Industrial Revolution. §38. Europe: the contradictions of the industrial era Table technical revolution and its consequences

The end of the 18th century went down in history under the banner of the industrial revolution. First England, and then other European countries gradually abandoned the usual use manual labor, that is, manufactory production. The first looms, steam machines and other inventions appear. The era of the industrial revolution begins, the transition from manufactories to factories and plants.

Predys-to-riya

In the second half of the XVIII century. in An-glia, there is an ag-rar-naya re-vo-lu-tion. The pre-pri-no-ma-tel-farm-farmer's farm is you-tes-nya-et tra-di-ts-one-ny peasant. This was due to the fact that practically the whole earth was in the hands of large owners, who were given -whether her in rent-do far-me-ram. Skla-dy-va-las si-ste-ma ka-pi-ta-li-sti-che-ni-nes between land-lor-da-mi (vl-del-ts-mi of the earth) , fer-me-ra-mi-aren-da-to-ra-mi and na-em-us-mi-work-bot-ni-ka-mi (ba-tra-ka-mi). This leads to an improvement in the quality of the processing of the land, the development of abandoned plots of land, in the se-wu cor- my culture-tour (for livestock). After the ag-rar-noy re-vo-lu-tion, many people in the village were left without work and means for existence. They went to the city, where one hundred-but-they-were-on-them-workers-bot-no-ka-mi on the pro-mouse pre-pri-y-ti-yah ...

Pre-by-link of the pro-thought re-vo-lu-tion
... Accumulation of ka-pi-ta-la in the hands of pre-pri-ni-ma-te-lei, merchants and bans-ki-dov.
... The growth in the number of hired workers (the growth in the number of workers, in particular, was caused by ag-rar-noy re-in-lu-chi-she).
... Development of trade-gov-li and growth of cities.
... Are there a sales market in no-lo-no-y.

The improper reason for the industrial revolu-tion was the dissolution of the English weavers in connection with importing to An-gliya des-she-vykh fabrics from India. In order to keep-the-thread of their production and kon-ku-ri-ro-vat with under-ro-g-mi ind-di-ski-mi fabric-ny-mi, they needed -di-mo increase the amount of labor and reduce the cost. (cm. )

Developments

1733 g.- John Kay invented a me-ha-ni-ch-sky (self-years-old) weaving mill.

1735 G.- Ab-ra-ham Der-bi-son introduced the domain-name you-float chu-gu-na on coke.

1784 g.- iso-re-ten to-kar-ny hundred-nok Henry Mauds-lee.

Rice. 2. James Hargreaves ()

Rice. 3. Spinning wheel "Jenny" by James Hargreaves ()

Rice. 4. James Watt ()

Rice. 5. James Watt Steam Machine ()

At the end of the 18th century, lathes(fig. 6). New technique led to a new organization of industry. Manufactures are becoming a thing of the past, and factories and factories are replacing them. It became real industrial revolution, which made it possible to significantly increase the growth of productive forces. The emergence of factories changed the lives of workers. For the first time in the history of mankind there was a working day schedule... From Monday to Saturday, a harsh 12-hour workday was established. This was very bad for a family of workers. They used to be able to earn extra weekends and extra money with their special talents and extra efforts. The workers lived in very difficult conditions. New factory towns were built near coal mines(fig. 7). In them, workers could only rent one or two rooms. The manufacturers, taking advantage of their position, squeezed out of their subordinates everything they could. They fined workers for swearing, untidiness, being late, using cheap child labor, and refusing to pay for medical care. All this led to an increase in discontent among the workers. The first signs of such discontent were expressed in Luddite movement(fig. 8). Members of this movement called themselves Luddites after the legendary worker Neda Ludda(Fig. 9), who, according to legend, was the first to destroy his own machine. Following him, hundreds of people throughout England began to deliberately spoil the hated cars. The British manufacturers were very unhappy with this. Soon, the government passed a law under which the death penalty was imposed for damage to the machine.)

Following England, the introduction of machine tools into production came to other countries. The demand for various inventors and their inventions has increased. More and more technical innovations appeared in Europe. Not only the quantity, but also the quality of the manufactured products grew. Their prices were gradually decreasing.

Summing up, it is worth noting that the industrial revolution in Europe had whole line positive factors:

• Sanitation.
• Improving health care.
• Improving the quality of goods.
• Improving the nutrition of the population.

It is worth noting that all these factors did not appear immediately; it took years for Europe to find itself on the threshold of a qualitatively new period in its history.

Bibliography

1. Vedyushkin V.A., Burin S.N. Textbook on the history of modern times, grade 7. - M., 2013.

2. Dmitry Travin. Otar Margania. European modernization

3. Erofeev N.A. Industrial Revolution in England. - M., 1963

4. Potemkin F.V. Industrial Revolution in France. T. 1. From manufactory to factory. - Moscow: Nauka, 1971.

5. Hobsbawm E. Century of the Revolution. Europe 1789-1848. - Rostov: Phoenix Publishing House, 1999.

6. Yudovskaya A.Ya. General history. History of Modern Times. 1500-1800. - M .: "Education", 2012.

Homework

1. How do you understand the terms "agrarian revolution" and "industrial revolution?" When and in which country did they first occur?

2. What caused the industrial revolution?

3. Tell us about the consequences of the industrial revolution in England.

4. What famous inventions can you name? List the outstanding inventors of that time.

Intra-subject communications. Industrial Revolution. Agrarian revolution. Technical inventions of the late 18th century Steam engine.
Basic facts and concepts. Government policy to encourage domestic industry, its forms.

Protectionism. A technical revolution, the transition to machine production of machines. Railway revolution.

The first version of the lesson
Lesson plan Government policy to encourage industry. Technical inventions. Formation of new industrial areas. Railway revolution.
Course of the lesson The material on government encouragement of industry (protectionism) is familiar to students from the courses on New History of the 7th grade and the History of Russia of the 15th-15th centuries, so it requires more repetition and consolidation rather than explanation. What prompted conservative governments to take care of the development of industry, because the interests of the aristocrats and nobles did not demand this? Remember what a protectionist policy is. What were the shapes state support industry? Did the British government pursue a policy of protectionism? Explain your opinion. What were the positive and negative results of the policy of protectionism for the development of industry in European countries? The question of technical inventions of the first half of the 19th century. can be studied based on small messages from students, or reading in groups of paragraphs paragraphs "Technical revolution in the textile industry", "The rivalry between water and steam", "Industrialization of metallurgy", "The birth of steam shipping", "Railway revolution", or a teacher's story. Any form of work is accompanied by filling in the table "The most important technical inventions of the 19th century." When studying the material, it is advisable to draw the students' attention to the illustrations of the studied inventions, which are placed in the textbook.

The most important technical inventions of the 19th century

Industry industrial ness	the date invent niya	Country	Invention	Meaning inventions
Textile industrial ness	1801 g.	France	Silko loom	Increase in the number of manufactured products
	1810 g.	France	Flax spinning machine	Increase speed spinning
	20s XIX century.	England	Automatic spinning machine	Increase speed spinning
	20s XIX century.	USA	Cottonseed tight car	Increase production raw cotton
	Mid-19th century	USA	Sewing machine ("Singer")	Relief process sewing
Metallurgical industry	1784 g.	England	New method iron and iron smelting - puddling	Improving the quality of metal
	Mid 50s XIX century.	England	Bessemer method of remelting cast iron into steel	Getting steel from cast iron - flexible, hard and durable material
	Mid 60s XIX century.	France	Open-hearth furnace	Obtaining steel not only from cast iron, but also from scrap metal
Mashino structure	First half of the 19th century	England	Increasing the power of the steam engine to several hundred horsepower	Increase in machine productivity by several hundred times

The ending

After filling out the table in a strong class, you can offer questions and tasks for its analysis. Determine in which countries the most important inventions were made. In which of the named countries were they made the most? Explain why the named countries became the first in the field of technical inventions. What new branch of industry appeared in the first half of the 19th century? Why technical innovations in agriculture appeared much later than in industry and spread very slowly? 4. The question of the formation of new industrial areas and construction railways can be studied on the basis of the teacher's information message and work with two maps of the textbook: "The Industrial Revolution in Europe" (p. 127) and "Railways in Europe in 1850-1885." (p. 140).
The teacher says that a new feature of the development of industry in the XIX century. the formation of new industrial regions, in which large-scale industry was concentrated, began. This was due to the need to bring production closer to the sources of raw materials, in particular coal... These processes are reflected on the map "Industrial Revolution in Europe". An important factor
industrial development has become a revolution in the transport system. The advent of railways has significantly reduced the time and increased the volume of goods transported. The pace of railway construction is evidenced by the map "Railways in Europe in 1850-1885". A detailed analysis of the cards can be offered to students as a home practical work... Compare the size of the territories where agriculture predominated and the territories where industry developed. Draw conclusions. Find coal mining locations on the map. Name cities or rivers near which they are located. What production facilities are located next to coal mines? Is this a coincidence? Why are many businesses located near rivers? Which countries have the most industrial enterprises? Explain why. Explore the map "Railways in Europe 1850-1885" and determine in which areas the railways were built first, and in which - later. Which parts of Europe are barely covered by the rail network? Guess why. Compare the maps "Industrial Revolution in Europe" and "Railways in Europe in 1850-1885". Which parts of Europe have the most railways? Do you think there is a relationship between industrial development and railway construction? Explain your answer using maps.
The second version of the lesson
In a strong class, the lesson is conducted in the form of a laboratory-practical lesson.
Outstripping homework... The class is divided into four groups, each of which will be presented
One of the countries: Great Britain, France, Germany, USA, Belgium. The textbook studies the materials of the paragraph and performs the following tasks:
a) prepare a speech on industrial policy on behalf of the country's government;
b) individual students prepare reports on technical inventions made in the 19th century and their significance.
Lesson plan Government policy to encourage industry. Technical inventions. Development of the main industries. Railway revolution.
Lesson Progress Exploring the industrial policy of the governments of leading countries begins with presentations by groups prepared at home. In addition to the textbook, the following materials can be offered to students.
Student materials
In the 30s. the radicals of Great Britain raised the question of introducing free trade, because the workshop of the world had nothing to fear from the competition of foreign goods. The government could not ignore the unfolding campaign. Prime Minister Lord Melbourne decided to sort out the system of customs duties. The commission created for this has found 500 types of goods subject to customs duties. Of these, 10 brought in 80% of the income, and the rest - a ridiculous trifle. So, the average annual fee from the import of glass eyes for dolls (there was such a thing!) Was one shilling three and a half pence,
that is, less than the then Russian fifty dollars. As a result of the reform of the customs system in 1846, the Corn Laws were abolished in England, in 1849 - the Navigation Acts, which protected the British merchant fleet from foreign competition. Thus, the government followed the principle of free trade.
Railroad construction in the United States was encouraged by federal loans and land grants to railroad companies. By the end of the century, railways connected all the states, and four highways connected the Pacific and Atlantic coasts.
In 1834, the German Customs Union was created in Germany, which gradually expanded. In 1854 g. Customs Union covered almost all the lands of Germany, with the exception of Austria. Demanding uniform customs rules and decisions, he provided its members
low import duties and contributed to the inclusion of the German states in international trade.
Further organized independent work groups with texts of textbook documents characterizing government policy: for Germany - a document and a question to it on p. 162-163; for Great Britain and France - a document and an assignment to it on p. 163.
A representative from each group informs the class about the results of the work done. A group representing the United States summarizes these findings, and the class formulates the main directions of government action in promoting industry. We propose to study the question of technical inventions during the educational game "World Industrial Exhibition". The teacher says that in 1851, a world exhibition was held in London for the first time, at which the successes of industrial development and technical inventions were presented (for a material about this, see § 15). Students present five "pavilions" of the exhibition (corresponding to five industries), in which the most important inventions were made. On the tables are pictures representing these inventions. Each group talks about inventions in their industry, and the rest determine the significance of these inventions for the development of the industry. The development of the main industries and their ratio in different countries studied on the basis of the analysis of three statistical tables, placed in the textbook on p. 167. Study the data on the development of each industry in your country. Calculate how many times production has increased in each industry. Compare the final figures (by the end of the 19th century) obtained in your country with those of other countries. Draw conclusions about the general level of development of your country in comparison with others. Determine the reasons for these indicators.
The group representing the United States is offered a fragment of a document containing statistical data on the development of this country.
General data on the development of the US industry
In almost all parts of the country, especially on the Atlantic coast, there is an abundance of water energy, which was widely used for various industries.
goals. The creation of hydraulic machines, stationary and mobile steam engines and various mechanisms used in mines, factories, blast furnaces, forging workshops, factories, in the construction of roads, bridges, canals, railways, etc., acquired great importance... The annual production of machine-building enterprises, according to the 1850 census, was estimated at $ 27,998,344, and in 1860 - at $ 47,118,550, excluding sewing machines... The middle states, which accounted for over 48% of all production, are regarded as the largest suppliers, but the pace of development in the southern and western states has seen a relatively larger increase. Relative growth can be seen from the following data: New England - 16.4%, middle states - 55.2%, southern states - 387% and western states - 127%.
The first place in terms of the cost of production and the amount of invested capital is occupied by the cotton industry. She grew up with unprecedented speed. The total value of cotton goods made in New England increased by 83.4%. Determine which industries were leading in the United States. By what percentage has the annual production of mechanical engineering increased over 10 years? Do you think this is a lot or a little? Estimate the rate of industrial development in different states over 10 years. In which states were they highest? What industry do you think was particularly developed in the southern states? The last step of the lesson is devoted to the study of the railway system in Europe. Students work with the map "Railways in Europe 1850-1885." and the statistical table "Length of railways in selected countries" (p. 168). Study the statistics on the length of the railways in your country. Calculate how many times it increased from 1840 to 1900. In what period was the construction of roads most intensive? Compare the totals (by 1900) in your country with those in other countries. Determine the location of the country by the length of the railways. Do not forget that an objective assessment of the scale of railway construction is possible only by correlating data on the length of roads with the size of the country's territory.

At the final stage of the lesson, the results of the industrial development of the studied countries and Europe as a whole by the end of the 19th century are summed up, the leading states in the economic position of the state are determined, and the reasons for this situation are clarified.

The end of the 18th century went down in history under the banner of the industrial revolution. First, England, and then other European countries, gradually abandoned the usual use of manual labor, that is, manufacturing production. The first looms, steam machines and other inventions appear. The era of the industrial revolution begins, the transition from manufactories to factories and plants.

Predys-to-riya

In the second half of the XVIII century. in An-glia, there is an ag-rar-naya re-vo-lu-tion. The pre-pri-no-ma-tel-farm-farmer's farm is you-tes-nya-et tra-di-ts-one-ny peasant. This was due to the fact that practically the whole earth was in the hands of large owners, who were given -whether her in rent-do far-me-ram. Skla-dy-va-las si-ste-ma ka-pi-ta-li-sti-che-ni-nes between land-lor-da-mi (vl-del-ts-mi of the earth) , fer-me-ra-mi-aren-da-to-ra-mi and na-em-us-mi-work-bot-ni-ka-mi (ba-tra-ka-mi). This leads to an improvement in the quality of the processing of the land, the development of abandoned plots of land, in the se-wu cor- my culture-tour (for livestock). After the ag-rar-noy re-vo-lu-tion, many people in the village were left without work and means for existence. They went to the city, where one hundred-but-they-were-on-them-workers-bot-no-ka-mi on the pro-mouse pre-pri-y-ti-yah ...

Pre-by-link of the pro-thought re-vo-lu-tion
... Accumulation of ka-pi-ta-la in the hands of pre-pri-ni-ma-te-lei, merchants and bans-ki-dov.
... The growth in the number of hired workers (the growth in the number of workers, in particular, was caused by ag-rar-noy re-in-lu-chi-she).
... Development of trade-gov-li and growth of cities.
... Are there a sales market in no-lo-no-y.

The improper reason for the industrial revolu-tion was the dissolution of the English weavers in connection with importing to An-gliya des-she-vykh fabrics from India. In order to keep-the-thread of their production and kon-ku-ri-ro-vat with under-ro-g-mi ind-di-ski-mi fabric-ny-mi, they needed -di-mo increase the amount of labor and reduce the cost. (cm. )

Developments

1733 g.- John Kay invented a me-ha-ni-ch-sky (self-years-old) weaving mill.

1735 G.- Ab-ra-ham Der-bi-son introduced the domain-name you-float chu-gu-na on coke.

1784 g.- iso-re-ten to-kar-ny hundred-nok Henry Mauds-lee.

Rice. 2. James Hargreaves ()

Rice. 3. Spinning wheel "Jenny" by James Hargreaves ()

Rice. 4. James Watt ()

Rice. 5. James Watt Steam Machine ()

At the end of the 18th century, lathes(fig. 6). New technology led to a new organization of industry. Manufactures are becoming a thing of the past, and factories and factories are replacing them. It became real industrial revolution, which made it possible to significantly increase the growth of productive forces. The emergence of factories changed the lives of workers. For the first time in the history of mankind there was a working day schedule... From Monday to Saturday, a harsh 12-hour workday was established. This was very bad for a family of workers. They used to be able to earn extra weekends and extra money with their special talents and extra efforts. The workers lived in very difficult conditions. New factory towns were built near coal mines (Fig. 7). In them, workers could only rent one or two rooms. The manufacturers, taking advantage of their position, squeezed out of their subordinates everything they could. They fined workers for swearing, untidiness, tardiness, used cheap child labor, and refused to pay for medical care. All this led to an increase in discontent among the workers. The first signs of such discontent were expressed in Luddite movement(fig. 8). Members of this movement called themselves Luddites after the legendary worker Neda Ludda(Fig. 9), who, according to legend, was the first to destroy his own machine. Following him, hundreds of people throughout England began to deliberately spoil the hated cars. The British manufacturers were very unhappy with this. Soon, the government passed a law under which the death penalty was imposed for damage to the machine.)

Following England, the introduction of machine tools into production came to other countries. The demand for various inventors and their inventions has increased. More and more technical innovations appeared in Europe. Not only the quantity, but also the quality of the manufactured products grew. Their prices were gradually decreasing.

Summing up, it is worth noting that the industrial revolution in Europe had a number of positive factors:

• Sanitation.
• Improving health care.
• Improving the quality of goods.
• Improving the nutrition of the population.

It is worth noting that all these factors did not appear immediately; it took years for Europe to find itself on the threshold of a qualitatively new period in its history.

Bibliography

1. Vedyushkin V.A., Burin S.N. Textbook on the history of modern times, grade 7. - M., 2013.

2. Dmitry Travin. Otar Margania. European modernization

3. Erofeev N.A. Industrial Revolution in England. - M., 1963

4. Potemkin F.V. Industrial Revolution in France. T. 1. From manufactory to factory. - Moscow: Nauka, 1971.

5. Hobsbawm E. Century of the Revolution. Europe 1789-1848. - Rostov: Phoenix Publishing House, 1999.

6. Yudovskaya A.Ya. General history. History of Modern Times. 1500-1800. - M .: "Education", 2012.

Homework

1. How do you understand the terms "agrarian revolution" and "industrial revolution?" When and in which country did they first occur?

2. What caused the industrial revolution?

3. Tell us about the consequences of the industrial revolution in England.

4. What famous inventions can you name? List the outstanding inventors of that time.

"Industrial Revolution and its consequences "

• The beginning of the industrial revolution. Technical advances
• The emergence of an industrial society
• Completion of the Industrial Revolution in England
• Economic development of England and France in the first half of the 19th century
• Features of economic development in the second half of the 19th century
• The role of the state in the economy
• Changes in the economies of the largest countries

Industrial revolution

This is the transition from manual labor to machine labor, from manufacture to factory, observed in the leading Western powers of the 18th-19th centuries.

The main feature industrial revolution was industrialization - the transition from a predominantly agricultural economy to industrial production, as a result of which there is a transformation of an agrarian society into an industrial one.

• The Flying Shuttle was invented in 1733

(for making cloth)

• Several years later J. Hargreaves the famous Jenny spinning wheel was invented

• In 1765 g. James Watt built a steam engine, and six years later improved it

An industrial society is a society formed in the process and as a result of industrialization, the development of machine production, the emergence of adequate forms of labor organization, the application of the achievements of scientific and technological progress. It is characterized by mass, line production, mechanization and automation of labor, the development of the market for goods and services, and the humanization of social relations.

The emergence of an industrial society

Industrial society received the most intensive development in modern times in England.

The emergence of an industrial society

The formation of a layer of hired workers and the creation domestic market combined in England with the turbulent process of the so-called initial capital accumulation.

• it is a collection of property used to make a profit. The direction of assets in the sphere of production or provision of services for the purpose of making a profit is also called capital investments or investments.
• is money generating income

The emergence of an industrial society

An industrial proletariat also arises - people working in factories. Their work was then very hard. The working day lasted up to 18 hours a day, the salary was low. The invention of new machines led to massive layoffs, which angered workers.

Inception industrial society Luddism

The Luddites were a group of English workers who protested in the early 1800s against the changes that led to the industrial revolution, who felt that their work was in danger. Often the protest was expressed in the destruction of cars. Destroying machines (industrial sabotage) was declared a capital offense and 17 people were executed in 1813. A lot of people were sent to Australia.

Completion of the Industrial Revolution in England

In the first half of the 19th century. the industrial revolution in England is over. It was in this country that he acquired the most mature, classical forms of his development. Light industry turned out to be the most susceptible to new trends. This is due to the fact that a quick profit can be provided only by products that are necessary for an ordinary consumer. The machines and tools that manufacturers need only turn out to be profitable after a while.

England

Great Britain entered the 19th century in a state of extreme tension caused by continuous wars with France. Great Britain entered the 19th century in a state of extreme tension caused by continuous wars with France. Only the fear of invasion from France, which united the nation, helped to withstand the terrible tension of the war. The continental blockade imposed by Napoleon sharply raised food prices, which sparked "food riots."

Economic development of England and France in the first half of the 19th century

England

The victory over Napoleon in 1815 lifted the continental blockade, but caused new problems. Up to half a million people were dismissed from the army and navy. Cheap European grain began to flow to England. The fall in prices gave rise to a panic that gripped not only farmers, but also the aristocracy - landlords. In 1815, the "grain laws" were adopted, in fact, the import of grain into the country was prohibited. As a result, the prices of bread have grown incredibly .. Despite significant difficulties, the accelerated development of industry and Agriculture in England continued.

Economic development of England and France in the first half of the 19th century

France

The economic development of another leading Western European country - France in the first half of the 19th century. also made good progress. In the first decade of the 19th century. French industry grew by more than 50%. The development of the economy was facilitated by the inflow of money and values ​​from the conquered countries. But the defeat in the fight against the anti-French coalition dealt a serious blow to the French economy, from which it managed to recover rather quickly. During the reign of the Bourbons in industry, manual labor continued to be replaced by machine labor. The number of factories and plants grew.

Economic development of England and France in the first half of the 19th century

France

By the end of the first half of the 19th century. the factory type of production was the leader in ferrous metallurgy and was intensively introduced into mechanical engineering. From 1825 to 1847 volume industrial production increased by 2/3. New industries developed rapidly, primarily the chemical industry.

In the second half of the XIX century. the economies of the advanced countries of Europe are undergoing changes again. These changes are associated with the emergence of monopolies.

Monopoly is a large capitalist enterprise that controls the production and marketing of one or more types of products; it is a structure in which there is no competition in the market and one firm functions. It produces a unique, unparalleled product and is protected from new firms entering the market.

XIX century

Monopoly

Syndicate

Concern

Trust

Cartel

Syndicate

is an association of independent enterprises in any branch of industry, based on an agreement on the joint sale of goods. The syndicate is created with the aim of ensuring monopoly domination of the market, establishing monopoly prices and obtaining the highest profits.

Concern a large association of enterprises connected by a common interest, contracts, capital, participation in joint activities... Often such a group of enterprises unites around a strong parent enterprise (holding, parent company), which holds in its hands the shares of these enterprises.

Trust- This is a form of association in which the merging enterprises lose their independence and are subject to a single management. The owners of enterprises included in the trust are deprived of the right to dispose of them directly.

Cartel may provide for the establishment of minimum prices for goods binding for all participants, the delimitation of sales areas, the determination of the total volume of production or sales and the share of each participant in it.

Features of economic development in the second half XIX century

The emergence of monopolies was caused by progress in technology, the complication production process... More and more capital was required for him, as machinery and raw materials became more and more expensive. Therefore, entrepreneurs began to unite. The acceleration of this association was facilitated by economic crises .

Features of economic development in the second half of the 19th century

The first such crisis occurred in England back in 1825. In 1858, the first world economic crisis... After the world economic crisis of 1873, the process of development of cartels began, which, however, quickly disintegrated. A new phenomenon was the emergence international cartels in the mining, chemical, metallurgical, electrical and other industries.

The role of the state in the economy

First half of the 19th century

State intervention in the economy has been sharply reduced. In the opinion of bankers, owners of industrial enterprises, the role of the state should have been limited only to protecting the general conditions favorable to the development of the country's economic life (routes of communication, means of communication, maintaining the stability of monetary circulation), and protecting their external interests.

The role of the state in the economy

Second half of the 19th century

The role of the state in the administration of colonies is growing, and the role of the state in the administration of colonies is increasing, and the role of the victorious country in receiving huge military indemnities is growing. Old state enterprises still remain, primarily in the military field, but are already losing their former significance. Only transport and roads of an important strategic nature remain in the possession of the state. The strongest influence of the state on the economy was in Germany. Here the nationalization of the railways took place, a tobacco monopoly was introduced.

The role of the state in the economy

By the beginning of the twentieth century, there is splice the largest

monopolies with state apparatus .

Government officials headed monopoly associations. In some cases, the monopolies are endowed with the functions of state power. Often, state and private monopolies were intertwined.

France

France finally turned into a country of monopoly capital at the beginning of the twentieth century. During these years, there was a rapid increase in the concentration of production, an increase in monopolies and their strengthening. In 1897, an economic upturn began in the country, which covered all branches of industrial production, especially metallurgy.

Changes in the economies of the largest countries

England

Legalized trade unions (trade unions), giving them the status legal entity and judicial protection of their funds. The work of children under 10 years of age in production was prohibited. In 1891 a law was passed on free primary education.

• Basovskaya N.I. England and France in the international life of Western Europe XII - XV centuries. // Middle Ages. - M., 1988.
• Manfred A.Z. Europe during the Napoleonic Wars // A Brief World History. - Book. 1. - M., 1967. - S. 364–378.
• V.V. Artemov, Yu.N. Lubchenkov HISTORY for secondary specialized education. - M., 2010 .-- S. 202 - 207.

• Bartenev S.A. History of Economic Thought. - M .: Infra-M, 2000 .-- 455 p.
• Kovalev A.M. The laws of history and appearance modern world- M .: PRIOR, 2003 - 401 p.

The Great Industrial Revolution, the achievements and problems of which will be discussed in the article, began in England (mid-18th century) and gradually swept over the entire world civilization. It led to the mechanization of production, economic growth and the creation of a modern industrial society. The topic is covered in the eighth grade history course and will be useful to both students and parents.

Basic concept

A detailed definition of the concept can be seen in the picture above. It was first applied by the French economist Adolphe Blanqui in 1830. The theory was developed by the Marxists and Arnold Toynbee (English historian). The industrial revolution is not an evolutionary process associated with the emergence of new machines on the basis of scientific and technical discoveries (some existed already at the beginning of the 18th century), but a massive transition to new organization labor - machine production in large factories, which replaced the manual labor of manufactories.

There are other definitions of this phenomenon in the books, including the industrial revolution. It is applicable to initial stage revolution, during which there are three of them:

• Industrial revolution: the emergence of a new industry - mechanical engineering and the creation of a steam engine (from the middle of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century).
• Organization of continuous production through the use of chemicals and electricity (from the second half of the 19th century - until the beginning of the 20th century). The stage was first singled out by David Landis.
• The use of information and communication technologies in production (from the end of the 20th century to the present). There is no consensus in science about the third stage.

Industrial revolution (industrial revolution): basic prerequisites

For the organization of factory production, a number of conditions are required, the main of which are:

• The presence of a labor force - people deprived of property.
• The possibility of selling goods (sales markets).
• The existence of wealthy people with money savings.

These conditions were first formed in England, where after the revolution of the 17th century the bourgeoisie came to power. The seizure of land from the peasants and the ruin of artisans in intense competition with manufactures created a huge army of disadvantaged people in need of earnings. The resettlement of former farmers to cities led to a weakening of the subsistence economy. If the villagers produced clothes and utensils for themselves, the townspeople were forced to buy them. Goods were also exported abroad, since sheep breeding was well developed in the country. The bourgeoisie accumulated profits from the slave trade, plundering of colonies and the export of wealth from India. The industrial revolution (the transition from manual labor to machine labor) became a reality thanks to a number of serious inventions.

Spinning mill

The industrial revolution first affected the cotton industry, the most developed in the country. The stages of its mechanization can be seen in the table below.

Edmund Cartwright improved the loom (1785), because weavers could no longer process as much yarn as they could in the factories of England. A 40-fold increase in productivity is the best confirmation that an industrial revolution has arrived. Achievements and challenges (table) will be presented in the article. They are associated with the arisen need for the invention of a special motor force, independent of the proximity of water.

Steam engine

The search for a new source of energy was important not only in but also in the mining industry, where work was especially hard. Already in 1711, an attempt was made to create a steam pump with a piston and a cylinder, into which water was injected. This was the first serious attempt at using steam. He became the author of an improved steam engine in 1763.In 1784, the first double-acting steam engine used in a spinning mill was patented. The introduction of patents made it possible to protect the copyright of inventors, which contributed to their motivation for new achievements. Without this step, the industrial revolution was hardly possible.

Achievements and challenges (the table is shown in the picture below) show that steam engine contributed to the industrial revolution in the development of transport. The appearance of the first steam locomotives on smooth rails is associated with the name of George Stephenson (1814), who personally operated in 1825 a 33-car train on the first-ever railroad for citizens. Its 30 km route connected Stockton and Darlington. By the middle of the century, all of England was girdled with a network of railways. A little earlier, the first steamer was tested by an American working in France (1803).

Achievements in mechanical engineering

In the above table, an achievement should be highlighted, without which the industrial revolution would have been impossible - the transition from manufacture to factory. This invention lathe, making it possible to cut nuts and screws. The English mechanic Henry Maudsley made a breakthrough in the development of industry, actually creating a new industry - mechanical engineering (1798-1800). In order to provide machine tools for factory workers, machines must be created that produce other machines. Planning and milling machines soon appeared (1817, 1818). Mechanical engineering contributed to the development of metallurgy and coal mining, which allowed England to flood other countries with cheap industrial goods. For this, she received the name "workshop of the world."

With the development of machine tool building, collective work has become a necessity. A new type of worker has been formed - performing only one operation and not being able to perform finished product from the beginning to the end. There was a separation of intellectual forces from manual labor, which led to the emergence of qualified specialists who formed the basis of the middle class. The industrial revolution is not only technical aspect but also serious social consequences.

Social implications

The main result of the industrial revolution is the creation of an industrial society. It is characterized by:

• Personal freedom of citizens.
• Market relations.
• Technical modernization.
• New structure of society (predominance of urban dwellers, class stratification).
• Competition.

New technical capabilities (transport, communications) appeared, which improved the quality of life of people. But in the pursuit of profit, the bourgeoisie looked for ways to reduce the cost of labor, which led to the widespread use of the labor of women and children. Society has split into two opposing classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

Broken peasants and artisans could not get a job due to the lack of jobs. They considered the machines that replaced their labor to be the culprits, so the movement against machine tools gained momentum. The workers smashed the equipment of the factories, which marked the beginning of the class struggle against the exploiters. The growth of banks and the increase in capital imported into England at the beginning of the 19th century led to low solvency in other countries, which caused an overproduction crisis in 1825. These are the consequences of the industrial revolution.

Achievements and challenges (table): results of the industrial revolution

The table about industrial revolutions (achievements and problems) will be incomplete without taking into account the foreign policy aspect. For much of the 19th century, England's economic superiority was undeniable. She ruled the world trade market, which developed rapidly. At the first stage, only France competed with it thanks to the purposeful policy of Napoleon Bonaparte. The uneven economic development of countries can be seen in the picture below.

The second stage of the revolution: the emergence of monopolies

The technical achievements of the second stage are presented above (see picture No. 4). Chief among them: invention of new means of communication (telephone, radio, telegraph), engine internal combustion and furnaces for smelting steel. The emergence of new energy sources is associated with the discovery of oil fields. This allowed for the first time to create a car on a gasoline engine (1885). Chemistry came to the service of man, thanks to which durable synthetic materials began to be created.

For new industries (for the development of oil fields, for example), significant capital was required. The process of their concentration has intensified through the merger of companies, as well as their merger with banks, whose role has grown significantly. Monopolies appear - powerful enterprises that control both production and sales of products. The industrial revolutions gave birth to them. Achievements and problems (the table will be presented below) are associated with the consequences of the emergence of monopoly capitalism. presented in the picture.

Consequences of the second phase of the industrial revolution

The uneven development of countries and the emergence of large corporations led to wars for the redivision of the world, the seizure of sales markets and new sources of raw materials. During the period from 1870 to 1955, twenty serious military conflicts occurred. A huge number of countries were involved in two world wars. The creation of international monopolies led to the economic division of the world under the dominance of the financial oligarchy. Instead of exporting goods, large corporations began to export capital, creating industries in countries with cheap labor. Within countries, monopolies dominate, ruining and absorbing smaller enterprises.

But industrial revolutions also bring a lot of positive things. Achievements and problems (the table is presented in the last subheading) of the second stage is mastering the results of scientific and technical discoveries, creating a developed infrastructure of society, adapting to new living conditions. Monopoly capitalism is the most developed form of the capitalist mode of production, in which all the contradictions and problems of the bourgeois system are manifested most fully.

Results of the second stage

Industrial revolution: achievements and problems (table)

	Achievements	Problems
The technical aspect	Technical progress. The emergence of new industries. The economic growth. Involvement in world economy less developed countries.	The need for government intervention in the economy (regulation of vital industries: energy, oil, metallurgy). World economic crises (1858 - the 1st world crisis in history). Aggravation of environmental problems.
Social aspect	Creation of a developed social infrastructure. Increasing the importance of intellectual work. The rise of the middle class.	Redivision of the world. Aggravation of social contradictions within the country. The need for government intervention in the regulation of relations between workers and employers.

The industrial revolution, the achievements and problems of which are presented in two tables (based on the results of the first and second stages), is the greatest achievement of civilization. The transition to factory production was accompanied by technical progress. However, the risk of the military and environmental disasters requires development modern technologies and the use of new energy sources were under the control of humanistic public institutions.