Perception theme. Observation is a purposeful perception of the real world, object or phenomenon in a natural environment. Basic properties of perception

General characteristics of perception

Perception (perception) is the reflection in the human mind of objects and phenomena in the aggregate of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the sense organs.

In the course of perception, there is an ordering and unification of individual sensations into integral images of things and events. Unlike sensations, which reflect individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the totality of its properties. Perception is associated with awareness, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, with their assignment to a certain category according to the corresponding signs, grounds. Only by including an object or phenomenon in a certain system, embracing it with an appropriate concept, can we correctly interpret it.

Thus, perception acts as a meaningful (including decision-making), designated (associated with speech) synthesis of various sensations received from integral objects or complex phenomena perceived as a whole. Since perception is a sensory stage of cognition, it is associated with thinking, has a motivational focus, and is accompanied by an emotional response. It is on the basis of perception that the activity of memory, thinking, imagination is possible.

Perception of a person is a necessary prerequisite and condition for his life and practical activities... Knowledge of the patterns of perception processes helps to better understand the mechanism of formation of witness testimony, to identify the psychological sources of errors of the investigator, the court, and, on this basis, to make recommendations to improve the efficiency of their law enforcement activities.

Perception as action

Perception is a kind of action aimed at examining the perceived object and creating its copy, similarity.

Perception is a complex cognitive activity that includes a whole system of perceptual actions that allow you to detect the object of perception, identify it, measure it, evaluate it (Fig. 1).

Perceptual actions

Measuring

Building

Control

Corrective

Allows you to estimate the size of the perceived object

Allows you to match the sizes of multiple objects

Responsible for building a perceptual image

Allows you to compare the emerging image with the characteristics of the object

Correct image errors

Tonic-regulatory

Maintain the required level of muscle tone for the implementation of the process of perception

Rice. 1. Perceptual actions

Their composition depends on the degree of comprehension of perception, i.e. from the understanding of what is perceived, and from the nature of the perceptual task facing the person, i.e. on why and for what purpose a person is watching or listening at the moment.

Perceptions

Allocate different kinds perception (Fig. 2).

By the form of mental activity

By form
existence
matter

According to the leading analyzer

Unorganized

Olfactory

By structure

Tactile

Auditory

Visual

Kinesthetic

Organized

By the degree of organization

Taste

Intentional

Unintentional

Perception of movement

Perception of time

Perception of space

Depending on the characteristics of the perceived object

Simultaneous

Successive

Perceptions

Rice. 2. Classification of perception

Intentional perception xIt is characterized by the fact that it is based on a consciously set goal. It is associated with the volitional efforts of a person.

It is known that one of the forms of deliberate perception is observation - deliberate, purposeful, systematic, planned and long-term perception of objects and phenomena of reality, people and oneself.

The observer must take into account the peculiarities of the individual type of perception (analytical, synthetic, analytical-synthetic, emotional). So, for observers of the synthetic type, generalized reflection and determination of the main meaning of what is happening are characteristic. They don't see the details because they don't attach importance to them.

People of the analytical type tend to distinguish, first of all, details, particulars when observing, but understanding the general meaning of phenomena causes them great difficulties. They often replace the general idea of an object, an event with a thorough analysis of individual actions and details, while failing to highlight the main thing.

People of the emotional type of perception tend to express rather their experiences caused by the observed phenomena, but are unable to isolate its essence. A person of this type of perception, observing an object, first of all notices what affects his emotional sphere, and does not try to understand the features of the object itself.

Surveillance is the main method for studying the situation and the scene. Observation of the manifestations of the mental and physical condition of the accused or suspect during the preliminary investigation or trial has no evidentiary value, but it is necessary for prompt psychological diagnostics, establishing contact and trusting relationships, and lawful mental influence.

Unintentional perception- this is a perception in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specially set task, when the process of perception is not associated with the volitional efforts of a person.

Organized perception(observation) is an organized, purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world.

Disorganized perception- this is an unintentional perception of the surrounding reality.

Simultaneous perception- one act.

Successive perception- phased, sequential.

Human perception by human(social perception) is an extremely complex phenomenon. Two aspects are usually distinguished in it: cognitive (cognitive) - the ability, by external manifestation, to understand what a person is, to penetrate into the depths of his personality, individuality and emotional - the ability to determine by external behavioral signs the emotional state in which a person is at the moment, the ability to empathize, or empathy.

The perception of a person by a person is essential in witness testimony. Depending on what value people attach different features personalities, they treat each other differently, experience different feelings and, when giving testimony, bring to the fore one or another individual aspect of another person.

Perception of spaceplays an important role in human interaction with the environment, is necessary condition orientation of a person in it. It is a reflection of objectively existing space and includes the perception of the shape, size and relative position of objects, their relief, distance and direction in which they are located (Fig. 3) .

Perception of space

Perception of form, volume and
size of objects

Visual illusions

Depth perception

and remoteness of objects

Linear

and air
perspective

Rice. 9.3. Perception of space

In some criminal cases, such as, for example, cases of car accidents, the perception and correct assessment of the spatial coordinates of moving objects is very important.

The perception of the shape, volume and size of objects is carried out using visual, tactile and kinesthetic analyzers. The perception of form requires the selection of an object from the background, and this, in turn, often requires the selection of a contour, i.e. boundaries of spatial elements of the figure, differing in brightness, color, texture.

The perceived size of objects is determined by the size of their image on the retina and the distance from the observer's eyes. The adaptation of the eye to a clear vision of variously distant objects is carried out using two mechanisms: accommodation (changing the refractive power of the lens by changing its curvature) and convergence (bringing the visual axes on a fixed object).

The perception of the depth and distance of objects is carried out in the form of monocular and binocular vision. Monocular vision (with the help of one eye due to a change in the thickness of its lens) makes it possible to correctly estimate distances, albeit within very limited limits. The perception of depth and distance of objects is carried out mainly through binocular vision (with the help of two eyes) and the accompanying convergence.

As objects move away from the observer, their image on the retina decreases. An example of linear perspective is the apparent convergence of parallel rails in the distance. railroad and others. Aerial perspective is that the light and color reflected by objects, to a certain extent, are distorted under the influence of layers of air.

The phenomena of erroneous or distorted perception are called perception illusions. Illusions are observed in all types of perception (visual, auditory, etc.). The nature of illusions is determined not only by subjective reasons, such as orientation, attitude, emotional attitude, etc., but also by physical factors and phenomena.

IN professional activity It is important for a lawyer to separate objective facts from subjective layers. So, for example, when interrogating a witness, it is necessary to clarify the conditions in which the perception of the incident took place (illumination, duration, distance, meteorological conditions, etc.). At the same time, you should be aware that people are often not able to accurately assess the number of perceived objects, the distance between them, their spatial relationship and size. For example, spatial perceptions are characterized by an overestimation of small distances and an underestimation of large ones. Objects that are brightly colored and well lit appear closer together. In addition, the gaps in sensory perception are often filled with elements that actually did not exist. Errors of judgment are often explained by the integrity of perception and are caused by the fact that the assessment of the subject as a whole is transferred to the assessment of its details.

Perception of timethere is a reflection of the duration, the sequence of the phenomena of reality, as well as the tempo and rhythm (Fig. 4).

Perception of time

Perception of a sequence of phenomena

Perception of the duration of phenomena

Perception of tempo and rhythm

Rice. 4. Perception of time

Reflecting objective reality, the perception of time gives a person the ability to navigate the environment. The perception of time is based on a rhythmic change of excitation and inhibition. Its dynamics is the physiological basis for the perception of time. The perception of the sequence of phenomena is based on their clear dismemberment and the objectively existing replacement of some phenomena by others, and is also associated with ideas about the present. Once perceived, the phenomenon remains in memory in the form of an idea about it. If it is then re-perceived, then this perception brings up in our memory the idea of the former, which is perceived as the past.

A number of factors influence the perception of the sequence of events:

perceptual attitude of the subject, expressed in his readiness to perceive events;
objective orderliness of events, manifested in the natural organization of stimuli;
the ordering of events by the subject himself using a certain sequence of events that have some signs that are significant for the subject.

For example, it has been experimentally established that if we are simultaneously affected by two stimuli, then the one for the perception of which we have prepared, will be perceived as a previous, earlier stimulus. Likewise, the stimulus we are interested in will be perceived as preceding the other, "uninteresting stimulus." This perceptual property explains the reason for the appearance of some errors in testimony, especially about facts that are significantly distant from the moment of interrogation. Perception of the duration of phenomena is largely determined by the nature of the experience. Usually, time that has been filled with interesting, deeply motivated activities seems to be shorter than time spent inactive, waiting for unpleasant events.

Perception of time changes depending on the emotional state. Positive emotions give the illusion of a fast flow of time, negative ones subjectively stretch the time intervals somewhat.

As the investigative practice shows, often the perception of time by a witness, a victim, an accused occurs in a state of emotional, mental tension, which distorts the assessment of the duration of the event. A similar distortion is observed during the interrogation of an accused who has committed a crime in a state of passion. In such cases, during the investigative experiment, the witness, victim or accused is asked to reproduce the actions that he was engaged in during the period of interest. Timekeeping is carried out at the same time. Perception of the length of time varies with age. For older people, time passes much faster than for a child. This should be taken into account by the investigator when questioning witnesses, when faced with a discrepancy in their testimony.

Perception of the tempo is a reflection of the speed with which individual stimuli of the process taking place in time replace each other.

Perception of rhythm is a reflection of the uniform alternation of stimuli, their regularity when objects and phenomena of objective reality act on our sense organs. Perception of rhythm is usually accompanied by motor accompaniment. The sense of rhythm is basically motor in nature.

Perception of movement- this is a reflection of the change in position that objects occupy in space (Fig. 5).

Perception of movement

Character

Form

Amplitude

Acceleration

Duration

Speed

Direction

Rice. 5. Perception of movement

The main role in the perception of movement is played by the visual and kinesthetic analyzers. Object movement parameters are speed, direction and acceleration. ... Observing the movement, first of all, they perceive its character (flexion, extension, repulsion, etc.); shape (straight, curved, circular, etc.); amplitude (full, incomplete); direction (right, left, up, down); speed (fast or slow movement); acceleration (uniform, accelerating, decelerating, intermittent motion).

Basic properties of perception

Speaking about the properties of perception, it is necessary to distinguish two groups among them: properties inherent to one degree or another in all cognitive processes and characterizing the essence of the process of perception, and properties reflecting the productivity of perception as a mental cognitive process. The first group includes the main "essential" properties of perception (Fig. 6), the second group - indicators of productivity, quality and reliability of the perceptual system (Fig. 7).

Properties that determine the essence of perception

Objectivity

Integrity

Structurality

Meaningfulness

Selectivity

A person is aware of mental images of objects not as images, but as real objects, taking images outside, objectifying them

At incomplete reflection individual properties of the perceived object, the mental completion of the received information takes place to a holistic image of a specific object

A person recognizes various objects due to the stable structure of their signs.

A person is aware of what he perceives. This makes it possible to use objects in a targeted manner.

Of the innumerable number of objects and phenomena surrounding a person, he chooses only a few, depending on his needs and interests.

Constancy

The same objects are perceived by a person in changing conditions in an unchanged form

Apperception

Perception depends on the general content of a person's mental life. Big role plays prior experience

Rice. 6. Properties characterizing the essence of perception

Objectivity of perception- the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of sensations not related to each other, but in the form of separate objects. Objectivity is not an innate property of perception, but arises and improves in ontogenesis on the basis of movements that ensure the child's contact with the object. Objectivity is manifested in the separation of the perceived object from the background.

Perception properties that determine its productivity

Volume

Speed

Accuracy

Reliability

The number of objects that a person can perceive during one fixation or per unit of time

The time it takes for a person to adequately perceive an object or phenomenon

Compliance of the emerging image with the characteristics of the perceived object and the task facing the person

Probability of adequate perception of an object under given conditions and within a given time

Rice. 7. Properties that determine the productivity of perception

Integrity of perception- it is expressed in the fact that the images of the reflected objects appear in the human mind in the aggregate of many of their qualities and characteristics, even if some of these qualities are not perceived at the moment. In the process of perception, the image of the perceived object may not be completely given in finished form(for example, the back of a thing), but as if mentally it is completed to some integral form. Integrity is not an initially given property; it is formed in objective activity.

Structural perception- dismemberment and specific interconnection of parts of the perceived object (its structure). A person perceives a generalized structure abstracted from sensations. Thus, a melody played on different instruments is perceived as the same.

Meaningfulness of perception- shows that objects perceived by a person have a certain life meaning for him. In the process of comprehension, the sensory content of perception is subjected to analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction and generalization. Comprehension of an object ends with its name with a word - concept, i.e. assignment to a certain group, class, category of objects. By comprehending the essence and purpose of objects, their purposeful use becomes possible.

Selectivity of perception- a person's ability to perceive only those objects that are of greatest interest to him. This peculiarity of perception, on the one hand, depends on interests, to a large extent on the attitudes of the individual, needs, knowledge, and on the other hand, it is conditioned by the peculiarities of the object of perception itself, its "catchiness", contrast, etc.

Perception constancy- this is constancy in perception, which is determined by knowledge physical properties subject, as well as the fact that the subject of perception is perceived in the circle of others known to man items. It ensures the constancy of the perceived size, shape and color of objects when changing the distance, angle, illumination. Perception constancy is in many ways a manifestation of past experience.

Apperception - the dependence of perception on the subject's previous experience, on its general content, personality orientation, on the tasks facing him, the motives of his activities, beliefs and interests, emotional states. Apperception gives an active character to the perception of personality. Perceiving objects, a person expresses his attitude towards them.

Perceptual impairment

IN legal practice often one has to deal with such a violation of perception as a hallucination.

Hallucinations usually refers to a perception that occurs without the presence of a real object (visions, ghosts, imaginary sounds, voices, smells, etc.). Hallucinations are, as a rule, a consequence of the fact that perception is saturated not with external actual impressions, but with internal images. A person who is in the grip of hallucinations, they are experienced as truly perceived, i.e. people during hallucinations actually hear, see, smell, rather than imagine or imagine. For the hallucinating person, subjective sensations are as valid as those emanating from the objective world.

Of greatest interest are visual hallucinations, which are characterized by an unusual variety. The influence of visual hallucinations has a very strong emotional effect on a person: it can cause horror or admiration, even admiration. The reasons that caused hallucinations can be: strong intoxication, toxic and narcotic substances, mental disorders.

To be distinguished from hallucinations illusions, those. erroneous perception of real things or phenomena. The obligatory presence of a genuine object, although perceived erroneously - main feature illusions.

Illusions are usually divided into affective and verbal (verbal). Affective illusions are most often caused by fear or anxious mood. In this state, a bystander can appear as a murderer or rapist. Verbal illusions consist in a false perception of the actual conversations of others; a person hears in them hints of some unseemly deeds, hidden threats against him.

General characteristics of perception

Perception as action

Perceptions

Basic properties of perception

General characteristics of perception

Perception (perception) is the reflection in the human mind of objects and phenomena in the aggregate of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the sense organs.

Perception as action

Perception is a kind of action aimed at examining the perceived object and creating a copy, similarity.

Perception is a complex cognitive activity that includes a whole system of perceptual actions that allow you to detect an object of perception, identify it, measure it, evaluate it (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Perceptual actions

Perceptions

There are different types of perception (Fig. 2).

Intentional perception x It is characterized by the fact that it is based on a consciously set goal. It is associated with the volitional efforts of a person.

Rice. 2. Classification of perception

Unintentional perception- this is a perception in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specially set task, when the process of perception is not associated with the volitional efforts of a person.

Organized perception(observation) is an organized, purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world.

Disorganized perception- this is an unintentional perception of the surrounding reality.

Simultaneous perception- one act.

Successive perception- phased, sequential.

Human perception by human(social perception) is an extremely complex phenomenon. Two aspects are usually distinguished in it: cognitive(cognitive) - the ability, by external manifestation, to understand what a person is, to penetrate into the depths of his personality, individuality and emotional- the ability to determine by external behavioral signs the emotional state in which a person is at the moment, the ability to empathize, or empathy.

The perception of a person by a person is essential in witness testimony. Depending on what importance people attach to different personality traits, they relate to each other differently, experience different feelings and, when giving testimony, bring to the fore certain individual aspects of another person.

Perception of space plays an important role in human interaction with the environment, is a necessary condition for orienting a person in it. It is a reflection of objectively existing space and includes the perception of the shape, size and relative position of objects, their relief, distance and direction in which they are located (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Perception of space

As objects move away from the observer, their image on the retina decreases. An example of linear perspective is the apparent convergence in the distance of parallel railroad rails, etc. Aerial perspective is that the light and color reflected by objects are distorted to a certain extent under the influence of layers of air.

Perception of time there is a reflection of the duration, the sequence of the phenomena of reality, as well as the tempo and rhythm (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Perception of time

A number of factors influence the perception of the sequence of events:

perceptual attitude of the subject, expressed in his readiness to perceive events;

objective orderliness of events, manifested in the natural organization of stimuli;

the ordering of events by the subject himself using a certain sequence of events that have some signs that are significant for the subject.

Perception of time changes depending on the emotional state. Positive emotions give the illusion of a fast flow of time, negative ones subjectively stretch the time intervals somewhat.

Perception of the tempo is a reflection of the speed with which individual stimuli of the process taking place in time replace each other.

Perception of movement- this is a reflection of the change in position that objects occupy in space (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Perception of movement

The main role in the perception of movement is played by the visual and kinesthetic analyzers. The parameters of the object's movement are speed, direction and acceleration. Observing the movement, first of all, they perceive its character (flexion, extension, repulsion, etc.); shape (straight, curved, circular, etc.); amplitude (full, incomplete); direction (right, left, up, down); speed (fast or slow movement); acceleration (uniform, accelerating, decelerating, intermittent motion).

Observation - purposeful, systematic perception of objects, in cognition

which the person is interested in is the most developed form

intentional perception. Observation is very active

personality.

A person does not perceive everything that catches his eye, but isolates

the most important and interesting for him. Differentiating objects, the observer

organizes perception in such a way that these objects do not slip out of the field

activities.

The systematic nature of purposeful perception allows us to trace

phenomenon in development, note its qualitative, quantitative, periodic

changes. Active thinking involved in observation helps to isolate the main

from secondary, important - from accidental, helps to more clearly differentiate

items. Perception, attention, thinking and speech are combined when observed in

a single process of mental activity.

The act of observation reveals the extreme stability of an arbitrary

attention. It allows the observer to produce

observation, and, if necessary, repeat it repeatedly.

Observation reveals the inner activity of a person. It is closely related to

the peculiarities of the mind, feelings and will of a person. However, their ratio in observation

will be different depending on the objectives of the observation, on the qualities of the observer himself.

Therefore, in some cases, observation will be predominantly intellectual

expressiveness, and in others - emotional or volitional aspiration.

When a person studies the development of a phenomenon or notes changes in objects

perception, then there is a need for observation. Observation starts with

statement of the problem. Based on the monitoring tasks that have arisen, a detailed

plan for its implementation. This makes it possible to foresee various aspects of the observed

phenomena, to avoid randomness, spontaneity of perception.

Observation presupposes preliminary training of the observer, the presence of

certain knowledge, skills, possession of the method of work.

Observation is the ability to notice characteristic but subtle features.

objects and phenomena. It is acquired in the process of systematic studies by any

business and therefore developmental professional interests personality.

The relationship between observation and observation reflects the relationship between mental

processes and personality traits. Cultivating observation as self-reliant

mental activity and as a method of knowing reality is the basis

development of observation as a personality trait.

2. System of general scientific methods

Observation is a purposeful, planned, systematic perception of the process of development of objects and phenomena in the form in which they exist in nature and society in natural conditions. Scientific observation is characterized by: an idea, a pre-developed plan, a specific purpose, the use of special means and measuring instruments, record keeping, etc. Observation does not involve interfering with the process under study. This disadvantage is overcome by experiment.

An experiment is a purposeful study of a phenomenon in specially created and accurately taken into account conditions, when it is possible to monitor the course of its change and actively influence it using various means.In the course of an experiment, various devices, tools, special devices, and computers are widely used.

The experiment can be repeated, this is a more effective method of scientific research, allowing you to study not only what immediately catches your eye, but also what is often hidden in the depths of the phenomenon.

There are two main types of experiment: full-scale and model. If in the first case the subject under study is in natural conditions that change in accordance with a certain program, then in the second case the real object is replaced by a model.

The scientific facts obtained in observation and experiment are subjected to analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the mental division of the studied subject into constituent elements in order to study its structure and internal connections. Synthesis is the process of mentally connecting parts of an object, dismembered in the course of analysis, establishing the interaction and connections of parts and knowing this object as a whole. In order to study an aircraft, you must first get to know in detail, in detail with each of its systems (fuel, air, hydraulic, oxygen, electrical, etc.) separately, and then comprehend all this as a whole.

Analysis and synthesis are closely related, mutually suppose and complement each other. Otherwise, they lose their cognitive value.

Comparison is one of the universal operations that allows you to distinguish between similar and similarities between different

objects, their properties and relationships by applying a number of abstractions.

Abstraction is the mental isolation of individual, interesting us signs, properties and connections of a particular object in order to cognize them in a "pure" form (in abstraction from other signs, properties and connections). The objective basis of abstraction is the relative independence of the properties, sides and connections of objects, which allows them to be mentally isolated. Generalization is the mental identification of similar (common) features, properties and connections inherent in the class of objects under consideration. As a rule, essential properties and connections are generalized, and on the basis of this there is a transition from the singular to the general, from the less general to the more general.

Abstraction and generalization are often used in conjunction with historical and logical methods. The historical method is a mental reproduction of the emergence, development and death of a specific object in certain conditions and details, This method reveals the sequence of the formation and development of the studied subject. The logical method is a generalized reflection of the historical development of an object in its essential, necessary connections and relationships. The logical is the corrected historical, cleansed of accidents, which has absorbed the universal.

Both of these methods are in dialectical unity, since the historical method is inconceivable without a certain logical generalization, and the logical method of research, performed in accordance with the laws that the actual historical process itself gives, is nothing more than the same historical method, only freed from the historical form. and from interfering accidents.

Methods of formalization and modeling play an important role in scientific knowledge. Formalization is a way of mentally connecting objects of different content on the basis of the similarity of their forms. In other words, the form of an object becomes an independent object of research, on the basis of which it is possible to detect the similarity of objects of different content. The use of special symbols in the process of formalization makes it possible to concisely and unambiguously fix the acquired knowledge in the form of certain signs. This is especially valuable in the process of using a computer.

Concretization and interpretation are operations opposite to abstraction and formalization, providing a transition from abstract concepts and definitions to concrete objects, from abstract schemes to their objective meaning.

Modeling is a material or mental reproduction of the properties, functions and connections of the object under study on a specially created model for the purpose of studying it. A model is an object that resembles the original in certain respects and serves as a means of fixing the known and obtaining new information about the subject being studied. Modeling is used not only as a means of obtaining new information about the studied subject, but also as a means of testing hypotheses in science.

Conclusion

At present, in scientific knowledge, mathematical methods of cognition of economic phenomena are widely used. Thus, mathematical methods of operations research (probability theory, linear and dynamic programming, game theory, queuing, etc.) allow taking into account a large number of different factors in the process of making an optimal decision in economic life.

The system of methods is formed not only by links of subordination, but also by links of coordination between methods. According to the functions performed and the peculiarities of the application (by coordination), all methods are distributed into several mutually coordinated groups:

a) historical and logical;

b) empirical and theoretical;

c) full-scale and model;

d) qualitative and quantitative, etc.

Each of these paired groups of methods complements each other, and together they provide a comprehensive, holistic display of an object. This problem can be considered with the help of a diagram.

So, firstly, in the philosophical literature there is no identity of points of view on the essence of methodology, the classification of methods of cognition, the ratio of method and theory, the ratio of the objective and subjective aspects of the method. From our point of view, methodology should be understood as a system of initial, fundamental principles that determine the way of approaching the analysis and assessment of phenomena, the nature of the attitude towards them, the nature and direction of cognitive and practical activities. Methodology is the teaching of method. By method we mean a path, a way of cognition and practical transformation of reality.

Bibliography

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. "Philosophy" M.: Prospect, 2000

2. Leshkevich T.G. "Philosophy of Science: Traditions and Innovations" M.: PRIOR, 2001

3. Spirkin A.G. "Fundamentals of Philosophy" M.: Politizdat, 1988

4. "Philosophy" under. ed. Kokhanovsky V.P. Rostov-n / D .: Phoenix, 2000

5 Agofonov V.P., Kazakov D.F., Rachinsky D.D. "Philosophy" M .: Moscow Agricultural Academy, 2000

6 Frolov I.T. "Introduction to Philosophy" Ch-2, M.: Politizdat, 1989

7 Ruzavin G.I. "Methodology of scientific research" M.: UNITI-DANA, 1999.

8. Gonchar L. F. "Philosophy" Moscow 2002.

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Answers to tasks 1–20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers in the fields to the right of the assignment number without spaces, commas, or other additional characters.

Write down the word that is missing in the table.

Characteristics of the methods of cognition

In the given row, find a concept that is generalizing for all the other concepts presented. Write down this word (phrase).

Reform; the revolution; social dynamics; evolution; social regression.

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the concept of "social control".

1) remark, 2) sanction, 3) social norm, 4) political ideology, 5) condemnation, 6) material culture.

Find two terms "out of the ordinary" and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Choose the correct judgments about the activity and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Activity is associated with the satisfaction of the needs of a person, a social group, society as a whole.

2. Creative activity is inherent in both humans and animals.

3. As a result labor activity material and spiritual values are created.

4. The same type of activity can be triggered with different motives of people.

5. The structure of activity presupposes the presence of a goal and means of achieving it.

Establish a correspondence between distinctive features and types of companies: for each item given in the first column, select the corresponding item from the second column.

Artyom and Igor Chaiki wrote a book on corruption. On what grounds can the content of the book be attributed to scientific knowledge? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. All conclusions are theoretically substantiated.

2. The book is difficult for independent study by a non-professional.

4. To confirm the truth of the hypotheses, evidence is given.

5. The book was published by a large publishing house.

6. The entire edition of the book was sold out within one month.

Choose the correct judgments about the securities and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. A share is a certificate of a cash deposit in a bank with the bank's obligation to return this deposit and interest on it after a specified period.

2. A security certifying ownership of a share in the capital of an enterprise and giving the right to receive a portion of the enterprise's profits is called a share.

3. Securities are registered and bearer.

4. A bill of exchange grants its owner the right to participate in the management of the firm and receive dividends.

5. The bond gives the owner the right to demand its redemption in deadlines.

Boris Mikhailovich owns by car and land and periodically pays the appropriate taxes. Establish a correspondence between the examples and the elements of the tax structure: for each item given in the first column, select the corresponding item from the second column.

The owner of the company draws up a business plan for the development of his enterprise. Which of the following can he use as external sources of business financing? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1.improvement of production technologies

2. issue and placement of shares of the enterprise

3.increase in labor productivity

4.income from the sale of the company's products

5. attraction of loans

6.tax deductions

Choose correct judgments about social stratification and write down the numbers under which they are indicated

1. The concept of "social stratification" refers to any changes taking place in society.

2. Social stratification involves the division of society into social strata by combining various social positions with approximately the same social status.

3. Sociologists identify the following criteria for social stratification: income, power.

4. Social stratification involves the allocation of social strata depending on the personal qualities of a person.

5. The prestige of the profession as a criterion of social stratification is associated with social attractiveness, respectful attitude in society to one or another profession, position, occupation.

In the course of a sociological survey of 25-year-old and 50-year-old citizens of country Z, they were asked the question: "Who read books to you in childhood?" (Any number of answers). The results of the polls (in% of the number of respondents) are shown in the diagram.

Find in the list below the conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The share of those to whom parents read books in childhood is higher among 50-year-olds than among 25-year-olds.

2. Grandmother / grandfather read books to an equal share of the respondents in each group in childhood.

3. Among 25-year-olds, those to whom other relatives read books in childhood are fewer than those to whom teachers in childhood read books. kindergarten.

4. Among 50-year-olds to whom grandparents read books in childhood, more than those to whom kindergarten teachers read books.

5. The share of those who found it difficult to answer is less among 50-year-olds than among 25-year-olds.

Choose the correct judgments about political (state) regimes and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The signs of a political regime include the order of distribution of power between various social forces and political organizations expressing their interests.

2. The type of political regime is determined by the state of freedoms and human rights in society, the state of relations with the bureaucracy (bureaucratic apparatus), the dominant type of legitimacy in society.

3. The signs of a political regime include the mechanisms of power, the way of functioning government agencies, procedures for the selection of ruling groups and political leaders.

4. A totalitarian regime is distinguished from a democratic one by the presence of a professional administrative apparatus (bureaucracy).

5. Regime of any type (kind) is characterized by the implementation of the principle of separation of powers.

Establish a correspondence between the powers and the subjects of state power of the Russian Federation exercising these powers: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Citizen A. was elected governor of region Z. He pays great attention to the protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens, the development of civil society institutions. In communication, he is benevolent, open to criticism. What characteristics relate to the type of political leadership in this situation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1.regional

2.national

3. democratic

6.charismatic

Which of the following do you refer to the constitutional obligations of a citizen of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1.choice of profession, type of activity

2.protection of the Fatherland

3.application to public authorities

4.participation in the elections of the President of the Russian Federation

5.conservation of nature and environment

Choose the correct judgments about procedural law and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Branches of procedural law directly regulate public relations, in them the main emphasis is on the establishment of the rights and obligations of the subjects.

2. The parties to civil proceedings are the plaintiff and the accused.

3. By general rule the claim is filed in court at the place of residence of the defendant

4. Administrative jurisdiction may be exercised by judges, commissions on cases of unresolved and protection of their rights, internal affairs bodies (police), tax authorities, Customs, military commissariats, etc.

5. Criminal proceedings are carried out on the basis of the adversarial nature of the parties to the prosecution and defense.

Establish a correspondence between organizational and legal forms and types of legal entities: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Medical University graduate Leonid found a job as a doctor. For conclusion employment contract he brought documents of military registration and work book... What other documents, according to Labor Code RF, Leonid must present to the employer? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1.Certificate of registration of ownership of residential premises

2.insurance certificate of state pension insurance

3. an extract from the financial and personal account

4.tax notice

5.passport or other identity document

6.the diploma of higher education

Read the text below where a number of words are missing. Select from the provided list the words that you want to insert in place of the blanks.

“Legal responsibility is a measure of state coercion for the committed __________ (A), associated with the suffering by the guilty of certain __________ (B) of a personal (organizational) or property nature. Legal liability is one of the means of securing __________ (B). It is associated with state coercion, which is understood as __________ (D) to oblige the subject, against his will and desire, to perform certain actions. If there is a fact of an offense, __________ (D) (or body) obliges the person (or organization) to suffer certain adverse consequences. Along with legal responsibility, there are such types of state coercion as preventive measures __________ (E), protection measures ”.

Words (phrases) in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can be used only once.

Choose sequentially one word (phrase) after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words (phrases) in the list than you need to fill in the blanks.

List of terms:

1. deprivation

2.the possibility of the state

3.lawful behavior

4.public opinion

5.offense

6. culpability

7.legal behavior

8.social hazard

9.authorized person

Part 2.

First write down the task number (28, 29, etc.), and then the detailed answer to it. Write down the answers clearly and legibly.

Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.

“The ability of the state to be effective largely depends on the principles of organizing the institutions of the legislative, executive and judicial branches.

In the formation of state institutions, these principles are combined in various volumes with the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial powers. Depending on the procedure for allocating the popular majority and the ownership of the right of legal investiture (the right to form, control and dissolve the government) either to parliament or to the president, the majority principle gives rise to two institutional types of democracy - parliamentary and presidential. The legislative and executive branches of government can be organized according to the principle of either a clear separation, or the absence of a strict separation of powers. The application of this principle of the organization of branches of government depends on the form of government.

The parliamentary form of the political structure does not provide for a clear separation of powers. The popular majority is identified on the basis of unified system voting - election of members of parliament. The formation of the executive branch is carried out indirectly: the head of government and cabinet members are elected by parliamentarians. Consequently, the separation of powers is indirectly carried out after the formation of the government. The leader who receives the support of the majority in parliament becomes the head of the executive branch. The government relies on the support of the parliament, is controlled by it and is dismissed. The pluralism of minority interests and rights is upheld by the legally operating opposition. Great Britain provides a classic example of a parliamentary form of government. The leading role in shaping the country's domestic and foreign policy is played by the prime minister, who has broad powers. He rules through parliament, which determines his influence.

The presidential form of political structure presupposes a strict separation of powers already at the election stage, provides for the presence of an independent electorate in the legislative and executive branches of government, therefore, in countries with such a form of government, there is a double voting system. A presidential republic is based on the direct election by citizens of parliament and the head of the executive branch through national elections. Then the president appoints members of the cabinet (government), directs its activities. He is responsible directly to the people. The dual voting system ensures equal legitimacy of the executive and legislative branches of government.

The United States is a typical example of a presidential model of democracy.

The choice of a parliamentary or presidential form of government determines the structure of the institutions of power, the technology for implementing the power will. Paradoxically, the parliamentary model strengthens executive power, while the presidential republic strengthens the power of parliament. In the parliamentary model, the main functions of parliament are to form, control and dissolve the government. Otherwise, the influence of the legislature is limited. The powers of the government are significant, including legislative initiatives, and the possibilities of its influence are conditioned by the support of the parliamentary majority.

In a presidential form of government, parliament has independent powers of power and rules alongside the president. The presidential model does not require compromise or disagreement between the executive branch and a parliamentary majority. The parliamentary majority can play the role of opposition to the president and thus restrain him. The situation is different in parliamentary republics: since the government is efficient only if a coalition of the parliamentary majority is created, in the parliamentary model the importance of compromises between legislators and the government is great.

In order not to identify the executive and legislative branches of government, in Western countries, restraining principles were created in the form of a system of the rule of law, in which political institutions, groups, individuals act within the framework of law, respect and obey it.

Sometimes in the literature this regime is called the regime of legal democracy. However, it seems that the differences between regimes based on majority and legal principles are rather arbitrary, since Western democracies in all their varieties are the creation of law. "

(R. T. Mukhaev)

Show Answer

The indicator of efficiency is indicated: the ability of the state to be effective largely depends on the principles of organizing the institutions of legislative, executive and judicial power.
Two principles are named.

At the heart of modern Western democracies are two principles: the majority principle, according to which power belongs to the majority of the people, and the legal principle, which means the rule of law, equal responsibility of the authorities and citizens before the law.

The elements of the answer can be given in other, similar formulations.

Name two criteria for the formation of two types of democracy. What is the basis of this formation? Explain the role of the principle of separation of powers in this process.

Show Answer

Criteria: "depending on the procedure for separating the popular majority and the ownership of the right of legal investment (the right to form, control and dissolve the government) either to parliament or to the president."
Reason: the principle of separation of powers.

The elements of the answer can be given in other similar formulations.

There is no answer to the second question in the text, the task is aimed at attracting knowledge.

First, the principle of separation of powers is the basis for the formation of democracy, as it ensures democracy through representatives-parliamentarians, taking into account the opinions and interests of different social groups, obstacles to the usurpation of power. Secondly, the principle of separation of powers distinguishes between parliamentary and presidential democracies, depending on the clarity of the allocation of branches of power.

Formulate three features that distinguish the parliamentary form of the political system from the presidential one. Using knowledge of the constitutional structure of the Russian Federation, illustrate each difference.

Show Answer

Differences between the parliamentary form and the presidential one
Each difference must be illustrated by the provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation

c) Parliament forms the Government (in accordance with Articles 111 and 112 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the President of the Russian Federation appoints the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation with the consent of the State Duma, the President, at the suggestion of the Chairman of the Government, approves federal ministers).

Other relevant examples may be given..

What is the meaning of legal democracy? Using the text and social science knowledge, name and illustrate with an example two constraining principles of the rule of law.

1. The meaning of the concept, for example: corpus delicti - a set of statutory features that characterize the committed act as a specific type of crime.

2. One sentence containing information about the signs of a crime, for example: The signs of a crime include social danger, wrongfulness, guilt and punishability.

(Any other proposal can be made that reveals, based on the knowledge of the course, signs of legal liability).

3. One sentence revealing, based on knowledge of the course, the basis that excludes the presence of corpus delicti, for example: The absence of an objective side, that is, the connection between the act and the consequences of the act, excludes the presence of corpus delicti.

(Any other proposal can be made that reveals, based on the knowledge of the course, the features of administrative responsibility).

Show Answer

The correct answer should contain the following the elements:

1) trend (according to the text of the assignment)- humanization of education:

2) another trend with a corresponding characteristic, let's say:

Internationalization of education (integration of national educational systems);

Informatization of education (development of distance learning, widespread use in education information technologies and digital resources, aimed at developing students' skills to search and analyze a variety of information).

Other tendencies can be named (not according to the condition of the task), other characteristics are given

You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Moral norms in the system of social control." Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Show Answer

One of the options for the disclosure plan for this topic

1. Social norms and sanctions as elements of social control.

2. Types of social norms:

a) moral;

b) legal;

c) religious;

d) etiquette, etc.

3. Features of moral norms:

a) focused on values, patterns of behavior;

b) are manifested in customs and traditions;

c) regulated public opinion, the conscience of a person;

d) are of a historical nature.

4. The structure of morality:

b) principles;

5. Morality and ethics.

6. The relationship between morality and other social norms.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in denominational, question or mixed forms.

By completing task 29, you can show your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, select only ONE of the statements below (29.1-29.5).

Choose one of the statements below, reveal its meaning in the form of a mini-essay, indicating, if necessary, different aspects of the problem posed by the author (the topic raised).

When presenting your thoughts on the problem raised (the designated topic), when arguing your point of view, use the knowledge gained in studying the course of social studies, the relevant concepts, as well as the facts of social life and your own life experience. (Give at least two examples from various sources for factual reasoning.)

29.1. Philosophy"Art illuminates and at the same time sanctifies human life ..." (DS Likhachev)

29.2. Economy“In business and sports, too many people are afraid of competition. As a result, people avoid striving for success if it requires hard work, training and self-sacrifice. " (K. Rokne)

29.3. Sociology, social psychology"Our social roles are determined by the expectations of other people." (N. Smelser)

29.4. Political science"Totalitarianism is a form of government in which morality is within the competence of the authorities." (A.N. Kruglov)

29.5. Jurisprudence"Freedom is to depend only on the laws." (Voltaire)