting box, a pencil, scissors, a TV, a tape recorder, a pyramid, bagels, skis, skates, a fur coat, an old woman, a grandmother , drying, mushroom, matches, lighter, box, tongs, pincers, stockings, teeth.

The speech therapist gives the task to write the names of the objects shown in the pictures.

2. Writing proposals for pictures.

The child is given first subject pictures, then plot and, finally, a series of pictures. He must first compose sentences and then write them.

In addition to the above techniques, children's writing skills are tested using auditory dictations. Dictations for verification are selected and composed in such a way that they include words with sounds similar in sound or similar in articulation. In addition, the dictation offered to children during the examination must meet all the requirements of the school curriculum for the Russian language (and, of course, the child's age).

Of particular importance is the test of self-writing skills, which makes it possible to identify errors that cannot be detected when writing dictation (for example, agrammatism, poor vocabulary, inaccurate use of words and prepositions, etc.). Such independent writing also makes it possible to understand to what extent the child is fluent in written speech in general.

To test the skills of independent writing, children are asked to describe in detail a plot picture or compose a written story based on a series of pictures. You can ask the child to describe the events of the past day, the past holiday, the watched movie, the book read.

When examining writing skills, it is necessary to take into account the nature of the writing process, i.e. can the child immediately phonetically correctly spell a word or pronounce it several times, looking for the desired sound; whether he makes corrections (crosses out, re-reads and corrects again) or cannot and does not try to find errors at all, etc.

Particular attention should be paid to specific errors.

Specific dysgraphic errors include the following:

1. Specific phonetic substitutions.

These are errors indicating the lack of distinction between sounds belonging to the same group or to different groups, differing in subtle acoustic-articulatory features. This includes the replacement and mixing of letters denoting sibilant and hissing sounds, voiced and deaf, soft and hard, r and l; replacement of letters denoting vowel sounds.

2. Violation of the syllable structure of the word.

These include errors that indicate insufficient clarity of sound analysis, the inability not only to clarify and highlight sounds and words, but also to establish their sequence. This is the omission of individual letters and whole syllables, permutation of letters or syllables, separate spelling of parts of one word and continuous spelling of two words.

3. Grammatical errors.

These errors indicate the incompleteness of the process of forming the grammatical design of written speech. These include omission or incorrect use of prepositions, official words, case endings, incorrect agreement of words, errors in management. It is the categories of specific errors described above that make it possible to establish dysgraphia in a child, therefore they are considered diagnostic.

In addition to these specific errors, dysgraphs also have others that are characteristic of all children who have not yet sufficiently developed the skills of correct writing.

Errors associated with dysgraphia include the following:

1. Spelling errors.

Spelling errors in dysgraphics are more numerous than in children who have mastered completely literate writing. Moreover, mistakes predominate in letters denoting unstressed vowels, dubious or unpronounceable consonants, in the spelling of voiced and voiceless sounds at the end of a word, in the designation of softening consonants.

2. Graphic errors.

These are the replacement of letters by graphic similarity (instead of I it is written, W and vice versa, instead of L-Mi, vice versa, etc.) and by graphic sign, (instead of B - D and vice versa, instead of T-W, etc.).

Reading survey

To examine the state of reading in children, specially compiled (necessarily in printed letters) texts are used. Such material for a reading survey should meet the following requirements:

1) the texts should contain as many opposition letters and syllables as possible;

3) texts should be small in volume;

4) the possibility of using texts familiar to the child should be excluded, i.e. such that he had already met at school or at home.

There are many different techniques for examining children's reading, and they should be used in an order of gradually increasing complexity, starting with the most elementary ones. This will make it possible to establish with the greatest accuracy what the main difficulties of the child are.

1. Reading individual letters

The speech therapist shows the child the letters of the split alphabet (but one), he calls them. Then the speech therapist asks the child to find some letter among others. Letters for recognition should be named in such an order that they correspond to opposition phonemes, for example: S-W-Ch-Sch-Z-Zh-Ts, R-L, G-K, etc.

2. Reading syllables.

The child is offered syllables, including the corresponding opposition phonemes (sa-shcha, za-zha, tsa-cha, ra-la, etc.). In addition to direct syllables, reverse syllables are also presented, as well as syllables with a confluence of consonants. If the child pronounces some sounds incorrectly, they must be included in the syllables to check the reading. In this case, special attention should be paid to the presence of the ability to differentiate sounds.

3. Reading words.

Children should first be asked to read the most simple words(mom, current, crowbar, catfish, etc.). Then - more complex in syllable and morphological composition (mirror, building, sheet, thicket, tongs, birdhouse, matches, etc.).

4. Reading individual sentences and specially selected texts.

When using this technique, in addition to examining the reading process, it is also necessary to check how the child understands what he has read. For this purpose, when the child reads individual phrases, you can ask him to choose a picture that corresponds to the content of what he read (a boy skates, an old woman knits a stocking, a girl looks in the mirror, etc.). Questions to the child about the reading or the assignment for retelling are effective. It is also necessary to establish the nature of the reading: letter by letter or word by word.

Particular attention should be paid to the nature of specific dyslexic errors: replacement of phonemes (especially oppositional); omissions, rearrangements and distortions of syllables, word replacements; agrammatism in reading - in other words, the same mistakes as in dysgraphia, only they are expressed not in writing, but in reading. It is also important to establish the nature of guessing reading, the pace of reading.

All errors in writing and reading revealed during the examination must be carefully analyzed, especially highlighting specific ones. After that, it is necessary to examine the state of the child's general speech development: sound pronunciation and phonemic perception (FOOTNOTE: for research, see Chapter II), as well as vocabulary and the level of formation of the grammatical structure of speech.

Then it is necessary to compare the survey data of all components of oral speech with the errors identified during writing and reading. This will make it possible to establish whether, in each specific case, dysgraphia and dyslexia are the result of a violation of phonemic perception, or whether there is a more serious reason - a general underdevelopment of speech.

It is also necessary to be able to separate true dysgraphia and dyslexia from incorrect writing and reading, caused by a number of reasons, but not due to speech underdevelopment. These reasons include the following: insufficient mastering of the school curriculum in the native language, pedagogical neglect, the influence of bilingualism. But in such cases, even with a large number of various errors in the writing and reading of the child, there should be no specific errors.

The main directions of correctional work to eliminate violations of writing and reading

It is now generally accepted that there is a close relationship between the underdevelopment of oral speech and impaired writing and reading in children. Therefore, to eliminate violations, a unified system of corrective action is required. This position is confirmed by the fact that dysgraphia and dyslexia are not isolated defects, but most often accompany each other. NA Nikashina, LF Spirova, RI Shuifer in their works devoted to the problem of overcoming the pathology of written speech in children, emphasize that the elimination of the deficiencies in oral speech, reading and writing should be carried out in a comprehensive manner.

Such work is usually carried out by a speech therapist at school speech therapy centers in their free time (3-4 times a week). The main directions of speech therapy work:

1. Development of phonemic perception. (For the system of work on the development of phonemic hearing, see Ch. P.) Differentiation of opposition sounds and syllables is carried out not only by ear, but also fixed in written speech. The formation of phonemic perception is carried out with the obligatory participation of the speech-motor analyzer as well. Therefore, simultaneously with the development of phonemic hearing, work is carried out on sound pronunciation.

2. Work on sound pronunciation. First of all, it is necessary to eliminate all the shortcomings in the pronunciation of phonemes (distortion, replacement, lack of sound). Sometimes there are children in whom sound pronunciation is preserved. In such cases, a clearer (almost - exaggerated) articulation should be practiced in order to turn on the speech motor analyzer. In addition, it must be remembered that with impaired phonemic hearing, even intact sounds cannot be articulated absolutely clearly.

3. Development of the skills of sound analysis and synthesis. The work on the development of phonemic perception turns into work on the development of the skills of sound analysis. The latter is always carried out on the material of sounds correctly pronounced by children. The main types of this work are:

a) the selection of words from a sentence, from words of syllables, and then sounds. Such an analysis should be accompanied by drawing up a diagram of a whole sentence (long line - a sentence, short lines - words, the smallest lines - syllables, dots - sounds);

b) adding missing letters, syllables;

c) selection of words by the number of syllables (monosyllabic words are written in one column, disyllabic words in the other, etc.);

d) inventing words for a given sound and recording them, matching each word with another with an opposition sound, etc.

4. Enrichment of vocabulary and development of practical ability to use it. Usually, this stage begins with teaching children different ways of forming new words, for example, the formation of words using different prefixes from the same verb stem (u-went, came, went, went, went); with the help of one prefix from different verb stems (arrived, brought, arrived, flew, flew, etc.). Another type of vocabulary work is the selection of one-root words. Such work dramatically improves the spelling of unstressed vowels, as it makes it easier for the child to select test (single-root) words.

Throughout all classes, the vocabulary of children is expanded, clarified, consolidated. The main task is to combine exercises on sound analysis of each word with clarification of its meaning and exercises in writing and reading. A lot of work is being done to activate vocabulary.

5. Development of grammatical skills. The main tasks of this stage are work on the understanding and use of prepositions, drawing up a sentence using pictures, series of pictures, spreading and reducing the sentence, etc.

6. Development of coherent speech, both oral and written. Writing and Reading Deficiencies are taught throughout the school year. A prerequisite their effectiveness is the development of writing and speaking.

Correction of deficiencies in writing and reading requires constant systematic studies, takes a lot of energy and time from children, as a result of which overall academic performance may decrease. Therefore, it is much easier and more expedient to prevent violations of writing and reading than to overcome them.

Prevention of writing and reading disorders

One of the prerequisites for preventive action is early recognition of warning signs of speech underdevelopment.

The key point in identifying possible difficulties in writing and reading and in organizing corrective measures is the study of the phonemic development of children with speech disorders.

Based on a comprehensive analysis and assessment of the role of individual components of speech activity in the structure of various speech defects in the 60s. a special category of preschool children with insufficient prerequisites for learning to write and read was singled out. This category includes children with phonetic and phonemic underdevelopment.

Characteristics of children with phonetic and phonemic underdevelopment

It is known that the most common defect in children of middle and older preschool age is a violation of sound pronunciation (FOOTNOTE: see chapter "Dislalia"). This group includes children who have an incorrect pronunciation of certain sounds, one or more groups of sounds (for example, sibilant, sibilant and sibilant; sibilant and affricate) with normal physical hearing. A more thorough study of the sound side of the speech of these children shows the lack of formation in some of them of the entire set of its elements - sound pronunciation, rhythmic-syllabic structure of the word, perception of phonemes (speech sounds). The nature of such deviations is a risk factor in relation to mastering the skills of writing and reading.

What is phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment?

Phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment is a violation of the processes of formation of the pronunciation system of the native language in children with various speech disorders due to defects in the perception and pronunciation of phonemes.

It is possible to identify the main manifestations that characterize this condition.

1. Undifferentiated pronunciation of pairs or groups of sounds. In these cases, the same sound can serve as a substitute for two or even three other sounds for the child. For example, the soft sound t "is pronounced instead of the sounds s", h, w ("tyumka", "tyaska", "hoe" instead of a bag, a cup, a hat).

2. Replacing some sounds with others that have simpler articulation and therefore present less articulation difficulty for the child. Usually, sounds that are difficult to pronounce are replaced by lighter ones, which are characteristic of the early period of speech development. For example, the sound l is used instead of the sound p, the sound f is used instead of the sound w. In some children, a whole group of whistling and hissing sounds can be replaced by t and d sounds ("tobacco" instead of a dog, etc.).

3. Mixing sounds. This phenomenon is characterized by the unstable use of a number of sounds in different words. The child can use sounds correctly in some words, and in others replace them with similar ones in articulation or acoustic signs. So, a child, being able to pronounce the sounds p, l or c in isolation, in speech utterances says, for example, "Stole is laying a board" instead of the Joiner is planing a board.

The noted features can be combined with other deficiencies of pronunciation: the p sound is throaty, the s sound is dental, lateral, etc.

A similar nature of violations of the sound side of speech should alert the educator and parents, since it indicates the underdevelopment of phonemic hearing (the ability to distinguish between phonemes). There is a system of techniques that help in such cases to determine the degree of his unformedness. These are tasks like:

Determine the difference between correct and incorrect pronunciation of a sound in your own and someone else's speech. Often, children do not recognize the differences between their own incorrect pronunciation and the pronunciation of those around them. This is due to impaired auditory control;

Play for an adult 3-4 syllabic combinations of easy sounds for pronouncing, like pa-po-poo; pa-ba-pa. Difficulties in reproduction are caused by incorrect perception of syllables with opposition sounds and poor discrimination of the sequence of sounds;

Select a certain sound from the "chain" of sounds (for example, the sound s among the sounds t, c, h, h, s, w, p, etc.);

Select a syllable with a certain sound from a number of syllables (for example, a syllable sa from syllables for, sha, sa, cha, shcha, sa, etc.);

Determine the presence of a sound in a word (for example, the sound with in the words sled, fur coat, socks, umbrella, nose, shuka).

In such tasks, the child is not required to utter a sound, as this can make it difficult for him. It is important to find out the state of perception of speech sounds, therefore, the child reacts with a certain action (raises his hand, chip or picture) if he hears a predetermined sound. These tasks allow us to find out with great certainty the possibilities of perceiving sounds that are defective in pronunciation.

It is important to pay attention to the state of perception of those sounds that the child pronounces correctly enough. There are frequent cases when the perception of the so-called "preserved" sounds (that is, pronounced with the observance of the necessary articulatory structure) is disturbed or does not develop to the proper extent.

In children belonging to this group, with outwardly good pronunciation, there are significant difficulties in the perception of sounds, which, without careful study, can go unnoticed. It is these children who often, unexpectedly for those around them, turn out to be unsuccessful in writing and reading.

Underdevelopment of phonemic hearing negatively affects the formation in children of readiness for sound analysis of words. So, children find it difficult:

In highlighting the first vowel, consonant sound (either the first syllable or the whole word is called);

In the selection of pictures that include a given sound. The set offered to the child includes pictures, the names of which have the desired sound - a hat, a cat, a shower; no sound you want - kidney, window, rocket; there is a sound mixed with a given one - boots, a kettle, a brush;

In independently inventing and naming words with a given sound.

Timely identification of children with phonetic and phonemic underdevelopment, conducting specially organized training in a kindergarten allows not only to correct a speech defect, but also to fully prepare them for school.

The main objectives of remedial education are as follows:

1. Formation of sound pronunciation.

2. Development of phonemic hearing.

3. Preparation for teaching literacy.

Speech therapy work begins with the clarification of the articulation of the (intact) sounds available in children. Organizationally, classes are conducted both frontally with the entire group and individually.

Frontal classes are held throughout the year in a specific system according to a single plan, taking into account the individual characteristics of children. In these lessons, first of all, the pronunciation of vowel sounds is practiced: y, a, u, e, o, then simple consonants: n, n ", k, k", l ", x, s, s", z, z "and again sounds set: c, t, b, b ", d, d", g, g ", w, l, g, p, p", h, sch.

In the process of developing sound pronunciation in children, attention is brought up to the sound side of speech. Correcting the pronunciation of sounds, the speech therapist teaches children to listen to speech, to distinguish and reproduce individual elements of speech, to keep in memory the material perceived by ear, to hear the sound of their own speech and to correct their mistakes. Along with exercises to consolidate the set sounds, exercises are gradually introduced to differentiate sounds according to the following features; voiceless and voiced (f-v, s-z, p-b, t-d, k-g, w-g); whistling and hissing (s-w, h-g); fricatives and affricates (c-c); smooth and vibrant (rl, r "-l"); soft and hard (s-s ", z-z", etc.).

In order to educate attention to the sound side of speech and auditory memory, special exercises are provided in the training system, which can be divided into two groups. One group of exercises is aimed only at speech perception - children answer questions using actions, showing pictures. This includes memorizing aural lines of words, specially selected instructions, and other speech material. These exercises are especially necessary at the very beginning of learning, when the active, correctly pronounced vocabulary of children is limited. The second group of exercises, having the same goals, provides not only the correct perception of the lexical material, but also its reproduction. This includes the repetition of syllabic lines, lines of words, sentences perceived by ear; memorizing various speech material in connection with the consolidation of the correct sound pronunciation.

As they master new sounds, children are gradually introduced to the change in word forms depending on the gender, number, case, time of action. So, for example, when reinforcing the correct pronunciation of sounds with, s ", z, z", children select nouns for adjectives (blue ... bus, blue ... vase, green ... bench).

With differentiation sounds rl a speech therapist selects phrases in which children use nouns in certain cases (they chop firewood ... with an ax. They cut firewood with a saw).

At the same time, a variety of exercises are introduced to compose and disseminate sentences on questions, key words, and to demonstrate actions.

Gradually, sentences include prepositions, especially those that are not always correctly used by children: over, because of, from under, between, through.

At each frontal lesson, exercises are conducted to prepare children for the analysis of the sound composition of a word. First, the attention of preschoolers is drawn to individual sounds and sounds in the composition of the word ("Clap your hands if you hear the sound y; if you hear a word with the sound t; the syllable with the sound p", etc.; "Take pictures with a sound in the name to "etc.).

Gradually, from the ability to hear a separate sound in the composition of a word, children are led to mastering the skills of a complete sound analysis of the simplest monosyllabic words.

A certain correspondence between the studied sounds and certain forms of analysis is envisaged. So, the initial preparation for the analysis includes the following sections:

1) highlighting the first stressed vowel sound (a, o, y, u) at the beginning of a word. Based on the material of these sounds, children are given the first idea that sounds can be arranged in a certain sequence. Children determine the number of sounds and their sequence in sound combinations;

2) highlighting the first and last consonant sound in monosyllabic words (cat, poppy); analysis and synthesis of a reverse syllable such as aп, ut, ok;

3) highlighting a stressed vowel in a word from the position after the consonant (cat, tank);

4) mastering sound analysis and synthesis of direct syllables such as sa, as well as monosyllabic words such as soup, juice, bitches.

As the children master these skills, frontal classes include an increasing number of exercises that combine the consolidation of the set sounds with a conscious analysis and synthesis of the sound composition of words. This work helps the fastest introduction of the delivered sounds into speech.

Gradually, the word becomes the main unit of study. Children are taught to divide a word into syllables using a diagram as a visual reference. First, the whole word is indicated, then the syllables and then the sounds. Children master a complete sound-syllabic analysis of monosyllabic, two-syllable and three-syllable words without a confluence of consonants and with a confluence (vase, panama, chair, cat, glass, cabbage, etc.). Children will learn that there are as many syllables as there are vowels in a word. As the learning progresses, the transition to a complete analysis and synthesis of words is carried out without the help of a scheme. In parallel, exercises are carried out to transform words by replacing one sound with another (Mura - Shura, cat - mouth, etc.). At the same time, children learn the terms "syllable", "word", "sentence", "vowel sound", "consonant sound", "hard", "soft", "voiced", "voiceless" (consonant sounds).

As a result of numerous exercises for the correct pronunciation of sounds, for the analysis and synthesis of the sound composition of speech, children are well prepared for mastering reading. Now new tasks are set for the child: to master the letter designations of sounds, to learn to merge letters into syllables, to master conscious, fluent, word-by-word reading.

An effective teaching technique is reading in the footsteps of analysis: a word after preliminary analysis is made up of letters of the split alphabet, then it is divided into syllables and sounds, and then the reverse process follows - combining sounds into syllables and reading the word by syllable. It is necessary to strictly monitor that the child reads together. First, the skill of simultaneous perception of two letters is brought up, then three. It is very important to make sure that children understand every word they read, and later a sentence, a small text. For training exercises, it is recommended to use syllable rows composed of letters, specially selected syllables and words, designed in the form of tables.

Teaching the folding of words from the split alphabet is combined with teaching writing. In the footsteps of sound analysis and synthesis, children write in block letters, and then read the written (words, sentences, short stories).

Much attention is paid to various exercises for converting words (to compose a series of words from these letters; add new words by adding letters; insert missing letters into a word, etc.).

So, by the end of the training, children should correctly pronounce and distinguish all the phonemes of their native language, possess the skills of conscious sound analysis and synthesis of words of different syllabic structures, be able to read and write words, sentences and small texts, followed by an explanation of the meaning of what they read. In addition, in kindergarten, children in a practical way learn some spelling rules: separate spelling of words, putting a dot at the end of a sentence, using a capital letter in proper names and at the beginning of a sentence. The entire system of correctional classes allows preschoolers to form full-fledged speech, makes it possible not only to overcome the child's speech deficiencies, but also to prepare him for school.

Education in a general education school after such a stage-by-stage preparation does not present specific difficulties. Moreover, observations show that children who complete correctional education in full are often better prepared for mastering literacy than their peers.

Literature

1. Efimenkova L.N., Sadovnikova I.N. Correction and prevention of dysphaphia in children. - M., 1972.

2. Kashe G.A. Correction of speech deficiencies in preschoolers. - M., 1971.

3. Kashe G.A. Preparing children with speech impairments for school. - M., 1985.

4. Kolpovskaya I.K., Nikashina N.A., Spirova L.F. Writing disorders in children with speech underdevelopment // Fundamentals of theory and practice of speech therapy / Ed. R.K. Levina. - M., 1968.

5. Pravdina O.V. Speech therapy. - M., 1969.

6. Chirkina G.V. Children with disorders of the articulatory apparatus. - M., 1969.