Organizational structure. Organizational structure of an enterprise Planning within organizational structures

In the process organizational planning the organizational structure of the enterprise is formed, aimed at establishing clear relationships between its individual divisions: the number and size of workshops, their subordination, sizes and organizational structure of service and management divisions (marketing, material support, sales, etc.), as well as administration are determined.

In theory and in practice, various types of organizational structures have been developed that can be used taking into account the characteristics of specific enterprises (Figure 2.8).

Main characteristics organizational structure are: the number of management personnel by management functions, the number of line management personnel, the number of levels of the hierarchy of the enterprise management system, the number of structural links at each level, the degree of centralization of management.

The dominant factor affecting the value of these characteristics is the amount of work on enterprise management, which depends on the composition and content of management functions, the complexity and frequency of solving management problems.

Scheme 2.8. Types of organizational structures

Scheme 2.9. Linear functional structure

Scheme 2.10. Divisional and functional structure

Scheme 2.11. Matrix structure

Advantages and Disadvantages of Organizational Management Structures

Structure	Advantages	Flaws
1	2	3
Linear	Unity and clarity of management Personal accountability of the contractor to one person Everyone's responsibility for completing the assignment (discipline) Stimulating the development of completeness	Increased transit time The performers, in addition to their main duties, also carry out "staff" work on accounting and control
Functional	Reduced transit time Specialization of the activities of managers Top management is less than a linear structure	Possibility of receiving conflicting instructions Difficulty separating interrelated functions Complexity of control Lack of flexibility in management
Linear-functional	Expanding the ability to make competent decisions Reducing the time for solving technological issues of production	The complexity of regulating the relationship between line and functional managers
Divisional	Enhancement independence and responsibility of branches in matters of maximizing profits and gaining market positions	Management growth Possibility of conflicts due to the centralized allocation of resource goals
Responsive	Fast adaptation to changes external environment Few rules and procedures Great opportunity for creativity	Control levels are blurry Uncertainty of goals and objectives Complexity of control

To develop the organizational structure of an enterprise, it is necessary:

Prepare constituent documents and in-house regulations;

Determine the list of main and auxiliary units, their functions and the order of interaction between them;

Distribute responsibilities across the vertical management structure;

Give a description of the main managers - qualifications, experience, principles of remuneration, etc .;

Provide a description of the founders of the enterprise (owners)

the list of persons and the share of each in the authorized capital and other data.

2.5. Financial plan and budget of the enterprise

To make a final decision on an entrepreneurial project, it is necessary to clearly define investments and production costs, given that the profitability of the project will ultimately depend on their size, structure and implementation schedule.

The investments and the main elements of production costs identified in the previous sections of the plan are summarized financially in order to calculate the total investment costs and determine the financial and economic profitability of the project.

When bringing together the investment and production costs, special attention should be paid to the timetable for their implementation, since these times have an impact on the cash flow of the project and its rate of return. Investment and production cost planning should be done on an annual basis, taking into account the results of the cash flow analysis.

The total amount of investment costs for the implementation of an entrepreneurial project includes, first of all, the costs of forming fixed capital (investments), working capital and production costs. Moreover, the fixed capital represents the funds necessary for the construction and equipping of the investment project with equipment, and the working capital is the funds necessary for the functioning of the project (Table 2.17.).

Fixed capital consists of the initial investment and capital expenditures for the preparation of production.

Total costs of an entrepreneurial project

Groups of costs (expenses, costs)	Subgroups costs	Scroll costs	Composition of costs
1	2	3	4
1. Initial investment costs	1.1 Costs for the main funds	Fixed capital investment costs	1. The cost of a land plot (purchase or improvement), preparation costs production site 2. Construction cost 3. The cost of the purchased equipment and its installation 4. Other fixed assets, including the cost of delivery, packaging, transportation of products
		Prev production and after production costs	1. Preliminary costs of organizing the issue of securities (costs of registering companies, including payment legal documents required to organize the securities, as well as the costs of issuing shares, costs of issuing prospectuses, pre-advertising, distribution of shares, etc.) 2. Investments in preparatory work (costs of pre-investment research, including the preparation of a feasibility study, payment for consulting services for the implementation of pre-investment research) 3. Other costs ( wage and social payments to personnel involved in the preparation of production), payment for business travel, up-front costs

			marketing, creation of a supply network, construction of temporary structures, including offices and dormitories for workers, training costs, payment of patents and know-how, termination costs functioning of the object by the end of its life cycle, including the clearing of his land.
	1.2. Working capital costs = A) - b) = = clean negotiable	a) Current assets	1. Stocks (production materials, spare parts, work in progress, finished goods) 2. Accounts receivable (the amount of debts owed to a company for a commercial loan provided to buyers by its goods) 3. Cash
		b) Accounts payable	The amount of debts that the company is obliged to pay under a commercial loan provided to it by suppliers of products (raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, equipment and financial loans)
2. Production costs	2.1. Factory costs	a) Material	The cost of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, fuel, electricity (for production needs)
		b) Labor	Labor costs of production personnel (wages, bonuses, pay overtime work, social payments)
		c) Factory waybills	Used and unused repair costs
			equipment, fuel and lighting costs, heating industrial premises, removal and disposal industrial waste, safety costs, sanitary and hygienic costs for the environment, etc.
	2.2. Administrative and overhead costs		Salary administrative staff, payment of long-term advisory services, Overhead costs (lighting, heating, cleaning and renovation of premises administrative staff, payment for communications, etc.)
	2.3. Depreciation costs		Depreciation deductions
	2.4. Financing costs		Rent payments Payment of interest, fines, etc.
3. Sales costs (marketing costs)	3.1. Direct costs	A) Packaging and storage of finished products
		B) sales costs	Advertising, Trade broker payments, Commissions, etc.
		C) transport costs
	3.2. Indirect costs		Staff compensation, Market research costs

The initial investment includes the costs of:

Preparation of the land plot and site of the enterprise;

Buildings and civil structures;

Machinery and equipment, including auxiliary;

Certain acquired parts of fixed capital, such as industrial property rights.

In order to get the amount of the initial investment, it is compiled special form(table 2.18.).

Initial investment

In addition to the initial investment, any

an entrepreneurial project entails some costs in the pre-production stage, which are generated, for example, during the acquisition or formation of fixed capital. These costs are made up of a number of items arising at different stages of the preparation and implementation of the draft and include the following costs.

1. Upfront costs (incurred during the incorporation and formation of a company) and costs of issuing securities. The latter include the costs of preparing and issuing prospectuses, advertising, announcements through the media, commissions for placement of securities, brokerage operations, processing of applications for shares and distribution of shares. Preliminary costs also include fees for legal processing of loan applications, conclusion of purchase agreements land plots etc.

2. Expenses for preliminary research, including:

Expenses for pre-investment, market research, engineering and other research (for example, a report on the design design development project) carried out in order to implement the project;

Consultant fees for research preparation,

design and management of construction and installation works;

Other expenses.

3. Expenses for preparation of production, which include:

Salary, social security contributions and additional payments to personnel employed during the pre-production period;

Travel expenses;

The cost of preparatory facilities such as dormitories for workers, temporary administrative premises, warehouses, etc .;

Training costs;

Payment of interest on loans during construction.

4. Costs for commissioning and commissioning, including

start-up management remuneration, salary, social security contributions and additional payments to commissioning personnel, cost

consumed production and auxiliary materials, the cost of auxiliary and other means necessary for commissioning (table 2.19.).

Capital expenditures (investments) in preparation for

production

Working capital means financial resources required for the operation of the facility in accordance with its production program. Working capital represents current working capital net of short-term liabilities, i.e. accounts receivable, inventories (raw materials, auxiliary materials, spare parts and small tools), work in progress and finished products and cash. Short-term liabilities consist mainly of payable bills (creditors), on which interest is not charged.

When calculating the need for working capital, it is necessary, first of all, to determine the minimum number of days secured by current assets and liabilities. Then you should calculate the annual factory cost and production costs, since it is on their basis that the value of some components of current assets is calculated. Considering that the need for working capital increases as the project gradually reaches full capacity, it is necessary to prepare data on the plant cost and production costs for the periods of commissioning and production at full capacity.

The next step is to determine the turnover ratio of the components of current assets and liabilities, which can be found by dividing 360 days by the number of days of minimum collateral. In the future, data on costs for each item of current assets and liabilities are divided by the corresponding turnover ratios. And finally, by subtracting current liabilities from the amount of current assets, the amount of required net working capital for various stages of production is obtained. At the same time, the required amount of cash in the cash desk of the enterprise is determined.

Table 2.20.

Of particular importance is the calculation of the need for working capital at the stage of feasibility study, since it forces the entrepreneur to think about the funds necessary to finance the operation of the project.

Thus, based on the amounts of production preparation costs, fixed investments and calculations of net working capital, it is possible to calculate the total need for financial resources(table 2.21.).

Table 2.21.

Total need for financial resources

The calculation of the working capital requirements for each step of the billing period is carried out according to the following formulas (for simplicity, the step number is omitted in them).

Current assets by item

4. Settlements with the budget and extra-budgetary funds represent the amount of liabilities by items: payroll; payments for VAT paid to the budget; income tax payments; payments for other taxes (fees).

For each of the taxes (fees, charges), the corresponding amount of current liabilities (PNі) is determined by the formula:

VN - the amount of tax (collection), for the quarter;

PV - the frequency of payments of this tax (collection) in days.

The total amount of current liabilities under the item “settlements with budgets and extra-budgetary funds” is determined by summing up the calculated values for all types of taxes (fees, charges).

5. Settlements for loans, borrowings, rent and leasing are the sum of current liabilities for each loan (loan, lease agreement, lease agreement).

The current liabilities of the PC for each loan (loan, lease agreement, lease agreement) are determined by the formula:

ПРк - the amount of interest payment on a loan (loan), rent or lease payment for a quarter;

PVk - the frequency of this payment in days.

The total amount of current liabilities in the line “settlements on loans, borrowings, rent and leasing” is determined by summing the calculated values for all loans (loans, lease or leasing agreements).

As already mentioned, certain components of working capital may not be taken into account if the specialist performing the calculation considers that they should not be taken into account and provides a justification for his opinion.

The calculation results are presented in the form of table 2.22.

Calculating the need for working capital

Working capital structure for calculating commercial efficiency	Calculation step number
	1	2	N
Assets

Unfinished production
Finished products
Receivables
Advances to suppliers for services
Cash reserve

Liabilities


Payroll


Working capital = (p. 7-12)
Working capital gain

Determining the need for working capital when determining efficiency share capital

When calculating the efficiency of equity capital, the need for working capital is determined in the same way as when calculating the commercial efficiency of a project with the following differences:

When calculating current assets the line "accounts receivable" is changed due to the fact that all components are taken into account, including the value of payments for rent, leasing and loans;

A new line is added to the circulating liabilities - "calculations for loans, borrowings, rent and leasing. Accordingly, the table for calculating the increase in working capital requirements in this case looks like (see table 2.23.).

Calculation of the need for working capital when determining the efficiency of the share capital

The structure of working capital for calculating the efficiency of equity capital	Nomei		e step
	1	2		N
Assets
Raw materials, materials, components, etc.
Unfinished production
Finished products
Receivables
Advances to suppliers for services
Cash reserve
Total: assets amount (lines 1-6)
Liabilities
Payments for goods, works and services
Advance payments (prepayment)
Payroll
Settlements with the budget and extra-budgetary funds
Payments for loans and borrowings
Total: liabilities (amount p. 8-11)
Working capital = (p. 7-13)
Working capital gain

For the implementation of an entrepreneurial project in the business plan, depending on the specific conditions, various sources of financing can be provided (Scheme 2.12.).

Scheme 2.12. Sources of project financing

For financial calculations, a special sheet is used - a cash flow table (table 2.24);

The cash flow model is compiled to match the timing of the inflow of funds (sales income and other receipts) with the outflow of funds for investments, production costs and other expenses.

Revenue from product sales (table 2.24., Page 1) is determined on the basis of projected sales volumes by year and projected unit prices. Sales volume forecast - result marketing research, the expected increase in production and production capacity of the enterprise.

Cash flow (cash flow model)

Table 2.24.

Indicators	Amount by years (quarters), (rubles)
	0				1				2	-	N
	quarter				quarter
	1	2	3	4	1	2	3	4
1. Sales proceeds 2. Costs, total, including: 2.1. Depreciation deductions 2.2. Interest payment 3. Profit from sales 4. Income tax 5. Net income from sales 6. Net cash flow, total: (p. 6.1. + P. 6.2. + (-) p. 6.3. + (-) p. 6.4. -P. 6.5.- p. 6.6.). 6.1. Net income from sales 6.2. Depreciation deductions 6.3. Growth (repayment) of debt 6.4. Funds from the sale (purchase) of fixed assets 6.5. Capital investment 6.6. Working capital gain 7. The balance of funds at the beginning of the period 8. Accumulated cash (line 6 + line 7) 9. The coefficient of the present value at the selected discount rate (rate of return on equity r) K = 1 / (1 + r) n, where n is the number of years. 10. Present value of cash flows (discounted) (p. 6 * p. 9)
11. The sum of the current values of cash flows

The assessment of the increase in production should be based on an analysis of the prospects for the development of the industry and retrospective trends in the development of the enterprise.

The assessment of the annual growth in prices for the company's products is based on macroeconomic and industry studies, as well as data on price increases in previous years.

Sales profit is equal to the difference between sales proceeds (line 1) and total costs (line 2).

Net income is profit from sales, reduced by the amount of tax payments (line 3 - line 4). Income tax rates are established by law.

Net cash flow (page 6) is calculated as follows:

The amount of net income from sales is adjusted by the amount of the accrued depreciation (line 6.1 + line 6.2),

Plus the increase in debt or minus its decrease (repayment) (line 6.1 + line 6.2 ± line 6.3),

Plus the amount of funds received from the sale of fixed assets, or minus the cost of their acquisition (p. 6.1+ p. 6.2 ± p. 6.3 ± p. 6.4),

Minus the projected investment (p. 6.5) required by the existing production facility to achieve the growth rate foreseen in the forecast.

If the rates of production growth have already stabilized and the commissioning of new capacities is not expected, investments are directed only to replace current assets as they wear out. When it is not possible to make an accurate calculation, investments can be assumed to be equal to depreciation, since over a sufficiently long period of time (more than five years), the depreciation amount will be equal to the reserves required to replace current assets.

The increase in working capital (p. 6.6) is calculated based on the required amount for each planned year, which is the working capital that the company should have at the beginning of the period. The amount of the required working capital is calculated based on the amount of that part of the proceeds from the sale (per one ruble), which is directed to the investment of working capital (inventories, accounts receivable, etc.) based on the analysis of the company's need for working capital for past years, as well as its typical value at similar enterprises.

The balance of funds at the beginning of the period (p. 7) shows the amount of the company's cash in the current period.

Accumulated cash (page 8) is determined by the sum of page 6 and page 7.

The fair value ratio is calculated based on the discount rate (page 9).

The present value of the cash flow by year is determined by multiplying the values of the net cash flow for each year by the calculated fair value ratio (p. 6 p. 9).

The sum of the current values of cash flows is calculated by summing the current values of cash flows for the entire planning period.

More on the topic Organizational structure of the enterprise:

3.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF MANAGEMENT OF THE MARKETING SERVICE
General and production structure of the enterprise. Specialization of the elements of the production structure. Classification of production units of the enterprise according to their functional activities. Formation of the production structure. Directions for optimization of the production structure.
Infrastructure of the enterprise, composition and goals of its formation. Composition of repair services. Tasks of repair services. Concept of maintenance. Classification of maintenance. Organization of equipment repair service.

3.3.2. Organizational planning structures

The planning process involves:

First, the top management of the organization;

Second, the planning team;

Third, the heads and specialists of the departments.

The ideal, as already indicated, is such a situation when all employees of the organization are involved in the discussion and drawing up of plans.

How are responsibilities distributed among the participants in planned activities?

Top management is the architect of the planning process, defines its main phases and planning sequence.

Top management must make the planning process accessible and understandable for every employee of the organization, he must be able to involve his employees in it as much as possible.

NS- means the implementation of this stage (type) of planned activities.

Rice. 3.3 Organizational planning flow

September

Types of planned activities

Last year status report

External evaluation

Internal assessment

Strategic Objectives

Gap Analysis

Defining an alternative strategy

Choosing a strategy and preparing the final plan

Preparation and release of annual plans and budgets

Rice. 3.4 Organization planning framework

Another function of senior management is to formulate the firm's strategy and make strategic planning decisions. The company's management determines the general goals of its development and the main ways to achieve them. Strategy development requires top management analytical skills and large-scale thinking.

Medium and lower level, as well as specialists divisions are engaged in the development of operational plans. The duties of specialists also include the analysis of the internal and external environment of the organization, making forecasts. Business leaders and staff members come together to evaluate alternative strategies proposed for the organization.

The planning process involves:

first, the top management of the organization;

secondly, a team of planners;

thirdly, heads and specialists of departments.

The ideal, as already indicated, is such a situation when all employees of the organization are involved in the discussion and drawing up of plans.

How are responsibilities distributed among the participants in planned activities?

Senior management is the architect of the planning process, defines its main phases and sequence of planning.

Top management must make the planning process accessible and understandable for every employee of the organization, he must be able to involve his employees in it as much as possible.

Rice. one.

Another function of senior management is to formulate the firm's strategy and make decisions about strategic planning... The company's management determines the general goals of its development and the main ways to achieve them. Strategy development requires analytical skills and large-scale thinking from senior management.

The management of the middle and lower level, as well as the specialists of the divisions, are engaged in the development of operational plans. The duties of specialists also include the analysis of the internal and external environment of the organization, making forecasts. Business leaders and staff members come together to evaluate alternative strategies proposed for the organization.

In recent years, in many large organizations, the functions of strategic planning have been transferred to departments, that is, there is a decentralization of internal planning. This process is carried out as follows.

The entire range of activities of the organization is divided into main segments - "strategic segmentation" occurs (the term was proposed by a well-known firm specializing in the analysis and development of strategies - "Boston Consulting Group" - BCG).

There is a reallocation of strategic powers in favor of segment managers.

The top administration remains responsible for the general direction of the organization's development: the location and structure of investments, the total volume of production and profits. In addition, the central management determines resource (mainly financial) restrictions on the activities of lower levels.

Decentralization of the planning service is carried out - the number of the central department is reduced, planning departments are being created in the field.

A strategic economic center(SHC) at the level of a separate unit. He is engaged in the development and implementation of his own strategic plans. Examples of companies that have created the SCC are the well-known American company General Electric, the British company Imperial Chemical Industries and some others.

Advantages of SCC:

SCC allows the most accurate consideration of the economic conditions at the level of individual large divisions, creates opportunities for more flexible adaptation of the division to consumers, to the external environment as a whole;

within the framework of the SCC, the time for passing basic information is reduced, decision-making is accelerated;

the existence of the SCC makes possible a wider participation of workers in the planning of their activities.

Disadvantages of SCC:

the information overload of the top management of the company increases sharply, since information is now generated simultaneously in several places;

there is a threat that the very strategy and tactics of the organization's actions will be buried under the avalanches of planned activities in the agricultural center and the central services of the company (an overabundance of planning);

there is a danger of blurring the general corporate goals and replacing them with a multitude of uncoordinated goals of the divisions.

If for large firms a pronounced tendency is the decentralization of planned activities, then small organizations on the contrary, they strive for greater centralization of planning, the creation and expansion of a central planning service.

Since the purpose of the organizational structure is to ensure the achievement of the organization's objectives, the design of the structure should be based on the strategic plans of the organization. Some authors, in fact, believe that the choice overall structure Organizations is a strategic planning decision because it determines how the organization will direct its efforts to achieve its main objectives. However, from the point of view of Michael Mescon, the organization of activities is a different, great function. In his opinion, it is based on the organization's strategy, but is not the strategy itself.

STAGES OF ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN

According to the classical theory of organization, with the conclusions of which most managers agree on this issue, the structure of the organization should be developed from the top down. It is not surprising that the sequence for developing an organizational structure is similar to the sequence of elements in the planning process. Leaders must first divide the organization into broad areas, then set specific objectives - just as planning first formulates general objectives - and then formulate specific rules.

Thus, the sequence of actions is as follows:

1) Carry out the division of the organization horizontally into broad blocks corresponding to the most important areas of activity for the implementation of the strategy. Decide which activities should be carried out by line units and which by headquarters.

2) Establish the balance of powers of different positions. At the same time, the management establishes the goal of the teams, if necessary, makes further division of no smaller organizational units in order to more effectively use specialization and avoid overloading the leadership.

3) Define job responsibilities as a set of specific tasks and functions and entrust their implementation to specific individuals. In organizations whose activities are largely related to technology, the management develops even specific tasks and assigns them to the direct executors, who are responsible for their satisfactory performance.

It is important to understand that the organizational structure that emerged as a result of the development is not a frozen form, like the frame of a building. Since organizational structures are based on plans, significant changes in plans may require corresponding changes in the structure. Indeed, in operating organizations, the process of changing the organizational structure should be treated as a reorganization, since this process, like all organizational functions, is endless. Currently, successfully functioning organizations regularly assess the degree of adequacy of their organizational structures and change them as required by external conditions. The requirements of the external environment, in turn, are determined during planning and control.

BUREAUCRACY

The word "bureaucracy" usually brings to mind pictures of clerical red tape, bad work, useless activities, many hours of waiting for certificates and forms that have already been canceled, and attempts to fight the municipality. All this really happens. However, the root cause of all these negative phenomena is not bureaucracy as such, but shortcomings in the implementation of the rules of work and the goals of the organization, the usual difficulties associated with the size of the organization, the behavior of employees, inappropriate rules and objectives of the organization. The concept of bureaucracy, originally formulated in the early 1900s by German sociologist Max Weber, is, ideally at least, one of the most useful ideas in human history.

Weber's theory did not contain descriptions of specific organizations. Weber proposed bureaucracy as a kind of normative model, an ideal that organizations should strive to achieve.

Characteristics of a rational bureaucracy:

1. A clear division of labor, which leads to the emergence of highly qualified specialists in each position

2. Hierarchy of management levels, in which each lower level is controlled by a higher level and obeys him.

3. Existence of an interconnected system of public formal rules and standards, ensuring uniformity of performance by employees of their duties and coordination of various tasks.

4. The spirit of formal impersonality with which officials perform their duties.

5. Implementation of recruitment in strict accordance with technical qualification requirements. Protection of employees against arbitrary dismissals.

Thus, the bureaucratic organizational structure is characterized by a high degree of division of labor, a developed hierarchy of management, the goal of teams, the presence of numerous rules and norms of personnel behavior, and the selection of personnel for their business and professional qualities... Weber called this structure "rational" because it is assumed that the decisions made by the bureaucracy are objective. Weber believed that the personal whims of the owners of the organization and its employees should not conflict with the goals of the organization. (These ideas absolutely did not coincide with the practice before 1900.).

Bureaucracy is also often referred to as a classical or traditional organizational structure. Most modern organizations are variants of bureaucracy. The reason for such a long and widespread use of the bureaucratic system is that its characteristics are still quite well suited for most industrial firms, service organizations and all types of government agencies... The objectivity of the decisions made allows an effectively managed bureaucracy to adapt to the ongoing changes. The promotion of employees based on their competence allows for a constant influx of highly qualified and talented people into such an organization. technicians and administrative workers.

The concept of social equality embedded in the bureaucratic structure fits very well with the value systems of both democratic and communist countries. In short, as noted management theorist John Child: "Max Weber's analysis of bureaucratic structures continues to be the unique and most significant description of the nature of modern organizations." However, bureaucratic structures have also been criticized for their inability to innovate and lack sufficient motivation for employees.

NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF BUROCRACY

While bureaucracy is a widespread model for organizing formation, it has received significant criticism. one of the most important criticisms was formulated by the sociologist R.K. Merton. In his opinion, the difficulties that arise in bureaucratic structures are associated with the exaggeration of the importance of standardized rules, procedures and norms that ensure that employees perform their tasks properly, fulfill the requests of other departments of this organization, as well as interact with clients and the public. This leads to the fact that the organization loses its flexibility of behavior, since all the questions and problems that arise here are solved only on the basis of precedents. Gradually, the careful search for alternatives begins to diminish. Clients and the public may feel an inadequate response to their needs, as all their problems will be addressed in accordance with established rules, procedures and norms. If the employees of bureaucratic organizations point out the inadequacy of their actions, they defensively refer to the corresponding rule or instruction. This, in turn, can easily ruin relationships with customers or the public. However, a bureaucrat cannot be punished because, from the official point of view of his organization, he or she is doing the right thing.

The same lack of flexibility can arise in the relationship of employees within the team. Strict adherence to established rules can create new problems in the course of interaction, exchange of information and coordination of activities of different parts of the organization. Another negative property of bureaucratic structures, according to Katz and Kahn, is "the lack of the ability to react spontaneously and in a new way to the environment, which is essential for the effective functioning of the organization." An almost exclusive emphasis on strict adherence to rules leads to negativity and a complete disruption of the organization's ability to generate and introduce new elements into the process of its activities.

DEPARTMENTALIZATION

The bureaucratic management model has its positive properties, but it cannot be applied without a detailed study and improvement of all its constituent elements, although various organizations and have much in common, in many important characteristics they differ significantly from each other. Obviously, all of these differences need to be taken into account when designing an organization. Organizations can be large or small. It happens that in large organizations, activities are mainly concentrated in one area. Other large organizations are conglomerates, where various firms are operating under the roof of a single corporation that are involved in the film industry, publishing, hotel business etc. some organizations work directly to meet the needs of the general public. Other organizations, on the other hand, deal mainly only with other large firms. Some large organizations operate only in limited geographic regions, while others operate in almost every country in the world. Some large organizations and governments of industrialized countries act in almost all of these areas at the same time. In order to take into account and reflect all these differences in the tasks, strategic and operational plans of the organization, managers use various systems of departmentalization. This concept refers to the process of dividing an organization into separate units, which can be called departments, divisions or sectors. Below we list the most widely used departmentalization systems. Let's start with the functional structure of the organization of the original and simplest version of the bureaucratic model.

FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

The functional organizational structure is sometimes referred to as traditional or classical because it was the first structure to be studied and developed. Functional organization frameworks are still widely used in mid-sized companies. Functional departmentalization is the process of dividing an organization into distinct elements, each of which has its own clearly defined, specific task and responsibilities. In principle, the creation of a functional structure is reduced to the grouping of personnel according to the broad tasks that they perform. Specific characteristics and the features of the activity of a particular unit correspond to the most important areas of activity of the entire organization. Since, in functional departmentalization, an organization is divided into blocks with clearly defined tasks, in manufacturing companies this is a division according to mass production technologies.

The traditional functional blocks of the company are the departments of production, marketing and finance. These are broad areas of activity or functions that each company has in order to ensure the achievement of the organization's goals. However, the specific names of such departments may vary, and traditional designations do not provide an accurate description of the most important functions of some areas. entrepreneurial activity, especially in the service sector.

If the size of the entire organization or a given department is large, then the main functional departments can in turn be subdivided into smaller functional units. They are called secondary or derivatives. The main idea here is to make the most of the benefits of specialization and not to overwhelm the leadership. However, a certain amount of care must be taken to ensure that such a department (or unit) does not place its own goals above the overall goals of the entire organization.

The idea of secondary divisions applies to any organizational structure. In fig. 3 shows the structure of the organization, the functional departments of which are divided into secondary departments.

The advantages and disadvantages of the functional structure are shown in table. one.

Experienced suggests that it is advisable to use the functional structure in those organizations that produce a relatively limited range of products, operate in stable external conditions and require standard solutions to ensure their functioning. management tasks... The functional structure is not suitable for an organization with a wide range of products operating in an environment with rapidly changing consumer and technological needs, as well as for organizations operating on a wide international scale, simultaneously in several markets in countries with different socio-economic systems and legislation. For organizations of this type, a divisional structure would be most appropriate.

DIVISIONAL STRUCTURE

In the early twentieth century, some of the most astute executives in some companies realized that the traditional functional structure no longer met their needs. When analyzing the size to which these organizations had grown and planned to grow in the near future, it became obvious that further use functional diagram organizations will create serious problems... If a huge firm seeks to squeeze all its activities into three or four main departments, then in order to reduce the sphere of control of each manager to an acceptable scale, each such department will have to be divided into hundreds of divisions. In turn, this leads to the fact that the chain of commands becomes incredibly long and uncontrollable. In addition, many of these large firms have expanded their activities to vast geographic regions, so one at a time, it is very difficult for a single head of any functional area (eg, marketing) to control all of this activity.

The situation was complicated by the increased diversification of the activities of a number of firms. In previous centuries, even very large firms did business in only one or two areas. Modern firms very often conduct operations in completely different areas of activity.

To cope with the new challenges posed by firm size, diversification, technology and environmental changes, the leadership of these forward-looking firms has developed a divisional organizational structure, according to which the organization is divided into elements and blocks according to types of goods or services, customer groups or geographic regions.

PRODUCT STRUCTURE

One of the most common ways of developing firms is that they increase the range of products manufactured and sold. If this process is successfully managed, multiple product lines can achieve such high sales that they themselves may require significant structuring and prove to be a critical success factor for the organization as a whole. It was with this problem that the pioneers of the divisional structure faced. The solution was found with the help of the divisional-product structure of the organization, in which branches were created for the main product. Currently, most of the largest diversified consumer goods manufacturers use the divisional product structure of the organization.

Under this structure, the responsibility for directing the production and sales of a product or service is delegated to a single executive who (or who) is responsible for given type products. The heads of the secondary functional services should report to the manager on this product (Figure 4).

The product structure allows a large firm to pay as much attention to a specific product as it does to it small firm, producing one or two types of products. Firms with a product system achieve great success in production and sales new products than a firm with other types of organizational structures. Perhaps this is because the product structure is very clear about who is responsible for making a profit: it is characterized by successful cost control and adherence to the shipping schedule. Organizations with such a structure are also able to respond more quickly than firms with a functional structure to changes in the conditions of competition, technology and customer demand. Another positive effect of having all activities on a given product under the direction of one person is to improve coordination of work.

A possible disadvantage of the product structure is an increase in costs due to duplication of the same types of work for different types products. Each grocery department has its own functional units, but perhaps not of the size to make the most of the existing ones. technical means and equipment. In particular, this problem arises in factories with mass production and equipment that can usually operate 24 hours a day.

CUSTOMER ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

Some organizations produce a wide range of products and services that meet the needs of several large groups consumers and markets. Each group or market has clearly defined or specific needs. If two or more customers become particularly important to the firm, it can use a customer-centric organizational structure in which all of its divisions are grouped around specific customer groups (Figure 5). The purpose of such a structure is to satisfy these customers as well as an organization that serves just one group of customers.

The advantages and disadvantages of a customer-centered structure are broadly the same as that of a product structure, considering the differences associated with different objective functions.

REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

If the organization's activities cover large geographic areas, especially on an international scale, then it may be appropriate to structure the organization on a territorial basis, i.e. at the location of its subdivisions (Fig. 6). The regional structure facilitates the solution of problems related to local laws, customs and consumer needs. This approach simplifies communication between the organization and its customers, as well as communication between members of the organization.

SELECTING THE ORIENTATION OF THE DEPARTMENTS

Different types of divisional structure have the same advantages and disadvantages because they have the same goal - to provide a more effective organizational response to a particular environmental factor. The product structure makes it easy to deal with the development of new types of products, based on considerations of competition, improvement of technology or customer satisfaction. The regional structure allows an organization to better accommodate local laws, socioeconomic systems and markets as its market areas expand geographically. In terms of a customer-centered framework, it enables an organization to respond most effectively to the needs of the customers on whom it is most dependent. Thus, the choice of a divisional structure should be based on which of these factors is most important in terms of ensuring the implementation of the organization's strategic plans and achieving its goals.

ADAPTIVE STRUCTURES

Since the 1960s, some organizations have faced a situation where the external environment has changed so quickly, projects have become so complex, and technology has developed so rapidly that the shortcomings of the bureaucratic organization of management, described by Merton and other critics, began to outweigh their merits. Essentially, the harmony of a traditional organizational structure (especially where the chain of command is long) can slow communication and decision-making to such an extent that the organization can no longer effectively respond to ongoing changes. To enable organizations to respond to environmental changes and implement new technology, adaptive organizational structures have been developed.

ADAPTIVE AND MECHANICAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES

Since the beginning of the 60s, many organizations began to develop and implement new, more flexible types of organizational structures, which, in comparison with bureaucracy, were better adapted to the rapid change in external conditions and the emergence of new high technology. Such structures are called adaptive because they can be quickly modified in accordance with changes in the environment and the needs of the organization itself. Another name for these more flexible systems is organic structures. It is related to their ability to adapt to changes in environment just like living organisms do it. Organic or adaptive structures are not just some variation of bureaucracy, which is a divisional structure. An organic structure is built on goals and assumptions that are radically different from those that underlie bureaucracy.

Here is a comparison of organic and bureaucratic structures given by Tom Burns and G.M. Stalker, British behavioral scientists who studied the dependence of the successful functioning of an organization on its structure. they call bureaucratic structures MECHANICAL:

“In the mechanical structure, the problems and tasks faced by the organization as a whole are broken down into many small components for individual specialties. Each specialist solves his task as something separate from the real tasks facing the organization as a whole, as if his task is the subject of a subcontract. “Someone at the top” must decide how these particular tasks correspond to the tasks of the entire organization. Technical methods and means of solving problems, the rights and obligations of each functional element of a mechanical system are precisely defined. Interaction in the control system occurs mainly from the vertical, i.e. between the boss and the subordinate. Production activity and the behavior of personnel is regulated by instructions and a decision of the management. Such a managerial hierarchical system is based on the fact that all information about the position of the firm and its tasks is or may be available only to the head of the firm. The management of such an organization, well known from numerous schemes as a complex hierarchical structure, uses a very simple control system, where information flows from the bottom up, undergoing sequential amplification.

When the emerging problems and the required actions cannot be broken down into separate elements and distributed among specialists in accordance with a clearly defined hierarchical role of each, organic systems adapt to unstable conditions. In this case, employees must their specific tasks in light of the tasks of the firm as a whole. Much of the formal characteristics and definitions job responsibilities(in the categories of authority, responsibility, as well as methods), disappears, since they need to be constantly reviewed as a result of interaction with other participants in the task. This interaction occurs both vertically and horizontally. Interaction between employees of different ranks resembles a consultation between two colleagues rather than an order from a boss to a subordinate. The leader of such an organization is no longer considered omniscient. "

As we have already noted, these new organic types of organizational structures cannot in any situation be noted as more effective than mechanical ones.

Moreover, as Burns and Stalker have shown, organic and mechanical structures are only two extreme points in the continuum of such forms. The real structures of real organizations lie between them, possessing features of both mechanical and organic structures in different proportions. In addition, it often happens that different departments within the same organization have different structures. So, in large organizations, some departments may have a mechanical structure, while others have an organic structure. Often the management of the organization uses in production units mechanical structures, and research - organic.

The two main types of organic structures in use today are design and matrix organizations.

PROJECT ORGANIZATION

A project organization is a temporary structure created to solve a specific problem. Its meaning is to gather the most qualified employees of the organization into one team for the implementation of a complex project in deadlines with a given level of quality, without going beyond the established budget. When the project is completed, the team is disbanded. Its members go to new project, return to permanent work in their "home" department or leave this organization.

The main advantage of a design organization is that it concentrates all efforts on solving a single problem. While the head of a regular department has to be torn between several projects at the same time, the head of the project concentrates exclusively on him.

There are several types of design organizations. In so-called clean or consolidated project structures, the temporary team of specialists is essentially a scaled-down copy of the permanent functional structure of the organization. In this case, all the team members and all the resources allocated for this task are completely subordinate to the project manager. Purely design structures are used only for solving any particularly large-scale tasks, for example, for creating a spacecraft. In the case of smaller projects, the cost of duplicating services already existing in the organization in the project structure becomes unaffordable. In these relatively small projects, the manager is primarily a consultant to the senior management of the firm. Someone from the top management of the organization coordinates the implementation of the project within the normal functional structure.