What components does holistic marketing include? Classification of European management systems according to Lessem and Neubauer. Defining XM

Often, the group is faced with tasks in which it is difficult to find an objective indicator of the correctness of the solution. Then the opinion of the majority turns out to be the only guideline of behavior for everyone. The situation becomes critical when a group member discovers that his point of view contradicts the opinion of others. Then he has an internal conflict: "to believe himself or the opinion of other people." The mere presence of other people is enough to change the feelings of the person, her emotional states and behavior.

A group is often spoken of as an organism. One of the proofs of this is the willingness of group members to converge opinions and psychological qualities. As a result, the group can solve joint tasks.

Often, the group is faced with tasks in which it is difficult to find an objective indicator of the correctness of the solution. Then the opinion of the majority turns out to be the only guideline of behavior for everyone. The situation becomes critical when a group member discovers that his point of view contradicts the opinion of others. Then he has an internal conflict: "to believe himself or the opinion of other people." The way out of this difficult situation depends on a number of circumstances, among which the following are the main ones:

• the complexity of the task that has to be solved: an increase in the complexity of the task leads to a decrease in self-confidence;
• experience in solving this type of problem: if the experience is large, the problem is solved easily, but if it is not enough, then there are difficulties with orientation in the task - to be guided by oneself or by other people?
• the authority of the individual in this group: if it is high, then you can rely on your abilities, but if it is low, then the opinion of others may become preferable;
• the significance of the group for the decision maker: if a person respects the opinion of the group, and he needs it, then the issue is resolved by agreeing with the opinion of the group, if the group is not significant, the choice is focused only on his own opinion.

Studies have found that the mere presence of other people is enough to change a person's feelings, emotional states and behavior.

Usually, differences of opinion at the beginning of the formation of a group are greater than with the formed structure of relations. To a large extent, common tasks affect the convergence of opinions of group members. In the minds of everyone, they form a willingness to agree rather than challenge the state of affairs. True, exceptions are possible if there is a struggle for leadership in the group. This struggle dictates to the members of the group their own rules of conduct. Leadership struggles often split a group in two, each with its own leaders. This situation is called dual leadership. The emerging groups feed the leaders' pride, and they complete the split in the group. In this case, a single task acquires two meanings - a separate one for each of the subgroups. Rapprochement of opinions becomes the most problematic in such a situation.

At the heart of the change and convergence of opinions is the mechanism of imitation and suggestion. Academician V.M.Bekhterev believed that imitation and suggestion are often poorly understood by a person. People differ in the degree of awareness and criticality in those cases when they have to change their own judgments. One, for example, realizes the fact of contradictions and agrees with the opinion of the group or the leader-leader, but then returns to his own judgment. Another, unconscious of the effect of imitation and suggestion, is so influenced that he ceases to notice the substitution of his own judgment by someone else's (group, leadership). Researchers identify the following circumstances that determine the degree of compliance of group members:

1. The maximum suggestive pressure on a group member is exerted by three people with a common opinion. Especially if these persons have authority.
2. The influence of the group depends on the position of the person in the group. The least susceptible to suggestion are those who are weakly dependent on the group, but highly valued by it. Typically, these people are more capable than the rest of the group, leading most to go after a highly regarded leader. It is easier for the more capable to choose between the groups in which he has to function.
3. Unity of opinion is stronger in groups with a democratic system of relations than in authoritarian groups, but there is more order and precision in the authoritarian type of groups. This is due to the fact that in groups with democratic relations its members switch to interpersonal communication... If the situation is far from extreme, critical, then the efficiency decreases. joint activities... The authoritarian system of relations turns out to be more effective in difficult, crisis situations. A more rigid distribution of roles and functions not only streamlines the behavior of everyone, but also increases the accuracy of solving managerial problems.
4. Opinions expressed aloud are more suggestive than those received in writing. The exception is the documents of higher authorities, which are of particular importance in authoritarian societies. Living witnesses are always more valuable because papers can be destroyed.
5. Compliance with group pressure depends on the order of the opinions expressed. Group members who have expressed their opinion earlier than others have a greater influence on the behavior of others. The consensus of opinion of a large part of the group members has a stronger influence on the statements of the last speakers. To increase the inspiring effect of the leader, the leader can express his opinion not only at the beginning, but also summarize at the end, choosing the optimal line of behavior.
6. Exposure to influence from others is significant if there is a difference of opinion, but it is not significant. A certain degree of reliability of discrepancies, which does not reach the point of absurdity, is optimal.
7. In close-knit groups, the pressure of consensus on individual members is stronger than in less-knit groups. The established positive relationship binds the members of the group with obligations to each other. In less close-knit groups, members have little to value other than their own opinions, which is why they experience less pressure from each other.
8. With the threat of punishment, the effect of public consent most often arises with internal rejection. Dissent, suppressed in every possible way by totalitarian regimes, leads to external like-mindedness, which ensures the self-preservation of members of groups and society as a whole. However, this external like-mindedness makes people indifferent, passive, lack of initiative, which leads to a gradual decrease in labor efficiency with external well-being.
9. The opinion developed by the group is more stable than the individual opinion of the ordinary members of the group. Group opinion becomes the norm, a “role model”. It is no coincidence that lawmaking at the stage of completion and adoption requires mandatory discussion and voting.

Psychologists have determined the types of behavior of people who have to solve a dilemma: to be independent, but rejected by the group, or to be dependent, but accepted by the group. Three independent and three non-independent types of behavior were distinguished:

• The first type of independent people is characterized by complete trust in their own intellectual abilities and life experience. Usually these are people of the older generation with high authority in the past, and even more so in the present.
• The second type of independent people is characterized by their withdrawal from the pressure of the group while maintaining their own opinion. This behavior is possible in the presence of other significant groups and authorities.
• The third type of independent people is characterized by significant tensions and doubts in the conditions of choice of decisions. Yet they, as a rule, remain unconvinced.
• The first type of dependent people shows sufficient confidence in their intellectual abilities, but the unwillingness to be rejected by the group forces them to accept other people's judgments. They can be considered prudent people.
• The second type of dependent people relatively easily accepts the point of view of the majority, since they have little confidence in their own intellectual abilities.
• The third type of dependent people does not notice that their opinion is determined by the point of view of the majority.

Explanations of people of dependent types are varied. Some justify their behavior by the lack of information for making correct decisions. Others unequivocally believe that the majority is always right, so there is no need to strain.

Exposure to group influences varies by gender professional activity... Technicians trust their own knowledge more and the group's opinion is less important to them. Humanitarians and especially social scientists are less confident in the reliability and validity of humanitarian knowledge and are more likely to change their judgment in the face of group pressure.

A person's compliance with the influences of the group also depends on his psychological qualities. Persons with the following personal characteristics are more suggestible:

• anxious, emotionally unstable, dreamy and refined
• having a type of temperament close to melancholic and a little less often to choleric (stable sanguine and phlegmatic people weakly respond to the opinion of others, even authoritative people);
• uncommunicative, responsible and loving order;
• having original creative thinking and good indicators of theoretical and practical intelligence, although this may seem paradoxical.

Thus, to manage a group, a manager must be aware of the psychological mechanisms that influence people's behavior. Situations are different, and in each case it is necessary to determine as accurately as possible the reasons for agreement or disagreement, compliance or resistance. Often, people's behavior does not depend on economic factors, but on their psychological makeup, the circumstances in which a decision has to be made.

The civilized relations of entrepreneurs and managers should be based not on momentary profit, but on the future. To do this, you need to find psychologically acceptable options for business relationships.

In social psychology, there are four main types of behavior of people in a small group.

Isolating type. Individual orientation is well expressed. The optimal solution of problems is possible only in conditions of relative isolation from the group, independently.

Driven type. A tendency towards conformity, imitation, voluntary submission is expressed. The optimal solution to a group problem is possible in contact with more confident and competent members of the group.

Leading type. The individual is power-oriented in the group. The optimal solution of problems is possible if other members of the group are subordinate to oneself.

Collaborative type. The individual constantly strives for joint problem solving with others and follows the group in cases of reasonable decisions.

Knowledge of the types of behavior of group members helps the psychologist in the distribution of roles, contributes to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of psychological incompatibility of its individual members.

The coincidence of the formal and informal leader in one person simplifies the situation, the discrepancy makes the group process more difficult.

26. Leading the group

K. Levin et al. Distinguish the following three styles of group leadership: authoritarian, democratic and conniving.

Authoritarian style. All types of customer behavior in the group are determined by the leader. He gives assignments, encourages action, criticizes or encourages, explains, leads the discussion, etc. A psychologist with this style is the most active and authoritarian participant in the work of the group.

Democratic style. The group's activities are determined by the collective mind. The psychologist guides the group's activities through discussion, group decision, and he himself takes the position of an active partner.

Permissive (anti-authoritarian) style. The psychologist is completely removed from the leadership of the group and takes the role of an observer or an impartial commentator. In extreme cases, he only asks leading questions, but does not give advice or assess the course of events.

Special studies show that the optimal leadership style in a psychotherapeutic group is democratic (Rudestam, 1990). However, it is known that the leadership style can change depending on the psychological climate and extraordinary situations that often arise in the group. In such cases, authoritarian leadership may be more effective than a laissez-faire attitude. There is a certain pattern: the more united the group, the less active and authoritarian the leader.

The personality of the leader. The personal qualities of a psychologist have a definite influence on the effectiveness of group leadership.

Slavson (1962) identifies the following basic qualities that, in his opinion, are necessary for a leader: poise, prudence, maturity, self-strength, a high threshold for anxiety, sensitivity, intuition, empathy, rich imagination, determination, desire to help people, tolerance for frustration and uncertainty.

Rudestam (1990) considers specific leadership qualities: enthusiasm, the ability to convince and subjugate others, self-confidence and intelligence.

• Management Psychology and Ethics business communication a team.
• Group, mass, crowd.
• Formal and informal groups, open and closed, their characteristics. Reference group.
• Group device.
• Organizational behavior: role, mask.
• The structure of the informal group.

Since the psychology of business communication - component complex of psychological sciences, it is based on the main categories and principles developed by general psychology. Such basic categories general psychology are those that reflect

Mental, processes (cognition, emotions, will),

Properties of the human psyche (ability, character, temperament),

· As well as manifestations of his consciousness (doubt, uncertainty, conviction, focus on certain actions, etc.).

The most important principles that guide general psychology and all its branches are as follows:

1. the principle of causality, determinism, i.e. recognition of the relationship, 2. the interdependence of mental phenomena both with others and with material phenomena;
3. the principle of consistency, i.e. interpretation of individual mental phenomena as elements of an integral mental organization;
4. Development principle, recognition of transformation, change mental processes, their dynamics, transition from one level to another.

Social Psychology Is an attempt to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or perceived behavior of others. The problem of groups in which people are united in the process of their life is the most important issue of social psychology.

Social group- an association of people based on their participation in some activity, connected by a system of relations that are governed by formal or informal social institutions. Signs of a social group:

1) availability internal organization;

2) the general (group) goal of the activity;

3) group forms of social control;

4) samples (models) of group activities;

5) intense group interactions

Definition of social group includes four main points:

• social interaction - that is, communicative interaction carried out with the help sign systems("Codes");
• stigmatization - "sticking of labels" by which we recognize membership in a group, which has taken shape in a social gestalt (image in the mass consciousness) - the lifestyle of a given group;
• identification - an individual's identification of himself with a given group through the opposition “we are others” with the establishment of social boundaries and filters at the “entrance-exit”, as well as through the mechanism of social control;
• habitualization - that is, "habituation", the mastering by an individual of a given social position and the formation of attitudes, stereotypes inherent in this group.

Views social groups:

Stand out large, medium and small social groups. IN big social groups (in addition to classes) include the aggregates of people existing on the scale of the entire society as a whole: these are social strata, professional groups, ethnic communities (nations, nationalities), age groups(youth, pensioners), etc. Awareness of belonging to a social group and, accordingly, its interests as their own occurs gradually, as organizations are formed that protect the interests of the group (for example, the struggle of workers for their rights and interests through workers' organizations).

TO average social groups include industrial associations of employees of enterprises, territorial communities (residents of one village, city, district, etc.).

Diverse small groups include groups such as family, friendships, neighborhood communities. They are distinguished by the presence of interpersonal relationships and personal contacts with each other.

Any organization (large or small, commercial or non-profit, private or public) is made up of many different groups that can be classified on various grounds:

By the principle of formality:

a) formal;

b) informal;

To size:

b) a triad;

c) small group;

d) large group;

By the duration of existence:

a) temporary;

b) permanent

Regularity and frequency of interaction:

a) primary;

b) secondary;

By the degree of cohesion:

a) group;

b) team;

By leading activity:

a) educational;

b) sports;

c) family;

d) managerial;

e) production, etc.

Upon existence:

a) nominal;

b) real.

At general classification large social groups can be said that there is a special variety of them, which in the strict sense of the word cannot be called a "group". These are short-term associations of a large number of people, often with very different interests, but nevertheless gathered together for a specific reason and demonstrating some kind of joint action. Members of such a temporary association are representatives of various large organized groups: classes, nations, professions, ages, etc. Such a "group" can be organized to a certain extent by someone, but more often it arises spontaneously, does not necessarily clearly realize its goals, but nevertheless can be very active. Such an education cannot in any way be considered a "subject of joint activity," but its importance cannot be underestimated either. IN modern societies political and social decisions often depend on the actions of such groups. Among the spontaneous groups in the socio-psychological literature, the most often distinguished crowd, mass, audience.

Crowd is formed on the street about a variety of events: a traffic accident, the capture of an offender, dissatisfaction with the actions of a government official or just a passing person. The duration of its existence is determined by the significance of the incident: a crowd of onlookers can disperse as soon as the element of entertainment is eliminated. In another case, especially when it is associated with an expression of dissatisfaction with some social phenomenon (they did not bring food to the store, refused to accept or give out money in the savings bank), the crowd may become more and more excited and move on to actions, for example, to move in the direction of what -or institutions. At the same time, its emotional intensity can increase, giving rise to aggressive behavior of the participants, elements of the organization can arise in the crowd, if there is a person who is able to lead it. But even if such elements have arisen, they are very unstable: the crowd can easily sweep away the resulting organization. The element remains the main background of crowd behavior, often leading to its aggressive forms.

Knowledge of the laws of the crowd can also bring significant practical benefits. Le Bon writes: “History teaches us that crowds are extremely conservative. Despite their outwardly revolutionary motives, they always return to what they destroyed. " The crowd is a temporary collection of equal, anonymous and similar people, in the depths of which the ideas and emotions of each tend to be expressed spontaneously. Crowds represent gatherings of people who come together outside and in spite of institutions on a temporary basis. In short, crowds are asocial and asocial formed. They are the result of a temporary or continuous decomposition of groups and classes. The main feature of crowds is the fusion of individuals into a single mind and feeling, which obscures personality differences and reduces intellectual ability. Everyone strives to be like the neighbor with whom he communicates. This accumulation carries it with its mass, as the sea tide carries away the pebbles. At the same time, it does not matter, whatever the social class, education and culture of the participants. "WITH the very moment when people find themselves in a crowd, an ignoramus and a scientist become equally incapable of thinking. " The state of a mass person has always been compared to the twilight state. His consciousness, having lost activity, allows him to indulge in mystical ecstasy, visions, or, in a state of darkness, indulge in panic or obsession.

Weight usually described as a more stable entity with rather fuzzy boundaries. The mass may not necessarily act as a momentary formation, like a crowd; it can turn out to be much more organized when certain sections of the population quite consciously gather for the sake of any action: manifestation, demonstration, meeting. In this case, the role of the organizers is higher: they are usually not nominated directly at the moment of the start of actions, but are known in advance as the leaders of those organized groups whose representatives took part in this mass action. Therefore, in the actions of the masses, both the ultimate goals and the tactics of behavior are clearer and more thought out. At the same time, like a crowd, a mass is quite heterogeneous, it can also coexist or collide with different interests, so its existence can be unstable.

Public represents another form of a spontaneous group, although the element of spontaneity is less pronounced here than, for example, in a crowd. The audience is also a short-term gathering of people for a joint pastime in connection with some kind of spectacle - on the stands of the stadium, in the large auditorium, in the square in front of the speaker while listening to an important message. In more confined spaces, such as lecture halls, the audience is often referred to as an audience. The audience always gathers for a common and definite goal, therefore it is more controllable, in particular, it observes the norms adopted in the chosen type of organization of shows to a greater extent. But the public also remains a mass gathering of people, and the laws of mass operate in it. An incident is enough here for the public to become uncontrollable. There are known dramatic cases, which lead to irrepressible passions, for example, football fans in stadiums, etc.

The term "group" can be interpreted in different ways, depending on the point of view. One of the more profound definitions states that if a group exists in an organization, then its members:

• 1) are motivated to join the group;
• 2) perceive the group as a single union of interaction;
• 3) participate in group processes to varying degrees (that is, some people give the group more time and energy than others);
• 4) reach agreements and identify disagreements, carrying out various forms of interaction.

Small group is a small-sized association of people who are directly involved.

Majority empirical research in social psychology are performed in small groups, and there are several reasons for this. Most of a person's life takes place in small groups: in a family, gaming companies peers, educational and labor collectives, neighbors, friendships and friendships. It is in small groups that the formation of the personality takes place, its qualities are manifested, therefore, the personality cannot be studied outside the group. Through small groups, the individual's ties with society are carried out: the group transforms the impact of society on the individual, the personality affects society more strongly if there is a group behind it. The status of social psychology as a science, its specificity is largely determined by the fact that the small group and the psychological phenomena that arise in it are central features in the definition of its subject. Throughout the history of social psychology, small groups have been the main object of empirical research, including laboratory experiments. Finally, the problems of the formation and development of small groups, group methods education, training and psychocorrectional influence, joint labor activity and the leadership of small groups are traditionally one of the main areas of application of the theory and methods of social psychology in practice.

First of all, consider the group structure (Fig. 1). (This scheme was proposed by E. Berne, the creator of the psychotherapeutic system called "Transactional Analysis.) It has a large outer border." These are the walls of the classroom where classes are held, the premises where the clinic is located, a fence that does not allow outsiders to enter the plant or military unit.

1. Large outer border
2. Large inner border
3. Small internal boundaries
4. Leadership
5. Subordinates

The small circle within the large circle is the large inner border. She separates the leadership of the group from its members. Group members are not always homogeneous. You can successfully direct no more than 9-12 people directly. A group, like a drop of mercury, when it exceeds a certain size, begins to divide into smaller groups. Therefore, when the group begins to exceed the above figure, it is necessary to divide it so that there are 7-9 people in the primary group and a leader stands at its head. Then the manager has more large scale there will be about 10 people in subordination. In this regard, the army is pretty well organized. The platoon has 3-4 squads. Each department has 10 people. Thus, the platoon commander has 4-5 subordinates at his disposal: his deputy and squad leaders. Where are the other 3? These are the leaders of informal groups, which we will talk about a little later.

Groups are open and closed. Open groups arranged in such a way that some members leave, others come in their place. Not only the members of the group change, but also the leaders. Thus, production teams can be viewed as open groups. Closed groups are formed simultaneously to perform a specific task. After its completion, the group ceases to exist.

And now about informal groups. If the leader does not know about their existence and does not know who the leader is there, he will make a number of organizational mistakes. In an effort to “reach every member of the team,” he can talk not with the leader of the informal group, but with its member. Then any of his requests, any orders will be carried out not directly, but after a conversation with the leader. And if the contact with the leader is not established, either disobedience or distorted performance can be observed.
I will mention here a common myth about the indiscipline of people. People are very disciplined, there are just very few leaders who know how to manage according to all the rules of science. The same thing happens in the group. The leader does not talk with the leader of the informal group, but with its member. As a result, his order is distorted by the advice and prohibitions of the leader. Let's remember that the power of the leader is absolute, and the power of the leader is determined service instructions.

When the human mind takes over, the crowd scatters. In a crowd, a person does not act according to his experience, but according to the opinion of the majority or the leader.
The crowd is incessantly in a state colored alternately black and sometimes pink, depending on the external environment impulses. This explains their eternal changeability. One can observe an instant transition from the bloodiest ferocity to nobility and heroism in the highest sense. The crowd easily becomes either an executioner or a martyr. Why are there crowds now? Now social connections break easily. Information is transmitted quickly, the rhythm of urban life is accelerating, and the continuous migration of the population is destroying human communities. All this contributes to the creation of new ones, which are recreated in the form of fickle and growing crowds. The mass media, especially television, also contribute to this cohesion. By the way, through them it would be possible to organize and educate people. But you won't make a lot of money from this. And smart people do not get lost in the crowd and do not raise a noise.
Informal groups arise due to the impossibility of solving any problem by sole effort and the lack of direct interest in its solution of several members of the organization.

The power of united labor inevitably forms a community of interests. The collective interest of people is the result of the very fact that they have similar operations, a similar profession or community of interests. The superiority of group activity over individual activity takes place when solving not all problems. However, in a number of cases, collective action is the most successful.

Recent studies conducted by P. Blau, W. Scott, M. Shaw have shown that when comparing individual and group performance, the latter's performance was higher - social interaction provided a mechanism for correcting mistakes.

The superiority of groups over individuals is expressed in the following:

· at social interaction weeding out ineffective proposals, which serves as a mechanism for correcting errors;

· The social support provided in social interaction facilitates thinking;

· The presence of competition among group members for respect mobilizes their energy to contribute greatly to solving problems.

Informal group activity is also expressed in the formation of creative groups along with individual creativity. In this form of self-organization, rationalization and invention are manifested. Therefore, within the framework of an informal organization, social and creative needs can also be satisfied, which contribute to the self-realization of the individual, prestige and recognition.

The interaction of a person and a group is always two-sided: a person, by his work, by his actions, contributes to the solution of group problems, but the group also has a great influence on a person, helping him to satisfy his needs for security, love, respect, self-expression, personality formation, elimination of anxiety, etc. .NS.

It is noted that in groups with good relationships, with an active intragroup life, people have better health and better morals, they are better protected from external influences and work more successfully than people in an isolated state or in "sick" groups affected by insoluble conflicts and instability. The group protects the individual, supports him and teaches him both the ability to perform tasks and the norms and rules of behavior in the group.

But the group not only helps a person to survive and improve their professional qualities. It changes his behavior, making the person often significantly different from what he was when he was outside the group. These group effects on a person have many manifestations. Let's point out some significant changes in human behavior that occur under the influence of the group.

Firstly, under social influence, changes occur in such characteristics of a person as perception, motivation, scope of attention, assessment system, etc. A person expands the scope of attention, the system of assessments due to a closer appeal to the interests of other members of the group. His life turns out to be dependent on the actions of his colleagues, and this significantly changes his view of himself, his place in the environment and those around him.

Secondly, in a group, a person receives a certain relative "weight". The group not only assigns tasks and roles, but also determines the relative position of each. Group members can do exactly the same work, but have different "weight" in the group. And this will be an additional essential characteristic for the individual, which he did not possess and could not possess, being outside the group. For many members of the group, this characteristic may be no less important than their formal position.

Thirdly, the group helps the individual to find a new vision of their self. A person begins to identify himself with the group, and this leads to significant changes in his perception of the world, in understanding his place in the world and his purpose.

Fourthly, being in a group, participating in discussions and developing solutions, a person can also give out suggestions and ideas that he would never have given out if he thought about the problem alone. The effect of the "brainstorming" effect on a person significantly increases creative potential person.

Fifth, it was noted that in a group a person is much more inclined to take risks than in a situation where he acts alone. In some cases, this feature of human behavior change is the source of more effective and active behavior of people in a group environment than if they acted alone.

It is wrong to think that the group changes the person the way it wants.

Often a person resists many influences from a group for a long time, he perceives many influences only partially, some he completely denies. The processes of adaptation of a person to a group and adjustment of a group to a person are ambiguous, complex and often quite lengthy. Entering a group, interacting with the group environment, a person not only changes himself, but also affects the group, on its other members.

While interacting with the group, the person tries to different ways to influence it, to make changes in its functioning so that it is acceptable for him, convenient for him and allows him to cope with his duties. Naturally, both the form of influence and the degree of influence of a person on a group significantly depends on both his personal characteristics, his ability to influence, and from the characteristics of the group. A person usually expresses his attitude towards the group in terms of what he considers to be the most important for himself. At the same time, his reasoning always depends on the position he occupies in the group, on the role he performs, on the task assigned to him and, accordingly, on what goals and interests he personally pursues.

The interaction of a person with a group can be either in the nature of cooperation, or fusion, or conflict. For each form of interaction, its own degree of manifestation can be observed. That is, for example, one can talk about a latent conflict, a weak conflict, or an insoluble conflict.

In the case of cooperation, a trusting and supportive relationship is established between the group member and the group. A person considers the goals of the group as not contradicting his goals, he is ready to search for ways to improve interaction, positively, albeit with a rethinking of his own positions, perceives the decisions of the group and is ready to search for ways to maintain relations with the group on a mutually beneficial basis.

When a person merges with a group, the establishment of such a relationship between the person and the rest of the group is observed, when each of the parties considers the other as an organically united component of the whole with it. A person builds his goals based on the goals of the group, largely subordinates his interests to its interests and identifies himself with the group. The group, in turn, also tries to look at the individual not as a performer of a certain role, but as a person completely devoted to it. In this case, the group takes care of the person, considering his problems and difficulties as their own, tries to assist him in solving not only production problems, but also in solving his personal problems.

In the event of a conflict, there is a contrast between the interests of a person and a group and a struggle between them to resolve this contradiction in their favor. Conflicts can be generated by two groups of factors:

Organizational,

· Emotional.

The first group of factors is associated with differences in views on goals, structure, relationships, distribution of roles in the group, etc. If the conflict is generated by these factors, then it is relatively easy to resolve. The second group of conflicts includes such factors as distrust of a person, a sense of threat, fear, envy, hatred, anger, etc.

Conflicts generated by these factors are poorly amenable to complete elimination.

The conflict between the group member and the group is incorrect to consider only as an unfavorable, negative state in the group. Assessment of the conflict fundamentally depends on the consequences for the person and the group it leads to.

But very often the conflict in the relationship within the group is positive. This is due to the fact that the conflict can lead to beneficial consequences. First, conflict can increase motivation to achieve goals. It can cause additional energy for action, bring the group out of a stable passive state. Secondly, the conflict can lead to a better understanding of relations and positions in the group, to the members' understanding of their role and place in the group, to a clearer understanding of the tasks and nature of the group's activities. Third, conflict can play a creative role in finding new ways of functioning for the group, finding new approaches to solving group problems, generating new ideas and considerations on how to build relationships between group members, etc. Fourthly, the conflict can lead to the manifestation of interpersonal relations, to the identification of relations between individual members of the group, which in turn can prevent a possible negative aggravation of relations in the future.

Organizational behavior is a science that studies the behavior of people (individuals and groups) in organizations with the aim of practical use of the knowledge gained to improve the efficiency of a person's labor activity. Organizational behavior manifests itself in the following forms, aspects, phenomena:

• - attitudes, values, preferences, inclinations of individuals that are formed in consciousness;
• - the behavior of individuals in relation to physical objects in the event of unexpected information and social contacts;
• - Behavior of groups, teams and other groups characterized by face-to-face communication;
• - the behavior of organizational units such as departments, divisions, firms or large concerns; - the behavior of an interconnected group of organizations;
• - the behavior of the internal and external environment of the company, for example, the evolution of technology, markets, competition, state regulation etc.

Role is the behavior that the group expects from the individual in the process of performing social functions. During my lecture, I play the role of a lecturer, and the students play the role of listeners. What do students expect from me? Firstly, that I will tell new things for them, secondly, tell them exciting and interesting, and thirdly, not offend them. If my behavior matches their expectations (expectations), they behave quietly, listen carefully and write down the most important things (these are my expectations). Otherwise, they impose sanctions on me, that is, they begin to read, draw, mumble, etc. At the same time, they do not correspond to my expectations. If they depend on me, I can reprimand them, but I still won't force them to listen. I can just force them to sit still. Now it is clear why it is better to organize the work of the group so that the leader depends on his subordinates, the client on the customer, the doctor on the patient, the teacher on the student, and not vice versa, as, unfortunately, it often happens with us. After all, if the students could leave me freely, I would have no other choice but to learn to lecture well.

If I sincerely play my role, then by my performance one can judge what kind of person I am, what my abilities, temperament, and worldview are. But sometimes the role becomes so automated that it ceases to reflect the personality as such. Then the individual simply changes one role for another, but there is no personality as such, or the role is detached from the personality, by the way a person plays his role, it is no longer possible to understand who he is as a person. The role essentially becomes mask(see below)
Here are some examples. The teacher, playing the role of the teacher, behaves as it should, from his point of view, to the teacher. He is often strict, unforgiving towards violators of discipline, reads all sorts of notations, requires his students to systematically complete assignments. But then he himself became a student, that is, he went to the faculty of improving teachers. His behavior changes dramatically. Now he is playing the role of a student. He is late for classes, talks during lectures, sometimes he does not come at all. Where is his personality? After all, if he sincerely played the role of a teacher, then, having become a student, he would sympathize with his colleague and would not disrupt his studies.
I know that at the faculty of advanced training for doctors the most malicious violators of discipline were the cadets of the "Health Organization" cycle. But the contingent of this cycle is the chief doctors of hospitals and their deputies.

A mask is a behavior that a person uses to communicate safely. We have many masks and we put them on automatically. A mask of joy at a wedding, a mask of mourning at a funeral, a mask of good manners at dinner parties. Sometimes the mask grows to a person so that we forget what he was, and he himself does not know what his essence is. So, sometimes on the street from the fly you can recognize a teacher, a military man, a doctor ... A person at home begins to behave like at work. He is wearing a mask. Quite often it is impossible to "prick" it, but you cannot "stroke" it! He's wearing a mask! I do not urge you to throw off these masks at once. But it would be better not to keep them in person, but to use them as “cloaks of conventionality”. Otherwise, masks sometimes stick to the personality so that they become their essence.

The characteristics of the personality and its behavior are especially clearly manifested in the "group" life. And first of all, it is the closest environment of those people with whom a person communicates in everyday life, family, team, etc.

Small groups include a relatively small number of directly contacting individuals united by common goals and objectives: family, work collective, study group, company of friends, sports team, etc. A person can simultaneously be a member of several small social groups.

Small group sizes range from 2-3 people to 30-40. The number of 7 ± 2 people is indicated as optimal for the functioning of the group.

Classification of small groups. Small groups are divided into formal arising on the basis of an official decision (school class, labor collective), and informal that arise spontaneously on the basis of personal interests (company of friends).

Allocate group membership and reference groups. Membership group Is a group of which a person considers himself a member. A person does not always share the norms of behavior of the group of which he is a member. Reference group - a group whose norms and values ​​are shared and acts according to these norms by the person in question. The reference group can exist in reality, or it can be conditional. A person is guided in his behavior by the reference group, uses it as a standard for comparison with it, assessment and regulation of his own behavior.

According to the duration of their existence, small groups are divided into temporary and stationary.

According to the level of development, the groups are subdivided into:

Team- voluntary association of people, characterized by a high level of mediation of interpersonal relations by joint activities and the presence of socially approved goals (for example, a work collective that has reached socio-psychological maturity).

Corporations i- a group that has reached a high level of socio-psychological maturity, but pursues socially unapproved goals (highly organized criminal group).

Prosocial association differs in a low degree of mediation of interpersonal relations by joint activities and the social nature of goals (for example, a newly created study group).

Asocial association characterized by an antisocial nature of activity, a low degree of mediation of interpersonal relations by this activity.

Diffuse Group- a gathering of people who are united only by place and time, there is practically no joint activity (bus passengers).

Dynamic processes in a small group. These include various group processes and phenomena.

Group dynamics - the whole set of processes that take place in the life of the group and characterize the movement of the group in time, its development.

Group dynamics characteristics:

goals and objectives of the group;

group norms;

group structure, group roles, leadership;

group cohesion;

group decision making;

stages and mechanisms of group development.

Goals group are determined by what system of practice the group is included in.

Group norms - standards of conduct shared by group members. Compliance with group norms is supported by positive and negative sanctions... Group norms can be fixed in documents and exist in an implicit form, they can be conscious and unconscious.

Group norms fulfill function regulating the behavior of group members, supporting group unity and group development.

Conformity- voluntary change of views or behavior in a situation of imaginary or real pressure. Conformity can be external when the group's opinion is accepted only externally with internal disagreement (imaginary conformity), and internal when a person really accepts the opinion of the group. Negativism, that is, action contrary to the opinion and norms of behavior in the group is not true independence, but conformity with a minus sign.

Conformity is the result normative(a person seeks to be accepted in the group, and therefore, to comply with group norms in order to avoid negative sanctions) and information(the opinion and behavior of others is used as a “clue”) of the group's influence.

The regulatory change process initiates a group minority. This is the part of the group that has less power to influence. A minority in a group can act as a conduit for external social influences.

Structure group ... Each member of the group occupies a certain position in it and has, in accordance with this position, a certain status... Other members of the group expect certain behavior from him. Role there is a normative pattern of behavior due to the position of a person within the group. In the group, you can find roles such as coordinator, idea generator, enthusiast, supervisor-analyst, profit seeker, performer, hard worker, grinder.

Each group has its own status-role-playing structure... The leader is an element of the socio-psychological structure of the group.

Leadership - a dynamic process in a small group, which is based on the influence of a person's personal authority on other members of the group.

There are a number of different leadership theories:

Theory heck, from the point of view of which a leader becomes a person with certain personal characteristics (responsibility, activity, education, etc.).

Situational theory, from the point of view of which the leader is a product of the situation. Each situation imposes certain requirements on the leader. The person who meets these requirements becomes the leader.

Synthetic theory, from the point of view of which the leader is a product and situation and personality traits.

The leader in the group performs function coordination of individual actions of its members, stimulation and direction of the group's activity to solve the tasks facing it, maintaining group cohesion. Leadership is often described as an identical activity to leadership. Supervisor appointed officially, performs management functions, has a formal system of sanctions. Leader and leader can be the same person.

Cohesion group - the totality of all the forces acting in the group, forcing a person to maintain his membership in the group and experience positive emotions from membership in it. Cohesion characterizes the degree to which a group is attractive to its members. A close-knit group is characterized by the unity of goals, values, cooperation, a friendly atmosphere, genuine interest of group members in each other and a desire to help. The presence in the group of a common goal, the coincidence of individual and group goals, interpersonal sympathy, the presence of a danger external to the group, threats and a number of other factors contribute to the growth of group cohesion.

Cohesion is a factor in the effectiveness of the group.

Phenomenology adopting group solutions includes manifestations such as social facilitation, social inhibition, group risk shift, group polarization, grouping thinking, social laziness, group discussion, etc.

Social facilitation- improving the performance of the task in the presence of other people. Social inhibition- deterioration in the performance of the task in the presence of other people. Zayonts showed that facilitation is observed when performing lungs, and inhibition when performing complex tasks, which is a dominant response to a person's inherent arousal in the presence of other people.

Shift group risk- the adoption by group members during a group discussion of a more risky decision than alone. The shift in risk group is a special case group polarization- an increase in the extremeness of opinions in the decision-making process in the group.

Grouping thinking(group-think) - group consensus in which group members cannot make a realistic assessment of alternative courses of action or solution. The grouping of thinking often hinders the adoption of the right decision, reduces the quality of group decisions.

Social laziness(social loafing) - a decrease in the individual contributions of individual members of the group to its activities as the size of the group increases. This is observed if the contribution of each individual to the activities of the group is not evaluated. If a person evaluates his contribution as very small and does not affect the success of the final result of the group's activity, a similar phenomenon (free riding) is observed.

Efficiency activities group ... The terms of group efficiency are group productivity and satisfaction from group membership. Productivity depends on the potential productivity of the group, its size, the structure of communication in the group, the type of task being performed, the style of management, the cohesion of the group, etc. other factors increase satisfaction the individual as a group.

The main stages development group :

verification and dependency stage. At this stage, the members of the group are oriented in the nature of each other's actions and the search for mutually acceptable behavior;

"Internal conflict". At this stage, there is a violation of interaction, there is a lack of group unity. Each participant in the interaction seeks to impose his opinion, model of behavior on the group;

development of group cohesion. Group norms, common views, etc .;

“Functional and role correlation”. The formation of the status-role structure of the group takes place, the distribution of tasks.

Mechanisms group speakers

Permission intragroup contradictions... In the group, contradictions constantly arise between the capabilities of the group and its actual activities, between the desire of group members for self-affirmation and the tendencies of integration of the individual with the group, between individual needs and group goals, etc. groups.

Idiosyncratic credit is a socio-psychological phenomenon when members of a group allow persons with a high status to deviate from group norms, if such a deviation contributes to the solution of the tasks facing the group and, accordingly, the development of the group.

Psychological exchange, a kind of which is the value exchange. The personal characteristics of a person, knowledge, skills, and abilities that are significant for group activities can act as values.

Socially-psychological climate is an integral characteristic of the group. Socially- psychologicalclimategroup- a stable mental state of the group, reflecting the characteristics of its life. This is a set of conditions that promote or impede productive group activity and the all-round development of the individual in the group. This is a qualitative characteristic of interpersonal relations in a group, a system of relations of group members to the conditions, nature, content of joint activities, to the leader and other members of the group.

Favorable The socio-psychological climate is characterized by trust, goodwill in relationships, mutual understanding, free expression by members of the group of their opinions and respect for the opinions of others, constructive criticism, a sense of security, optimism, confidence, satisfaction from group membership. Adverse the socio-psychological climate is characterized by tension in relations between members of the group, conflicts, a predominance of suppressed mood, dissatisfaction with group membership. A favorable psychological climate is a condition for the effectiveness of the group.

Factors affecting the socio-psychological climate: the nature of interpersonal relations, the personality of the leader and the style and management methods he implements, psychological compatibility, the presence of microgroups, the nature of the interaction between them, the influence of the external social environment, as well as the physical microclimate, etc.

Psychological compatibility- the ability of group members to carry out joint activities. Psychological compatibility is based on the optimal combination of psychological characteristics of the participants in the interaction according to the principle of their similarities or complementarity... There are four levels of compatibility: physical, psychophysiological, psychological, socio-psychological.

Psychophysiological the level of compatibility is based on the optimal combination of the features of the analyzer system and the properties of temperament. Psychological level assumes compatibility of characters, motives, types of behavior. Socially-psychological the level of compatibility is based on the consistency of social roles, social attitudes, value orientations, interests. Psychological compatibility is promoted by self-criticism, tolerance and trust in relation to the interaction partner.

Sociometric structure group characterizes the subordination of the positions of individuals in the system of intragroup interpersonal preferences. We are talking about the informal structure of the group, the structure of interpersonal emotional contacts: likes, dislikes, preferences in the group. The concept of the sociometric structure of a group is associated with the name of J. Moreno, the author of the widely known sociometric method. The methodology is intended for research in a group of informal interpersonal relationships. It allows you to establish the position of the individual in the group, the presence of microgroups in the structure of the studied group, the presence of conflict, tension in relationships, the degree of group cohesion, the motivational structure of relationships. Procedural sociometric research is carried out by posing indirect questions, answering which, the participants make a sequential choice of preferred group members in the situation described by the question. The sociometric status of an individual is determined by the number of choices he has received in the group. The most popular and sympathetic are “ stars"... There are also categories preferred, ignored, isolated and rejected group members.

Part 3 "Me and YOU"

Psychology of management

1. Basic concepts of social psychology

Social psychology is a science that studies human behavior in a group.

A group is people united by real relationships.

The class, the family, the production team, the queue, if it exists long enough, are all groups.

If there is no relationship between people, they cannot be called a group. So, a lot of people are walking along the street. We talk about the mass when we do not know which category of people the person next to us belongs to.

At the stadium, in the store, in the canteen, at the demonstration, there is no longer a mass, but a crowd. A crowd is a gathering of people where a common goal can be assumed. Therefore, at the stadium, with a high degree of probability, I can assume that next to me is the same fan as I am. There is already a topic for conversation, if I want to chat with him. When a crowd gathers at a bus stop, it's easier to get to know the person by starting a conversation not about football, but about transportation problems.

One can speak of a group in the proper sense of the word when there is a common goal that unites all its members without exception. The queue is a typical example of such a group: the buyer has the goal to buy, and the seller has the goal to sell. Cadets come to our faculty of advanced training for two or three months: their goal is to get a document, from us - to issue it. There is no slip of the tongue here. If I want to lead a group successfully, I have to define a common goal. If I think that all doctors have come for new knowledge, then I will fall into a deep mistake, because some do not need them, others know (or think they know) no less than me. Still others came to take a break from family troubles. That is why my task is to organize pedagogical process so that obtaining a diploma is possible only if knowledge is acquired.

Groups are formal and informal. A formal group is a group formed on the basis of any documents: staffing table, a list of invitees to a wedding, etc. An informal group is a group formed on the basis of personal affections, sympathies, common needs that cannot be satisfied in a formal group. A formal group is led by a leader, an informal group by a leader. The power of the leader is determined by office instructions, a preliminary verbal agreement, etc. The power of the leader is absolute, which follows from the voluntariness of participation. This is why, if the leader is not a leader at the same time, the group will always be torn apart by contradictions.

How many groups does a person need?

Just enough to meet your needs. If he satisfies all the needs in the family, he does not need more groups. This is possible only in families where their own production is organized and all family members work in this production, and there is advice and love between family members.

Since there are few such families, in most cases each person belongs to at least two groups: family and industrial. This with correct organization family and work are enough for a person to satisfy his needs. But if a person has a third, fourth, etc. groups, this indicates that he has trouble in two main ones.

If I make little money, even for very interesting work, then with the greatest love for her, I will earn money elsewhere. And this is fraught with a transition to another job. That is why an experienced manager closely monitors and does everything to ensure that his employee earns only in his production. Such a manager does not need to beg for an increase in the salary of an employee who, due to the growth of qualifications, has increased the productivity of work. In addition, not the salary should be the same, but its criteria.

If the work is not interesting and serves only as a source of income, a hobby group arises for a person. An experienced manager will try to make the job not only highly paid, but also interesting. And if this is not possible, it will create conditions for satisfying the hobby. I know leaders who give great attention the development of sports, amateur performances, etc., and the football team is considered the workshop of their enterprise and a treatise for this is a lot of money.

The second reason a person is looking for another group is the lack of love between spouses. In this case, a new sexual group arises, or the spouse (less often the spouse) gets drunk, gets sick. All this, of course, will affect labor productivity. It is surprising that to improve working conditions often requires huge investments, and here you just need educational work, it is true, qualified, therefore expensive, but it would still be cheaper ... In the chapter "Psychological Vampirism" we talked about the technique of establishing sexual relationship between spouses. It will go into detail about organizing and managing a family. By the way, family relationships are immeasurably more complicated than in production, and a person who really managed to establish them can become a leader on a large scale.

The concept of a reference group is distinguished in social psychology. The reference group is the group that is the standard for the individual. So, for the small-country nobleman, the reference group was the upper world, into which he dreamed of getting. If a person does not consider the group in which he is a reference, he will try to leave it. Will he do something to strengthen this group? Naturally not! What will he do? Try to snatch a "piece" with which there is a chance to get into the reference group. Therefore, every experienced leader cares about the prestige of his group. Then it is easier and cheaper for him to hire a qualified specialist, it is easier and more expensive to sell his products or services.

2. Behavior of a person in a group (role and masks)

As we already know, human behavior is the result of the interaction of his personality and the personalities of communication partners. But it turns out that behavior also depends on the group in which this interaction takes place. The group influences the behavior of the person. See how two schoolchildren behave when they come to watch a movie at the cinema. Quiet and peaceful. But here are several classes organize a collective screening of the film. Have you ever attended such sessions? Who has been, he knows what is happening on them! How do our two schoolchildren behave? They hoot, whistle, comment, etc. Having gone out into the crowd, they will again become well-bred boys. But in the group they could not behave differently. They would have been condemned because they had such a role in the group.

What is a Role?

A role is the behavior that a group expects from a person in the process of performing social functions. During my lecture, I also play the role of a lecturer, and students the role of listeners. What do students expect from me? Firstly, that I will tell new things for them, secondly, tell them exciting and interesting, and thirdly, not offend them. If my behavior matches their expectations (expectations), they will behave quietly, listen carefully and write down the most important thing (these are my expectations). Otherwise, they will impose sanctions on me, that is, they will start reading, drawing, etc. At the same time, they will not correspond to my expectations. If they depend on me, I can reprimand them, but I still won't force them to listen. I can just force them to sit still. Now it is clear why it is better to organize the work of the group so that the leader depends on his subordinates, the client on the customer, the doctor on the patient, the teacher on the student, and not vice versa, as, unfortunately, it often happens with us. After all, if the students could leave me freely, I would have no other choice but to learn to lecture well. Why did I write better? Because I was completely dependent on you, my dear reader! Nobody needed my first books. I should have either quit writing or write better.

If I sincerely play my role, then by my performance one can judge what kind of person I am, what my abilities, temperament, and worldview are. But quite often communication is impersonal. It so happens that no one needs my personality. If I’m sincere, I’ll get shots. To prevent this from happening, I put on a mask. A mask is a behavior that a person uses to communicate safely. The masks are in contact. There are many examples of this when it is appropriate. For example, in transport: "Punch through, please, a coupon!" - "Thanks!" - "Please!". And sometimes it is better that the person does not appear here: "What am I, hired to punch coupons here!"

We have many masks and we put them on automatically. A mask of joy at a wedding, a mask of mourning at a funeral, a mask of good manners at dinner parties. Sometimes the mask grows to a person so that we forget what he was, and he himself does not know what his essence is. So, sometimes on the street from the summer you can recognize a teacher, a military man, a doctor ... A person even at home begins to behave like at work. He is wearing a mask. Quite often it is impossible to "prick" it, but you cannot "stroke" it! He's wearing a mask! Sometimes a person himself does not know what he really is - he only knows his own mask!

And now with a set of roles and a set of masks, not knowing himself and not knowing the laws of the group, he enters other groups or organizes new ones, that is, he gets a job or creates family life... In order to drive a car, you need to take a training course. Here I will try to briefly describe what is happening in the group of which you are a member.

Group arrangement
(fig. 3.1.)

The group has a large outer border. These are the walls of the classroom where classes are held, the premises where the clinic is located, a fence that does not allow outsiders to enter the plant or military unit.

Fig 3.1 (By E. Bern)
1. Large outer border
2. Large inner border
3. Small internal boundaries
4. Leadership
5. Subordinates

The small circle within the large circle is the large inner border. She separates the leadership of the group from its members. Group members are not always homogeneous. You can successfully direct no more than 9-12 people directly. A group, like a drop of mercury, when it exceeds a certain size, begins to divide into smaller groups. Therefore, when the group begins to exceed the above-mentioned figure, it is necessary to divide it so that there are 1-9 people in the primary group and a leader stands at its head. Then the manager of a larger scale will have about 10 subordinates. In this regard, the army is pretty well organized. The platoon has 3-4 squads. Each department has 10 people. Thus, the platoon commander has 4-5 subordinates at his disposal: his deputy and squad leaders. Where are the other three? We will now talk about this in more detail.

Further, talking about the management system, I will refer to examples of those groups that I had to lead. When I did not know the psychology of management, I had to be the senior doctor of the regiment, the deputy head of the hospital for the medical part. My God, if I knew and could then what I know and can now! Today I manage to make a close-knit team out of 30-40 people who do not know each other in a few weeks. And when the group, having completed its task, ceases to exist, these people continue to communicate with each other, if circumstances permit, and the feeling that somewhere there lives a person who is always glad to you, and you to him, persists for life.

But before continuing with the exposition, I have to introduce a few more concepts. Groups are divided into small, medium and large. Small groups should include groups of up to 10 people, middle group has 11-25 people, large - 25-35.

Groups are open and closed. Open groups are designed so that some members leave and others come in their place. Not only the members of the group change, but also the leaders. Thus, production teams can be viewed as open groups. Closed groups are formed at once to perform a specific task. After its completion, the group ceases to exist. An example is study groups(20-25 people) who come to our postgraduate faculty. Having existed for two or three months and having completed their task, our cadets immediately go home. We create closed groups for psychological training... In large-scale production, it is necessary to form temporary labor collectives... A typical team of this kind is a team of astronauts flying into space. A temporary work collective is also created to carry out any tasks on the road.

When it comes to psychological training, I see great benefits. open group... I have had such a group for about eight years. Some come, others go. But there is always a core that has been attending the group for at least two to three years. This is what contributes to the fact that in two or three sessions a new member acquires such a number of skills that it would take two or three months to master them in a closed group. New techniques can be tested in this group. Free visit and one-time payment keep the manager in good shape (here it is, dependence on the client!). The fall in attendance, and therefore in earnings, forces him to master new methods and improve old ones. And I've had bad luck. But it is failures, correctly understood, that contribute to the growth of qualifications. The open group thus turns into a kind of club. Sometimes members of the group, who have been doing without a psychologist for several years, come to us "for the light". They share their successes, and sometimes they come to solve one or two problems. The disadvantage of an open group is the impossibility of conducting planned theoretical studies, because everything revolves around solving immediate life problems.

A closed group is good because everyone goes at about the same pace, people and the group itself change before our eyes. Quite often after the end of classes interested persons attend open groups.

But back to our group. So, 20-25 people arrive to us at once. We divide them into three groups. Each has a person in charge. For the entire cycle, a headman is selected to communicate with the leadership of the cycle. The manual consists of three teachers and a laboratory assistant. Thus, in the cycle, the supervisor has three teachers, a laboratory assistant and a leader of the cycle. These are four people. And where are the three - five others? These are the leaders of informal groups that are sure to be in any team, be it a class at a school, a student group or a production team. The family has the same arrangement. There is a group of leaders - those who hold material goods in their hands, and members of the group who are dependent on leadership - children, sometimes quite adults, aging parents (grandparents), grandchildren and great-grandchildren. But we will talk about the family later.

And now about informal groups. If the leader does not know about their existence and does not know who the leader is there, he will make a number of organizational mistakes. In an effort, as before, "to reach every member of the team," he can talk not with the leader of the informal group, but with its member. Then any of his requests, any orders will not be carried out directly, but after a conversation with the leader. And if the contact with the leader is not established, then either disobedience or distorted performance can be observed.

I will mention here a common myth about the indiscipline of people. People are very disciplined, there are just very few leaders who know how to manage according to all the rules of science. The same thing happens here. The leader does not talk with the leader of the informal group, but with its member. As a result, his order is distorted by the advice and prohibitions of the leader. Let us remember that the authority of the leader is absolute, and the authority of the leader is determined by office instructions.

In our cycle, we usually manage to identify three informal groups. Since this is repeated from year to year, this should be considered a pattern. The first group is educational and careerist, the second is cultural and entertainment, the third is alcoholic and sexual.

I gave the names to the groups figuratively. It may not be very scientific, but it is clear what I am talking about. I want to emphasize that I have a very good attitude towards representatives of this or that group. I have a bad attitude towards the cultural and entertainment and alcoholic-sexual group. The task of a leader without violence, psychologically destroying these groups, or, in extreme cases, be able to turn the members of the last two groups into careerists. But in the term "careerist" I mean positive content. This is very good if a person wants to make a career. But not at the expense of acquaintances, but at the expense of personal growth and the development of professional qualities. Unfortunately, we put negative content in many good words. Here and such words - "career", "adaptation" - we sometimes say, to put it mildly, not very ... I personally understand a career as personal growth... Positions in such cases usually come on their own. After all, a career, in the true sense of the word, can be made only if you become a professional of the highest class, and taking up a position to which you have not matured is not a career, but a disaster. These are the leaders and get sick. They do not work so much as hold on to the chair, and when they sign the papers with their right hand, with their left they hold onto the left handrail of the chair, which is worn more than the right. Pay attention to this when you go into the office of some boss.

It is very easy to recognize them in educational groups. You just need to allow them to sit where they want. The cultural and entertainment group is located closer to the exit, and as soon as the end of the lecture is announced, its representatives rush out of the audience. Careerists usually sit in the front rows and near the window. The alcoholic-sexual group is located in the back rows. But it is better to invite a qualified psychologist to the team. He will draw you a psychological portrait of the group.

To the educational and careerist group includes physicians who strive for professional growth and career advancement. These are young doctors who, in their student years, attended circles and prepared themselves for professional activities. Some of them dream of a scientific career and, naturally, go out of their way not only to acquire knowledge, but also to leave a memory of themselves. They are also doctors in the age of Jesus Christ. Some have already become department heads, but want to go higher, some can already receive qualification categories... This group actively attends all classes, including optional, asks many questions. They are well-read, but often they do not have a school and at times they are skidded around corners. This group keeps leaders on their toes. It is very inconvenient if the student turns out to be more knowledgeable than the teacher. Once or twice, nothing else, but if more often ...

Are there any analogues of such groups in production? Of course have. With them it is both simple and difficult. Just a leader who grows himself. It is difficult for someone who has stopped growing. The fact is that the members of the educational and careerist group dream of taking the place of the leader. If the latter grows, there is no problem. The organization is expanding, and a growing employee in this group will always find a place to match his advanced skills. If it is not possible to provide him with a promotion here, on the spot, he should be transferred to another organization with a promotion.

The representative of such a group is an enthusiast. He is interested in preserving the group and in some cases works for free (he almost wrote "disinterestedly"). So, he can be instructed to make a report out of turn at the conference and thereby help out the leader, he can take an extra patient. No, he has a calculation. He understands that on occasion he will be sent on a scientific trip, and then it will be difficult to get around him. He works both for his own authority and for the authority of the group, hoping that the growth of the group will be accompanied by his career growth. Naturally, a leader who has stopped growing will be in conflict with such an employee. IN hospitals- these are young doctors-residents who dream of becoming heads of departments, sisters who want to take the position of chief nurse.

The higher the social status of the group, the more we find careerists in it. At school, among the students, and unfortunately, there are few careerists among teachers. Hence the conservatism of many of our schools. In institutes there are much more careerists among students, but still not as many as we would like. There are much more of them among teachers. But, unfortunately, here too we see a not very funny picture. Many university professors, having defended their candidate and sometimes doctoral dissertations, becoming associate professors, professors or even heads of departments, become representatives of a cultural and entertainment group, and sometimes they turn into a sexual one, without giving any scientific and pedagogical products, hindering the advancement of those who are below them. Despite the fact that competitions are formally held every five years, it is almost impossible to fire a representative of a cultural and entertainment group, and even an alcoholic and sexual one. When the head of a department is a representative of such a group, stagnation begins in the team. I know institutes and departments that were headed by such people. The collectives were slowly falling apart. And I saw how they were transformed when a careerist became a leader in the sense of the word, as I understand it.

The disadvantage of a careerist group is their disunity, inability to organize, defend their opinion. Indeed, quite often the leaders give all their attention to the "poor". They are summoned to their offices, talked, promised and punished. They thereby gain a great deal of social experience. They learn to trick, ask, beg. They rally with each other, provide support, share their experience. Careerists, starting from school years, work on themselves alone and in fact are disunited. This is especially noticeable in schools, institutes, army collectives among conscripts. After all, the ball is ruled by the "Losers". And when the years of study are over, those who were the first (excellent students) become the last. Power is being seized by representatives of cultural and entertainment and alcoholic and sexual groups. This is not always a bad thing. These groups have smart and courageous people. After all, they are not afraid to enter into conflicts with their superiors. Some of them then finish their studies on the fly. But many, having learned to hold on to power without suffering from flight of thought, put pressure on the careerists. They are especially annoyed by people with a "red" diploma. "Careerists" quite often fail to open up. It is with them that I study and teach them to achieve their goal, not dexterously, but using their mind. Many, having undergone such training, began to occupy leadership positions at 45, defend dissertations at 50, make discoveries and write books at 60. And if only they did everything on time! That is, they would defend their dissertations at 25, hold executive positions at 30, and write books at 40. How much they lost! But society has lost even more.

Is it possible to do something in the conditions of our imperfect legislation, when all the attention of school teachers is focused on the poor, and the excellent students study without experiencing any difficulties? I think you can. For a year, I taught psychology at high school... I summarized this experience in two articles that were published in the book "Psychotherapeutic Studies". Careerists should be trained during their school years. My suggestions are as follows. Pay attention only to excellent students. For them to organize sections and circles, to gather in separate groups, where their growth requirements would be satisfied. Not to lower the excellent students to the level of C-graders, but to raise the C-graders to the level of C-students. In practice, it was done like this. I dismissed those who were not interested in psychology from lessons and gave them fours only for the fact that they did not go to lessons. With those who lagged behind, I taught the psychology of communication and the ability to lead. The textbook was the book you are holding, in the first editions. They learned to fight back poor students, established their relationships with their parents, and most importantly, their relationships with the opposite sex became successful, some learned to earn a little themselves. Those who skipped were curious. Gradually, the attendance began to grow. At the beginning of the experiment, seven out of 20 students in the class (I taught at the Lyceum) attended psychology lessons. Gradually, from class to class, the attendance increased. The Razgildyai (analogue of the alcoholic-sexual group of adults) and cultural and entertainment groups split, and the careerist ones rallied. Quite quickly (in 2 months) the attendance reached 120%; pupils from other grades came to the lessons if the teachers were suddenly delayed. But now a careerist group ruled the ball, which itself dealt with slobs.

To the cultural and entertainment group includes doctors who have stopped in their professional growth and have main interests on the side. This or household, or commerce, or whatever. They are not bad specialists who have gotten their hands on routine work. They perform their duties well, but inside and out. They would not have gone to the courses if it was not required for a number of reasons (one of them is recertification). For them, studying is just one of the opportunities to relax. There is no hassle with the members of this group, if you do not involve them in active social work.

There are analogues of such groups in any collectives. In hospitals, these are the majority of nurses and almost all of the orderlies and nurses. The duty once every four to five days creates good conditions for working on a personal plot, which is the main source of material wealth, and for the realization of other interests. I have seen such faces in professional sports. These were the players who at one time were part of the national team of the country. They were still quite good professionals, but now they played in teams major league who are on the lower steps of the standings, or in teams of lower leagues, claiming access to a higher one. They have already recovered from star fever and stayed in sports only to earn money. There is no point in encouraging such people to be enthusiastic. To the orderly, if needed overtime work, a double day off or some other compensation should be promised, the player should be given a clearly defined task and the amount of the fee for a successfully completed job should be determined. Members of this group can also be transferred to a careerist group, if not for the ridiculous age restrictions, official and unofficial. In our country, unfortunately, the growth of the young is delayed only because he is young, and then because he is “old”. I knew a professor who was not over 27 years old to take on graduate school. Many of them are not hired to teach at the institute, because they are already over 40. Such and such people from careerists become representatives of cultural and entertainment, and even alcoholic and sexual groups. They can be extracted from there. Both national and gender prejudices often hinder growth. So, one head of the department recruited only young men and often got stuck. His logic was that women get married, give birth and stop doing science.

Alcoholic sex group represents the most uncomfortable part of employees in any team, especially in its alcoholic part. This is described in detail in the chapter "Psychological Vampirism". Here I would like to once again emphasize our position in working with alcoholics: a strict contract that excludes the possibility of further stay in the team if the violation is related to the use of alcoholic beverages. The problem of sex must be solved scientifically. The leader needs to understand the importance of resolving this issue. Both educational and medical advisory work is needed here. This group also includes those people who went to work in order to "change over" for a year or two before serving in the army or until the next attempt to enter the institute. They have no great interest in the goals of the group, they easily adhere to the representatives of the alcoholic-sexual group. Systematic competent work with them can lead to the fact that they will move to the "careerist" group. Alcohol groups are especially powerful in budgetary organizations... They take shape gradually, and once formed, they can seriously hinder the development of production. In commercial institutions, they are dealt with rather quickly. The information below will help managers navigate this issue.

██ ██ To everyone who has lost hope and dropped their hands. The author, like Kozma Prutkov, believes that a person's happiness lies in his own hands... And if he knows how to communicate with himself, finds a common language with loved ones, is able to manage a group and quickly get used to a new situation, he is doomed to happiness. The author uses his rich clinical experience and experience in psychological counseling, gives simple recommendations on how to establish communication. Life is an easy thing, and if it's hard for you, then you are doing something wrong. Joy is what is felt after some kind of creative or socially significant action that was not performed with the aim of obtaining benefits.