Environmental issues of crop production. Organization of storage and processing of the received products. The concept of environmentally friendly agricultural products

An environmentally friendly food product is understood as a product, the consumption of which does not harm human health throughout his life, does not have a negative impact on health.

Environmentally friendly products are those products in which the content of harmful substances is less than in conventional (standard) products that meet the quality of the necessary regulatory documents;

An environmentally friendly product is a product that is obtained in an ecologically clean territory without the additional use of mineral fertilizers, pesticides and other man-made influences, or it is a product obtained from natural raw materials using modern technology that ensures the minimum ingress of other substances into the product, practically free of extraneous inclusions. However, in modern conditions ubiquitous pollution the environment, it is almost impossible to achieve one hundred percent environmental cleanliness. It is necessary in Russia to develop specific standards with the help of which this or that product can be classified as environmentally friendly. For ordinary (standard, traditional) products, such standards exist - these are the maximum permissible concentrations (MPC).

To obtain an environmentally friendly product, it is not enough to produce (grow, process, etc.) a product. A prerequisite for its production is also a decrease in environmental pollution, which affects directly the product (direct influence of atmospheric air, soil, water during its cultivation) and indirectly (environmentally friendly food product can change its properties during processing, transportation, storage, for example, when it comes into contact with polluted air or water).

Agriculture is the main producer of plant and animal food. With the advent of ecology as a science and industry practical activities people management of agricultural production began to be carried out on a scientific basis. This direction has received the name - agricultural ecology, the main purpose of which is to carry out scientifically based measures to regulate and optimize the production of agricultural products in order to increase the productivity of plants and the productivity of farm animals, improve the quality of crop and livestock products, and the problem of the quality of agricultural products is especially acute.

Decrease in the quality of agricultural products is mainly due to environmental pollution, which in turn leads to the accumulation in plant tissues of a large amount of nitrates, pesticides, heavy metals, radionuclides, etc. Harmful substances and elements. As a result, plant food becomes not only poor quality, but also often harmful, toxic, mutogenic and pathogenic (pathogenic for humans).

The production of high-quality, environmentally friendly crop and livestock products has become one of the mandatory conditions sustainable development of society. Sustainable development is understood as ensuring stable economic growth that does not lead to significant degradative changes in the environment, not only for current, but also future generations; it is an improvement in the quality of life of people (one of the indicators of which is health).

In order for the consumer to buy good-quality food, the sanitary-epidemiological supervision authorities must regularly monitor the composition of the product at all stages of its production. At the same time, laws must be passed prohibiting food manufacturers from calling products environmentally friendly without sufficient justification. Unreasonable use of terminology for advertising purposes is unacceptable and often dangerous. It can lead to environmental disaster- morbidity and even mortality of people. Epidemics, as well as poisoning caused by the consumption of poor quality food, are registered in many countries of the world. In the Russian Federation, the CIS countries and in some countries, cases of mass poisoning of people have been registered when they consume food products of plant and animal origin contaminated with pesticides, compounds of mercury, arsenic, cadmium, food additives, etc. For example, in 1981, about 200 people died and more than 15,000 people fell ill with the so-called “Spanish pneumonic plague” caused by vegetable oil marketed as edible “pure olive”; in fact, it was 90% rapeseed, to which 2% aniline (food additive) was deliberately added. In Japan, in the late 1960s, the consumption of drinking water and fish from a cadmium-polluted reservoir (the Dzintsu River) led to the fact that 15-30 years later, more than 150 people died from chronic cadmium poisoning (the so-called "itai-itai disease") ... Along with this, a very recent case is known when in Krasnodar Territory, Rostov region in November 2002, there was an outbreak of dysentery associated with the consumption of substandard dairy products produced by the dairy plant in the city of Kropotkin, as a result of which more than 2,000 people were hospitalized.

The health of the population and the preservation of the gene pool are largely determined by the environmental safety of food raw materials and foodstuffs.

However, the methods of assessing the quality of food products existing today in Russia do not make it possible to determine the level of ecological purity of a particular product.

The ecological purity of the product must be confirmed by a corresponding certificate. Unfortunately, the world does not exist yet unified system certification of environmentally friendly products, as well as there is no unified system of standardization and labeling of products belonging to this category.

Conclusions:

1. SEC "Paletskaya" sells grain, seeds of spring wheat, flour, grain waste for state structures and the private sector.

2. Grain and its processed products are valuable feed for poultry and animals in ground form and mixed with potatoes, root crops - this is an excellent feed for pigs.

3. A large amount of wheat grain is used to obtain alcohol.

4. Grain is used in the milling industry for baking bread.

5. Durum wheat varieties produce grit flour, semolina, vermicelli, noodles, spaghetti.

6. Wheat grain contains a lot of proteins, raw gluten, fiber.

7. Spring wheat varieties are competitive in grain productivity with other grain crops.

8. Spring wheat is quite technological when cultivated, meets the requirements of mechanized harvesting for seeds, green fodder, haylage, silage, vitamin grass flour.

9. Wheat straw goes to the bedding of the cattle.

10. Spring wheat is a good precursor for corn, peas and perennial grasses.

Bibliography

1. Batalov T.A., Bondarenko N.V. and others. Plant protection systems / Textbook for special. "Plant protection" / ed. N.V. Bondarenko M., 1988.

2. Baraev A.I. Spring wheat. - M: Kolos, 1978

3. Bei-Bienko G.Ya. General entomology. M .:, 1980.S. 114

4. Burlaka V.V. and others. Spring wheat in the Northern Trans-Urals. - M .: Kolos, 1973.

5. I.P. Heiderbeh Agroeconomic substantiation of specialized forage crop rotations and improvement of agricultural technology of cultivated crops in the southern forest-steppe of Western Siberia: Author's abstract. Dis. ... Dr. s.-kh. Sciences. - Omsk, 1983.-35 p.

6. Karetin L.N. Soils of the Tyumen region. Novosibirsk. Science, Sib. otdel., 1990, 286 p.

7. Kosogorova E.A.Protection of field crops from diseases: a tutorial. Tyumen: Tyumensky Publishing House state university, 2002.

8. Kosogorova E. A. Protection of field crops from pests in Western Siberia. Publishing house of TGSKhA, 2007

9. Nettevich E. D. Spring wheat in the non-black earth zone. - M .: Rosselkhozizdat, 1976

10. Ognevskaya Z.Ya Settlement of fields with a grain flea / Protection and quarantine of plants, 1971, No. 4. P.41

11. Pavlov I.F. Protection of field crops from pests. M .:, 1983. P.233.

12. Workshop on plant growing: Textbook / ed. N.G. Vedrov N.G., Zavgorodnyaya E.T., Nesterenko E.M., Frolov I.N.

13. Plant growing / GS Posypanov, VE Dolgodvorov, and others; Ed. G.S. Posypanova. - M .: Kolos, 1997 .-- p .: ill. - (Textbooks and teaching aids for students of higher educational institutions).

14. Grain storage technology: Textbook for universities / ed. E. M. Voblikova. - SPb .: Publishing house "Lan", 2003. - 448 p.

15. Shcherbinin V.I., Khmelev V.A., Gadzhiev I.M. Agricultural development, qualitative composition and methods of control over the use of land resources // Fundamentals of the use and protection of soils in Western Siberia. - Novosibirsk: Science. Sib. department, 1989.- S.5-36

ORLOVSK STATE AGRARIAN UNIVERSITY

PLANT PROTECTION AND ECOTOXICOLOGY DEPARTMENT

on the subject: "Ecotoxicology"

on the topic: "Determination of the possibility of obtaining ecologically safe crop production in conditions of contamination of agrocenoses with pollutants"

Completed by a 5th year student

Introduction

1. Characteristics of harmful organisms of culture

2. Agrotechnical and agrochemical measures to reduce the toxicity of pollutants

3. Regulations and standards for the environmental use of chemical and biological plant protection products

4. Calculation of the environmental load of the used plant protection chemicals

5. Properties and regulation of heavy metals

6. Characteristics of the ecotoxicological situation under the influence of radionuclides

7. Regulation of nitrates in crop production

8. Methods of control over the content of toxicants in natural environments and agricultural products

9. Ways and measures to reduce the harmful effects of toxicants

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

Degradation of agrophytocenoses, ecosystems at various levels due to the irrational use of fertilizers, ameliorants, plant protection products, biologically active products, soil destruction under the influence of mechanical treatments, plowing of the territory above the permissible limits, illiterate drainage and irrigation, the flow of agricultural waste and rural settlements, oil products and agricultural processing waste into the soil. In the course of agricultural production, violations of soil, water, surface air, vegetation, biota, and landscape are noted. There is a tendency for the accumulation of such priority pollutants in ecosystems of various levels as: heavy metals (lead, cadmium, nickel, arsenic, copper, zinc), radionuclides (cesium-137, strontium-90), mycotoxins, phytotoxins, nitrates, nitrites, etc. .d. There is a change in properties, processes and modes, trophic chains, self-development and self-regulation of systems and subsystems associated with changes in the accumulation, transformation and migration of matter, energy and information.

Violation of environmental laws in the use of land leads to a drop in soil fertility, to pollution of the water and air environment, to a decrease in the quality of agricultural products. The quality of agricultural products is determined by the absence of any pollutants that can cause acute or chronic changes in the state of human health.

Of the majority of substances entering the environment from anthropogenic sources, heavy metals occupy a special place. The problem of heavy metals in modern production conditions is global, because they are genetic poisons, since they accumulate in the body with a long-term effect of action, manifested in hereditary diseases, mental disorders, causing cardiovascular diseases, severe allergies, carcinogenic and embryotropic effects in the body, therefore, appropriate measures are needed to prevent environmental pollution. All heavy metals are highly toxic, migratory, as well as carcinogenic and mutagenic. Particular importance should be attached to soil and water pollution with rare and scattered elements with biocidal properties, for example, Hg, Kd, ​​Pb, As, Se.

The increased level of nitrate nitrogen in various natural components, on the one hand, reduces the biological value of food and feed, and on the other hand, it has negative consequences through them on humans and animals. Violations in farming technology, not rational use fertilization leads to a deterioration in the quality of the environment. The formed and accumulated nitrates in soil and water become an ecological factor that determines not only the diet of plants, metabolism and the value of productivity, but also the quality of the crop, water and air.

Ionizing radiation has high biological activity. They are able to cause ionization of any chemical compounds of biosubstrates, the formation of active radicals and thus induce long-term reactions in living tissues. Therefore, the result of the biological effect of radiation is the disruption of normal biochemical processes with subsequent functional and morphological changes in cells and tissues.

Mycotoxins are harmful to the cell even in small concentrations. The mechanism of action of mycotoxins is to block vital amino acids (alanine, tyrosine, tryptophan) and form amino compounds (amines). In plants, under the influence of toxic substances of the fungus, turgor is lost, leaves become discolored, vascular browning is noted and metabolic processes deteriorate.

To obtain environmentally safe products, it is impossible to achieve without monitoring (tracking) the content of heavy metals, radionuclides, nitrates, pesticides in the environment, because a significant part of them is accumulated in the soil. Then they migrate to natural waters, are absorbed by plants and enter food chains... Monitoring includes the following main areas: observation of the state of the environment and factors affecting it; assessment of the physical state of the environment and the level of its pollution; prediction of the state of the environment as a result of possible pollution and assessment of this state.

Measures that are used to implement the strategy to reduce the negative effects of the spread of pollutants in the environment include a wide range of human activity and should be aimed, first of all, at preventing pollution of environmental objects, developing new methods of ecologically safe impact on the environment, including on human-made products. Applying such agrotechnical techniques as liming, the introduction of mineral and organic fertilizers, the use of biologically active substances can at different stages of production minimize the likelihood of accumulation of the main pollutants in the soil, and, consequently, in crop products.

The purpose term paper is - the study of individual pollutants, the characteristics of their behavior in the environment, the impact on plants and living organisms, as well as the development of measures to reduce the toxicity of toxicants and obtain environmentally friendly crop production.

Section 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF PEST ORGANISMS

Agricultural production suffers enormous losses from diseases, pests and weeds. Typical pests of cereals are cereal flies, cereal aphids. Infectious diseases caused by fungi also cause great harm to agriculture, which is reflected in a significant decrease in crop yields. Especially significant yield losses occur as a result of the presence of weeds, which carry nutrients and moisture from the soil, shade crops, and in many cases contaminate products with poisonous substances and seeds that cause poisoning of humans and animals. The quality of crop production largely depends on developing diseases, pests and the presence of weeds. Violations of physiological processes in diseases of plant organisms are more often manifested in the following: weakening of photosynthesis, in violation of the intensity of respiratory processes, in violation of the transport of water and nutrients to plants, as well as products of photosynthesis; in violation of the synthesis of growth and reserve substances. All this affects the yield and quality of agricultural products.

The total loss of yield from pests, diseases and weeds in the world is 34% of the potential yield.

Table 1

Characteristics of harmful objects

Name of the pest	Harmful phase and nature of damage / external signs of the manifestation of the disease	Associated damage to plant phenophases	Conditions favorable for the spread of the pest and the emergence and development of the disease
Cereal flies	The larvae damage the stem (mine), the plant stagnates in growth, yellowing of the leaves, partial or complete absence of grains in the panicle	Germination, third leaf, tillering, beginning of tube emergence	High humidity, optimum temperature 15-24˚С
Cereal aphids	Larvae and adult aphids suck sap from leaves and young ears, plants are stunted, the grain is feeble, white stripes appear	Snorkeling, beginning of stemming, heading, flowering, filling, milky-wax ripeness	High air humidity, warm weather
Fusarium root rot	Imperfect fungi of the genus Fusarium, conidia. The primary and secondary roots of the plant, underground internodes, and the base of the stem are affected. Yellowing and wilting of leaves, whiteness, incomplete graininess	Seedlings, adult plants	Unstable weather, sharp fluctuations in soil moisture. Rainy cool spring, plants with low turgor are more often affected due to lack of moisture, exceeding the seeding rate.
Dusty smut	Mycelium and spores, infected panicles are swept out later, in diseased plants the panicle is completely destroyed	Heading, flowering	Optimum t 20-25˚С, high air humidity, windy weather, late sowing.
Common wild oat	It infests crops, takes nutrients from the soil, crops are thinned out, plants are stunted. Clogs grain when harvesting	Seedlings, adult plants	For germination, the optimal t is 16-25˚С, predominance of spring crops in the crop rotation.
Shiritsa thrown back	It infests crops, takes nutrients from the soil, crops are thinned out, inhibits and inhibits plant growth.	Seedlings are more affected	For germination, the optimum temperature is 26-36˚С. Loose soils. Germination depth is 3 cm. Seeds covered with soil germinate better. Harmful on crops of late sowing date.
Field yarok	It infests crops, takes nutrients from the soil, plants stunted. Clogs grain when harvesting	Seedlings, adult plants	Moistened, fertilized fields. The depth of germination is 4-5 cm. The germination of overwintered seeds is 100%.
Black henbane	It infests crops, takes nutrients from the soil, and plants stagnate. Clogs grain when harvesting.	Seedlings, adult plants	Fertile, loose soils, seeds germinate from the surface and from a depth of 1-1.5 cm. For germination, the optimal t is 18-20˚С.
Meadow bluegrass	Can form closed herbage, crops are very thinned out, plants are stunted	Seedlings, adult plants	For germination, the optimum t is 16-20˚С. Prefers moist soils. Seeds sprout well from the soil surface and from a depth of 3-4 cm.

Section 2. AGROTECHNICAL AND AGROCHEMICAL MEASURES REDUCING THE TOXICITY OF POLLUTANTS

The use of agrotechnical control methods is based on the relationship that exists between plants, pests and the environment. Under the influence of agrotechnical measures, unfavorable conditions are created for the development and reproduction of pests, diseases and weeds and favorable conditions for growth and development cultivated plants... The agrotechnical method, in its implementation, does not require special costs. In this regard, agrotechnical measures are the most economically beneficial. The most important of the agrotechnical measures, from the point of view of plant protection, is crop rotation, soil cultivation, fertilization system, weed control, terms and methods of sowing, harvesting.

Crop rotation, that is, the correct alternation of crops in the fields, increases soil fertility and at the same time serves as an important technique for suppressing the number of pests and plant diseases. Correct and timely soil cultivation is one of the most essential agrotechnical measures to combat many pests of agricultural crops. With deep plowing, plant residues, on which a large number of pests are concentrated, are plowed. With early sowing, the plants emerge earlier, the growth phases pass faster, and by the time the pests appear in spring, they are more resistant.

table 2

Agrotechnical measures aimed at reducing the harmfulness of harmful organisms (pests, diseases, weeds) and reducing the toxicity of pollutants

Harmful organisms
Name of culture	Name of the pest	Phase and place of wintering of the pest / places and forms of infection preservation		Agrotechnical measures aimed at reducing harmfulness
	Pests: Cereal flies	Adults who have finished feeding the larva overwinter inside the stalks of winter crops, on wild cereal vegetation and on seedlings of volunteers.		Early sowing of spring crops, narrow-row and cross-sowing methods; sowing damage-resistant varieties; fertilizing seedlings with fertilizers, chemical treatment of seedlings against cereal flies, spraying breeding centers during the tillering period, early harvesting. Stubble plowing and early deep autumn plowing, crop rotation in crop rotation.
		Eggs overwinter on the leaves of winter cereals; trees and shrubs.		Sowing spring crops in the early stages, spraying with insecticides in the stalking phase, early harvesting. Stubble plowing, early deep autumn plowing, crop rotation in crop rotation.
	Fusarium root rot Dusty smut	Chlamydospores, on plant debris, in soil, seeds.		Introduction of optimal rates of organic and mineral fertilizers, crop rotation in crop rotation, optimal sowing dates, adherence to seeding rates, breeding varieties resistant to disease, seed dressing.
		Head spores on seeds, in soil		Thermal heating of seeds, seed dressing, cultivation of resistant or weakly affected varieties.
	Common wild oat Shiritsa thrown back Field yarok Black henbane Meadow bluegrass	Seeds in soil		Pre- and post-emergence harrowing. Application of soil herbicides. Crop rotation alternation. Mowing shoulders and headlands. Seed and seed, preventing the spread of weed seeds with harvesting equipment, containers, planning the use of fertilizers to avoid weeds. Stubble plowing to a depth of 4-6 cm.
Seeds in soil		Pre- and post-emergence harrowing. Application of emerging and soil herbicides. Early sowing dates. Mowing shoulders and headlands.
Seeds in soil		Layer-by-layer tillage. Pre- and post-emergence harrowing. Early sowing dates. Mowing shoulders and headlands. Seed and seed cleaning.
Seeds in soil Seeds in soil		Destruction of uncultivated land, mowing along roads, shoulders and field edges, weeding in orchards and vegetable gardens. Seed and seed cleaning. Timely stubble plowing and autumn plowing. Presowing soil cultivation. Application of soil herbicides.
Major pollutants
Polutant name	Main sources of release to the environment		Patterns of behavior in natural environments		Agrotechnical measures to reduce toxicity
Stron-tziy-90	Radioactive waste industrial enterprises and installations, nuclear weapons tests, man-made disasters		Able to migrate vertically and horizontally. It is in a water-soluble form during fallout, is well accessible to plants, and is mobile. It is contained in soil in water-soluble, exchangeable, non-exchangeable and strongly bound non-exchangeable forms. More absorbed by young plants, more intensively accumulates in legumes than in cereals		Conversion of radionuclides into difficult-to-digest forms using chemical reagents: phosphates, silicates, washing with acids and salts (hydrochloric acid, iron, sodium, calcium salts). Mechanical removal of the topsoil. Deep plowing to a depth of 40-60 cm. Liming, application of organic fertilizers.
	Metallurgical industry, motor transport, with precipitation, application of phosphorus fertilizers		High biochemical activity, accumulation efficiency, complexing ability, tendency to hydrolysis, organomineral compounds can be highly mobile, migrate with soil moisture and enter plants. Soils rich in organic matter absorb copper chemisorptively.		Combined application of organic fertilizers and lime, reduced mobility due to the formation of insoluble organometallic complexes.
	Emissions from metallurgical enterprises, municipal wastewater. Leaching from rocks and soils rich in decayed organisms and plants. Waste water from enterprises of machine-building, metallurgical, automotive, textile, paint and varnish, printing, leather, chemical industries.		High biochemical activity, toxicity, mineral form and organic form of distribution, mobility, accumulation efficiency, solubility; moderate complexing ability and tendency to hydrolysis. Hexavalent chromium is practically not absorbed by soil solutions, and trivalent chromium acts as a cation and is well absorbed by the soil. In chernozems, it is concentrated in the upper horizons. General toxic, allergenic, carcinogenic effect on humans		Combined application of organic fertilizers and lime.
	Volcanic eruption Forest fires, evaporation from the soil surface, from the atmosphere with precipitation, metallurgical industry, waste water, application of phosphorus and potash fertilizers to the soil, motor transport		High biochemical activity, toxicity, mineral and organic forms of distribution, mobility in acidic soils, pH<5,5. At low concentrations, sorb- tionally, at high - in the form of hydroxides. At pH< 6,5 выход в р-р регулируется сорбционными процессами.		Combined application of organic fertilizers and lime. Washing soils with a solution for leaching HM from the upper horizons to a depth of 70-100 cm and precipitating them at this depth in the form of hardly soluble sediments.
	Fertilizers, formed in the process of nitrification in the soil, denitrification during the decomposition of proteins, with precipitation, industrial, municipal, agricultural wastewater		Nitrates - salts of nitric to - you. Abiogenic movement of nitrates between the 3 phases of the biosphere is real. due to: leaching and surface washout, wind erosion, precipitation. Active migration is associated with the high solubility of salts of nitric to - you, their chemical resistance, inability to adsorb soil colloids and minerals. In natural environments, the transformation of nitrates occurs biochemically. The intermediate product of nitrate reduction N-NO 3 has a higher chemical activity and is more toxic to living organisms. Nitrites are capable of forming complexes with many metals. Absorbed from the soil by plants. The toxicity of nitrates is relatively low, and their negative effect is due to nitrite, a product of NO 3 reduction in NO 2 by the gastrointestinal tract microflora and tissue enzymes. This is the potential danger of nitrates, namely, their transition to nitrites and nitroso compounds, which are carcinogenic.		Application of organic fertilizers (straw, peat), standardization of doses and ratio of nutrients, use of nitrification inhibitors

Soil acidity has the greatest effect on the migration ability of metals. Since the solubility of most elements decreases with increasing pH, even small fluctuations in it can cause changes in ion absorption. So, cadmium is mobile in acidic soils with pH< 5,5 и их известкование способствует его иммобилизации вследствие образования гидроокисей и карбонатов. Однако, хром, способен в слабокислой и щелочной среде образовывать растворимые соли хромовой кислоты. При повышении кислотности почвы увеличивается подвижность меди. Известкование, сдвигая кислотно-щелочное равновесие, снижает содержание легко растворимых и обменных соединений металлов. На подвижность металлов в почве сильно влияет концентрация в ней органического вещества. Переход элементов в малоподвижную форму протекает наиболее интенсивно в почвах с высоким его содержанием. На процесс поглощения элементов почвой оказывает влияние характер субстрата и вид поглощенных катионов. Медь удерживается иллитом, монтмориллонитом, каолинитом, вермикулитом достаточно прочно. При больших количествах кадмия в почве в области рН >6.5 the formation of carbonates and phosphates is possible.

Taking into account the above, it is possible to propose a set of agrochemical measures to reduce the hazard of toxicants:

Table 3

Agrochemical measures to reduce the hazard of toxicants

	Agrochemical activities	Timing, features of the use of agrochemicals
	Liming	For the main tillage in autumn, because oats are resistant to acidic soils, lime should be applied under the most significant crop in the crop rotation
	Phosphate fertilizers	For the main tillage in autumn	Р 2 О 5 - 90 kg / ha
	Organic fertilizers (manure, peat)	In autumn, for plowing the plow
	Potash fertilizers	In autumn, for plowing the plow	K 2 O - 90 kg / ha

Section 3. REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL USE OF CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS OF PLANT PROTECTION

The main ways of using natural enemies of pests in biological control of them are: introduction and acclimatization, intra-area dispersal, seasonal colonization, as well as protection and use of local entomophages. The latter method assumes the most rational use of pesticides in cases where it is necessary due to an immediate threat to the crop. In this case, the treatment of plants is carried out, as possible, selectively acting on the pest with drugs and at the time that is safest for its natural enemies.

Table 4

Biological measures aimed at protecting culture

To combat harmful organisms that damage plants, chemicals are used - pesticides. To combat the dusty smut of oats and root rot, it is proposed to apply seed dressing before sowing.

Divident Star 036 FS is a combined systemic fungicide for combating fungal pathogens spreading with seeds and soil. It is a universal two-component preparation for the treatment of seeds of all grain crops; the most effective of the economical dressing agents against root rot; consistently high efficiency against smut diseases; an easy-to-use liquid formulation with the addition of a dye and an adhesive, protects against other diseases of seeds and seedlings and has side effects against diseases such as septoria, spotting, and early manifestations of powdery mildew. Advantages of the drug: in terms of the breadth of the spectrum of action, it surpasses most drugs for dressing seeds, while it is absorbed by the plant gradually and acts longer on both internal and external infections; flexibility in terms of application (advance dressing is allowed) 3 months before sowing and more, absence of dusting during work and sowing, has a beneficial physiological effect on the protected crop, increasing the productive bushiness, graininess of the ear and panicle. Plants grown from treated seeds are much more bushy and greener throughout the growing season, which ultimately determines a significant increase.

According to the manufacturer Syngenta (Switzerland), the drug poses an insignificant danger to humans, however, in emergency situations (leakage) it is very toxic to algae, daphnia, and fish.

Dimethoate can be used to combat cereal flies and aphids. Dimethoate is used as an insectoacaricide to control a wide range of pests in cereals, vegetables and horticultural crops, as well as grasses and pastures. It is a systemic contact drug. It is quickly absorbed by leaves, stem and roots, spreading throughout the plant. Sucking and mining insects are destroyed by absorbing the sap of the plant. As a contact preparation, it has a suppressive effect on pests that come into contact with preparations on the surface of the plant. In the body of the pest, it inhibits cholinesterase, acting on the nervous system and causing respiratory and cardiac depression. Toxicological hazard class II, the drug is classified as moderately toxic.

Banvel is a selective systemic herbicide for postemergence against annual and some perennial broadleaf weeds in cereals. Banvel herbicide is an essential component for the preparation of various tank mixtures. The use of tank mixes is a way to reduce the cost of treatment, allowing at the same time to provide biological effectiveness close to the effectiveness of herbicides applied at full application rates. The selection of the optimal ratio of herbicides in the tank mixture allows you to reduce the consumption rate of the components and at the same time keep enough high level biological effectiveness.

The herbicide belongs to the III class of hazard; if released into the environment, it poses a minor hazard.

Table 5

Chemical measures aimed at protecting culture

	Culture name		Cultural development phase	Pest development stage	Multiplicity of treatments
		Dust Smut Root Rot	Divident Star	Seed dressing before sowing
		Cereal flies, aphids	Dimethoate Phosphamide	Spraying during the growing season	Larvae of cereal flies, larvae and imago of cereal aphid
		Annuals dicotyledons Biennial dicotyledonous (black henbane)		Spraying crops in the tillering phase of the culture	Spraying in the phase of 2-4 leaves in annuals and 15 cm in height in perennial weeds

To assess the negative impact of pesticides, the limits of permissible concentrations (MPC) of harmful substances in various environments were developed. MPC of a pollutant is its maximum concentration in the environment that does not have long-term mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. If the MPC value has not been established in various environments, the temporary hygienic standard OBUV is in effect - the temporarily permissible concentration (tentatively safe level of exposure) of the substance.

Table 6

Sanitary and hygienic characteristics of the applied pesticides

	Pesticide name	Consumption rate of the drug, l, kg / ha, t	Waiting period, days	MRL in products, mg / kg	ADI, mg / kg	MPC / APC in soil, mg / kg	MPC / TAC in water, mg / dm 3	MPC / TAC in fishery water. reservoirs, mg / l	MPC / OBUV in atmospheric air, mg / m 3
	Divident Star
	Dimethoate Phosphamide

Section 4. CALCULATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL LOAD OF THE USED CHEMICAL PROTECTORS OF PLANTS

The ecotoxicological assessment of each drug should primarily be based on data on the dynamics of their content in the soil and plant in the cultivated fields, in the air and water of reservoirs.

To characterize the effect of a pesticide on agrobiocenosis, the concept of environmental load is used.

To calculate the environmental load, there is a formula:

HP is the rate of consumption of the active substance, (mg / ha);

T 1/2 - half-life of the drug (months);

T - toxicity for warm-blooded animals (mg / kg).

To calculate the rate of consumption of the active substance, use the formula:

НР - the rate of consumption of the active substance l, kg / ha;

D - consumption rate of the drug, l, kg / ha;

The environmental load is less than 10 conventional units. considered non-hazardous, from 11 to 100 - low hazard, from 101 to 1000 - medium hazard, more than 1000 - hazardous.

Table 7

Calculation of the environmental load of the plant protection products used

Divident Star E n = 36300 * 1 * / 3000 = 12.1

HP = 3.63 * 1/100 = 0.0363 * 1,000,000 = 36,300 mg / ha

Dimethoate E n = 400000 * 1 / 220.5 = 1814.1

HP = 40 * 1/100 = 0.4 * 1,000,000 = 400,000 mg / ha

Banvel E n = 144000 * 1/2375 = 60.6

HP = 48 * 0.3 / 100 = 0.144 * 1,000,000 = 144,000 mg / ha

That. the environmental load for the entire field for the season of work will be: 12.1 + 1814 + 60.6 = 1886.8

Because the load was 1886.8 conventional units, it is considered dangerous.

Section 5. PROPERTIES AND REGULATION OF HEAVY METALS

Of the majority of substances entering the environment from anthropogenic sources, heavy metals occupy a special place. The problem of heavy metals in modern production conditions is global, because they are genetic poisons, accumulate in the body with a long-term effect of action, manifested in hereditary diseases, mental disorders, as well as causing cardiovascular disorders, severe allergies, carcinogenic and embryotropic effects in the body, therefore, appropriate measures are needed to prevent environmental pollution. All heavy metals are highly toxic, migratory, as well as carcinogenic and mutagenic.

The behavior of these toxicants in various natural environments is due to the specificity of their main biogeochemical properties: complexing ability, mobility, biochemical activity, mineral and organic forms of distribution, tendency to hydrolysis, solubility, accumulation efficiency.

Most heavy metals belong to the group of trace elements. The action of each microelement on living organisms has a lot in common: they are part of a number of protein complexes (enzymes) or activate their activity, they are needed by organisms in very small quantities - thousandths or ten-thousandths of a percent. An increase in their concentration above a certain level leads to inhibition of growth and development, and in this case, when they are in the environment in concentrations that are dangerous for living, they are called heavy metals.

In the process of evolution, plants, animals and humans have adapted to the natural (background) content of heavy metals. However, the intensive development of industry, transport and the use of various chemicals led to the accumulation of heavy metals in large areas, which negatively affects the soil, plants and other living organisms, and, consequently, the background level of heavy metals in the biosphere is constantly growing.

Table 8

Properties and regulation of copper, chromium and cadmium

Heavy metal	The value of TM for plants and humans	Heavy metal toxicology
			In soil mg / kg	In drinking water mg / l	For fishery water	In products mg / kg
	Promotes the synthesis of blood hemoglobin, accelerates the formation of erythrocytes, the restoration of bone tissue, enhances the action of insulin, prevents the breakdown of glycogen in the liver, promotes the synthesis of vitamins B 1, C, P, PP and E.	An excess of Cu 2+ binds the hydrosulfide groups of enzymes and has a depressing effect on the body. Symptoms of excess copper are manifested in the form of chlorosis, the formation of brown-colored lateral roots., The intensity of respiration, the formation of chlorophyll and the activity of some enzymes decrease. Copper compounds cause severe irritation of the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract. With the systematic action of copper salts on the human body, damage to the teeth and the mucous membrane of the mouth, gastric ulcer, the conjunctiva of the eyes acquires a greenish-yellow color, a dark red stripe appears on the gums.				Fish products 10 Meat products 5 Dairy products 0.5 Bread products 5 Juices, drinks 5
	Biogenic element: a decrease in the chromium content leads to a decrease in its content in the blood, growth retardation, an increase in blood cholesterol, difficulty in breathing	Chromium (VI) compounds have the highest toxicity: chromic acid fog is the cause of pleurisy; in chronic poisoning, there is a dry cough, liver damage (before cirrhosis).				Fish products 0.3 Meat products 0.2 Dairy products 0.1 Bread products 0.2 Fruit 0.1 Juices, drinks 0.1
	Reduces the body's ability to resist disease, has a mutagenic and carcinogenic effect, and can cause a cumulative effect.	Defeat nervous system, liver and kidneys, respiratory organs, gastrointestinal tract, violation of phosphorus-potassium and protein metabolism, destruction of bones. The mechanism of toxic action is to inhibit the activity of enzyme systems as a result of binding to sulfhydryl, amine and carboxyl groups of proteins.				Fish products 0.1 Meat products 0.05 Dairy products 0.01 Bread products 0.02 Fruit 0.03 Juices, drinks 0.02

When soil and vegetation are contaminated with heavy metals, traditional and special techniques are used as ways to optimize the situation:

1) Methods for limiting the entry of heavy metals into the soil. When planning the use of fertilizers, ameliorants, pesticides, precipitation Wastewater it is necessary to take into account the content of heavy metals in them, the buffer capacity of the used soils. Dose limitation due to environmental requirements is a prerequisite for greening agriculture.

2) Removal of heavy metals outside the root layer is achieved by the following methods:

Removing the contaminated soil layer,

Backfilling of the contaminated layer with clean earth,

Growing crops that absorb HM and removing their plant mass from the field,

By washing soils with water and water-soluble (more often organic) compounds that form water-soluble complex compounds with heavy metals, products from agricultural production wastes are used as organic ligands,

Washing the soils with a solution for leaching HM from the upper horizons to a depth of 70-100 cm and then precipitating them at this depth in the form of hardly soluble sediments (due to the subsequent washing of soils with reagents containing anions that form sediments with heavy metals).

3) Development of measures to limit the entry of HM into plants. The entry of heavy metals into plants can be reduced by changing the nutrient regime, by creating competition for the supply of toxicants and fertilizer cations to the roots, by precipitation of heavy metals in the root in the form of poorly soluble sediments.

4) Binding of HMs in the soil into poorly dissociated compounds. A decrease in the supply of heavy metals to plants can be achieved by their deposition in the soil in the form of sediments of carbonates, phosphates, sulfides, hydroxides; with the formation of low-dissociating complex compounds with a large molecular weight. The best way to significantly reduce the content of heavy metals in plants is the combined application of manure and lime. The most effective measures leading to a decrease in the mobility of lead in soils are claying (application of zeolite) and the combined application of lime and organic fertilizers. The use of a full range of chemical ameliorants (organic and mineral fertilizers, lime and tripe) reduced the content of polyvalent metals in the soil by 10-20%.

5) Adaptive-landscape farming systems as a factor in optimizing the ecological situation in case of soil contamination with HM.

Different kinds and crop varieties accumulate an unequal amount of HM in plant products. This is due to the selectivity of the root systems of individual plants to them and the peculiarity of their metabolic processes. HMs accumulate to a greater extent in the roots, less in the vegetative mass and generative organs. At the same time, certain groups of cultures selectively accumulate certain toxicants. The selection of crops for growing on soils of a certain degree and nature of pollution is the simplest, cheapest and most effective way optimization of the situation.

The distribution of metals in plant organs has a distinct acropetal character and increases in the following order:

Section 6. CHARACTERISTIC OF ECOTOXICOLOGICAL SITUATION, WHICH HAS BEEN EXPERIENCED UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF RADIONUCLIDES

In soil, radionuclides are contained in water-soluble, exchangeable, non-exchangeable and strongly bound non-exchangeable forms. Among these forms, the first two play the greatest, since they are able to be absorbed by plants and, therefore, migrate along the biological chain. The biological mobility of radionuclides depends, on the one hand, on their physicochemical properties, and on the other hand, on the properties of the soil itself, among which its type, mineral composition, acidity, organic matter content, moisture content, and the duration of its use in agroecosystems play a decisive role. ... The greatest availability for plants is possessed by strontium, which in the form of 73% in global fallout is almost completely in a water-soluble form.

The availability of exchangeable cations - carrier elements and acidity - has a great influence on the availability of radionuclides for plants. The more elements-carriers in it, the less biological mobility of radionuclides and vice versa. Soil acidification increases the availability of radionuclides for plants. Soil microorganisms reduce the mobility of radionuclides in the biological cycle. Strontium-90 is intensively distributed along the soil profile of natural ecosystems due to its higher mobility. The radiation-ecological situation in the contaminated territories changes mainly as a result of natural radioactive decay, secondary wind transport and vertical migration.

Radionuclides can enter plants through the root system and through the aerial route. The vegetation phase is of great importance in the accumulation of radionuclides by plants. The leaves of young plants absorb radionuclides in much larger quantities than the leaves of plants that finish their growth and development. Strontium-90 under the influence of wind and precipitation is partially removed from the surface of leaves and stems of plants and moves into the soil, and partially is firmly fixed on the surface of plants. The fallout of radioactive aerosols on the surface of plants leads to their accumulation in the aboveground mass, while at the root route of entry, the soil absorbing complex acts as a powerful sorption factor, and the root system is a selective barrier that excludes the entry of biologically inert elements into the aboveground phytomass.

The influence of the soil is manifested in a decrease in the biological activity of radionuclides with an increase in the content of exchangeable cations, organic matter, physical clay, silt, minerals of the montmorillonite group, and absorption capacity in the soil. Chernozems with a large amount of fine particles of organic matter (humus) reduce the transfer of radionuclides to plants. With an increase in acidity, the input of strontium-90 into the soil increases. The greater retention of radioisotopes in the soil is facilitated by the presence in it of chemical elements close in chemical properties to these isotopes. So, calcium is a chemical element close in its properties to strontium - 90 and the introduction of lime, especially on soils with high acidity, leads to an increase in the absorptive capacity of strontium - 90 and to a decrease in its migration.

The biological characteristics of plants affect the accumulation of radionuclides by them. So, strontium-90 is 2-6 times more intensively accumulated in legumes than in cereals. The most intensive is the accumulation of radionuclides in the leaves, stems, and weaker in the generative organs.

The distribution of radionuclides in the vertical profile of soils affects their absorption by plants. Treatment of the upper layer (deepening, plowing, milling) changes its position in relation to the bulk of the roots and causes a decrease in the accumulation of radionuclides in plants. Burial of the contaminated soil layer beyond the distribution of the bulk of the roots. Reduces the accumulation of radionuclides in plants by 7-11 times.

Calculation of the amount of radionuclides in the soil:

where P is the amount of radionuclide, mg / m 3 soil;

А - activity of the radionuclide in decays per second;

T Ѕ is the half-life of the isotope in seconds;

M is the mass number of the isotope;

L is Avogadro's number;

K is the volume of soil 1 m 3 at a density of 1.1 g / cm 3.

To calculate the amount of radionuclide per 1 ha, the result obtained is multiplied by 10,000, and recalculation per 1 km 3 requires multiplication by another 100, by 1 kg - by 10 -2.

T Ѕ = 28.1 years = 8.86 * 10 8 sec

L = 6.022 * 10 23 mol -1

1 Ku = 3.7 * 10 10 schedule / sec

P = 3.145 * 10 11 * 8.86 * 10 8 * 90 *

10 -3 /0,693*6,022*10 23 *1=0,0609*10000=609*100

60.9 * 10 -2 = 0.609 kg

Section 7. REGULATION OF NITRATES IN CROP PRODUCTS

Nitrates - salts nitric acid ... The absorption and inclusion of nitrogen in the productive process of plants is an important and specific component of the nitrogen cycle both on a global scale and within individual regions, landscapes and cenoses. The main sources of nitrogen for plants are nitrates and ammonium. In cultivated soils, conditions are favorable for the nitrophication process, as a result of which nitrates are the main form for the plant both on fertilized and unfertilized soils. With a deficiency, as well as with an excess of nitrogen, the processes of morphogenesis and accumulation of dry matter are disrupted, the nature of the inclusion of absorbed nitrogen in the synthesis of organic compounds changes, and the accumulation of nitrates in the crop yield occurs. Nitrate formation is a natural process for the conversion of nitrogen in geological rocks, soil, water and atmosphere. Under anthropogenic impact on the soil, the mobility of organic matter increases, the mineralization of soil nitrogen increases, as a result of which the supply of nitrates to natural waters and plants increases. Nitrogen fertilizers are the main anthropogenic nitrogen source. Nitrogen fertilizers getting into the soil are not completely consumed, because Plants also use soil nitrogen in the process of all nutrition. Therefore, a specific system for the use of nitrogen fertilizers should correspond to soil and ecological conditions, the nature of land use, specialization of crop rotations and crop rotation, their biological characteristics, since non-observance of these conditions leads to an increase in nitrogen losses in fertilizers. It is necessary to take into account the features of the terrain, particle size distribution, water-physical properties of the soil and other soil-ecological parameters when using nitrogen fertilizers. Nitrogen accumulation also depends on land congestion. Losses of nitrogen fertilizers in the nitrate form increase with a high saturation of crop rotations with row crops and the systematic use of increased doses of nitrogen fertilizers. The uneven distribution of nitrogen fertilizers over the soil surface during their application can also be considered as one of the reasons for the saturation of water bodies with nitrates and their accumulation in plants, since in this case over-fertilized areas are created, the utilization rate of nitrogen fertilizers by plants decreases, and nitrogen losses increase. Replacement of traditional farming systems with the participation and alternation of various crops with more intensive and specialized technologies that enhance the mineralization of soil organic matter and the destruction of its structure, limiting the areas occupied by grasses. The weighting of machines and their use on permanent tramlines, the absence of protective zones around the fields leads to an increase in subsurface and surface nitrogen removal. One of the main factors affecting the accumulation of nitrates in plants is: excessive application of fertilizers, especially their nitrate forms (ammonium, potassium, sodium nitrate). It is better to feed plants with amide or ammonium forms of fertilizers, because ammonia nitrogen is absorbed by plants and is immediately incorporated into amino acids and proteins without accumulation of nitrates. An increase in the amount of nitrates in products can be obtained with excessive application of organic fertilizers to the soil. Feeding with nitrogen 1-2 weeks before harvesting leads to an increase in the content of nitrates in plant products. With a deficiency of phosphorus and potassium, the process of formation of organic matter in the process of photosynthesis is inhibited, as a result of which the consumption of supplied nitrogen for growth processes is reduced, which leads to an increase in the concentration of nitrate nitrogen in plant organs. Of the microelements, molybdenum is the most important for preventing the accumulation of nitrates. it is a part of nitrate reductase and takes part in the reduction of nitrates.

Of the rest of the agrotechnical factors of plant growing, the influence on the concentration of nitrates is exerted by illumination, moisture supply, growing temperature and harvest time.

In low light, nitrates are not completely converted to amino acids. In dry years, when high doses of nitrogen fertilizers are applied to the soil, plants accumulate more nitrates, therefore, regular watering of the plants is necessary so that nitrogen nutrition is moderate and uniform. The temperature factor especially affects the content of nitrates in plants grown under conditions of short daylight hours. At moderate temperatures (13-23 ° C), plants contain less nitrates than at low or high temperatures. In unripe vegetables, the nitrate content is much higher than in ripe ones. The accumulation of nitrates by various cultures has a hereditary nature, i.e. they have varietal specificity, which has been identified in a number of varietal crops.

There are several pathways for the formation and accumulation of nitrates in plants:

1) nitrates accumulate in plants as a result of excessive consumption of nitrogen by plants under various factors that contribute to a more intensive supply of nitrogen to the plant, rather than their assimilation;

2) the accumulation of nitrates in plants can be a consequence of a decrease in the supply of nitrate nitrogen and a slowdown in synthetic processes, due to an unbalanced nutrition of plants with nitrogen and other elements;

3) nitrates are formed in plants as a result of a primary reaction to nitrogen deficiency, which in turn is associated with a decrease in nitrareductase activity;

4) nitrates are formed in plants with excessive assimilation of ammonium nitrogen.

Nitrates in plants are reduced to nitrites. The danger of nitrates and their toxic effect on the body lies in the fact that nitrates, having turned into nitrites in the gastrointestinal tract, enter the bloodstream and oxidize the ferrous iron of hemoglobin into trivalent. In this case, methemoglobin is formed, which is unable to carry oxygen to tissues and organs, as a result of which suffocation can be observed. A threat to life is the accumulation of 20% or more of methemoglobin in the blood.

Thus, the toxicity of nitrates is relatively low, and their negative effect is due to nitrite, the product of NO 3 reduction to NO 2 by the microflora of the digestive tract and tissue enzymes. This is the potential danger of nitrates, namely, their transition to nitrites and nitroso compounds, which are carcinogenic.

When comparing the content of nitrates in grain and straw of oats 130 mg / kg with MPC (250-400 mg / kg), we can conclude that this product is harmless and can be used as feed for farm animals, and grain can also be used for food purposes. ...

Table 9

Determination of ways to use crop products

Table 10

Name of culture	Actual content of nitrates, mg / kg	MPC, mg / kg
Eggplant
Green peas
White cabbage
Potato
Green onion
Onion
Sweet pepper
Beetroot
Grape
Sugar corn
Corn (green mass)
Winter wheat
Sunflower
Forage rape
Winter rye
Fodder beets
Sugar beet

Localization of nitrates in plant organs increases in the following order:

Reproductive organs leaves roots, stems, leaf petioles

Section 8. METHODS OF CONTROL OF TOXICANTS IN NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

To obtain objective information about the state and level of pollution of various environmental objects (atmospheric air, water, soil), it is necessary to have reliable methods of analysis. The methods are used in a wide range of element concentrations, including both trace amounts in unpolluted objects of background regions, and high values ​​of concentrations in anthropogenic conditions.

Physicochemical methods for quantitatively determined pesticide residues:

The photometric method is based on comparing the optical densities of the test and control liquids. The varieties of the photometric method include photocolometric, spectrophotometric, turbidimetric, nephelometric and fluorimetric (luminescent). The detection sensitivity of photocolorimeters depends on the nature of the compounds and is 0.04-20 mg / ml of the sample for organic compounds and 0.02-10 μg / ml of the sample for organic compounds.

The spectrophotometric method is based on the same principles. As photocolorimetric, but the spectrophotometer uses the absorption of monochromatic light. The sensitivity of the determination of organic and inorganic compounds is at the level of 0.08-20 μg / ml of the sample.

The turbidimetric method is used to determine the amounts of substances that are in suspension by measuring the intensity of light transmission through the controlled sample solution. The method is suitable for measuring concentrations of the order of a few parts per million.

The nephelometric method differs from the turbodimetric method in that it is not the light transmitted through the suspension that is measured, but the scattered light, due to which this method is more sensitive for highly dilute suspensions.

The fluorometric method is used for analytical purposes and is based on the ability of some substances to fluoresce strongly when excited by ultraviolet radiation. This method is of limited use. It is accurate and sensitive for highly fluorescent substances.

The polarographic method is based on the reduction of the analyzed compound on a dropping mercury electrode and is used in the analysis of trace amounts of substances in different states of aggregation.

The gas chromatographic method is based on the selective separation of compounds between two immiscible phases, one of which is stationary (liquid or solid), and the other is mobile (inert carrier gas). This method makes it possible to determine negligible amounts of substances that do not have specific reactions, and to analyze mixtures. Consisting of tens and hundreds of components with similar properties.

The mass spectrometric method consists in ionizing a gaseous sample by electron bombardment, after which the resulting ions are exposed to a magnetic field. Depending on their mass and charge, the ions deflect at different speeds and separate accordingly. A feature of the method is a small sample volume and high selectivity.

The spectral-chemical method consists in a combination of two sequential operations: 1) coprecipitation of groups of elements from solutions using 2,4-dinitroaniline; separating them and co-precipitating them with a molybdenum filter using the "oxidized" Stengauz dye; 2) spectral determination of coprecipitated elements in the bottom ash using appropriate artificial standards.

The spectral emission method is based on the emission of light energy by atoms, ions, and less often molecules. Emission line spectra emitted by atoms and ions do not depend on the type of chemical compounds that make up the substance under study. Therefore, this type of analysis is used to determine the elemental (atomic) composition of water and soil samples. The versatility, high sensitivity, good accuracy and expressiveness of the determination led to the widespread use of the method. With photographic recording of the spectrum, the method makes it possible in principle to simultaneously analyze up to 30 elements in one sample, while very low concentrations of many elements can be determined in a soil and water sample.

Atomic absorption spectral analysis is based on the use of the ability of free atoms of elements to selectively absorb resonant radiation of a specific wavelength for each element. This method is versatile, easy to implement, and highly productive.

Biological methods for the quantitative determination of pesticides are based on the use of the relationship between the dose of a pesticide and the effect of its action on the test object. When determining insecticides, the effect of action is expressed as a percentage of the death of test objects. When determining the effect of the action of fungicides, it is taken into account according to the size and intensity of growth of the fungus colonies - the test object or along the radius of the sterile zone formed around the point of introduction of the fungicide into the medium of the cultivated object.

The effect of the action of herbicides is most often established by the accumulation of dry mass of the aerial part of the plant, by the intensity of root growth, or by the activity of individual links of photosynthesis.

Bromethod provides under strictly controlled conditions the dependence "effect-dose" and the determination of the effect of the action of the test sample. To do this, the experiment should have at least the following options for environments:

1. Control (specific material without pesticide) to take into account the state of the test object under experimental conditions.

2. An analyte introduced into the test material, which does not contain a pesticide, in 4-6 logarithmically decreasing doses in order to obtain the data necessary for constructing an effect-dose graph expressing the dependence of the effect of a certain pesticide on its dose.

3. The test material containing a certain pesticide and used to establish the effect of the original quantities of the pesticide on the test object. Further, according to the "effect-dose" graph, the required amount of pesticide is found.

Methods for sampling and determination of residual amounts of toxicants.

Based on the analysis of the combined (average) sample, a conclusion is made about the entire batch of food products or about the entire volume of the soil as a whole. When determining pesticide residues in various objects, it is important to take a sample in such a way that it fully characterizes the analyzed object. This takes into account all the factors affecting the stability of the residues, both on the surface and inside the biological material.

A sample is made from a batch of food. The size of the pooled sample taken from it depends on the type of test material and the purpose of the analysis.

An average sample of vegetables and root crops (tomato, beet, pepper, eggplant) is taken along the diagonal of the plot at intervals of 6-10 plants. Fruits are taken from different tiers (vegetables) from at least 10 plants at each sampling point or along the diagonal of the plot in different points selection (root crops).

The samples are used to collect a pooled sample of vegetables and root vegetables. Each fruit is divided into 4 parts and a fourth part is taken. Then the sample is mixed, weighed, crushed and analyzed.

Soil samples are taken in 5-6 places (0.5 kg in each place) along the diagonal of a plot with an area of ​​1-5 hectares from different depths. In the laboratory, they are dried to an air-dry state in a place protected from sunlight. After drying, grind and take the combined sample by the quartering method. Before analysis, the soil is sieved through a sieve with a diameter of 1 mm. Organic residues are analyzed with the soil or separately.

Analysis of plant samples for the content of pesticide residues is carried out immediately after taking them. Samples are well packed, signed, accompanied by a passport, which states:

When and where is the sample taken,

The type of soil on which the crop was grown,

Plant name,

The name of the pesticide used,

Time of processing,

Physiological state during processing, for young plants - time from the day of sowing,

Pesticide formulation,

Consumption rate per 1 hectare,

The concentration of the applied working solution,

Solvent for preparation of working solution,

Consumption of working solution.

Number of treatments,

Weather conditions on the day of processing,

How many days before harvesting did the last spraying take place?

Section 9. WAYS AND MEASURES TO REDUCE THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF TOXICANTS

To obtain environmentally safe products, it is necessary to have reliable initial data on the ecological and toxicological situation in agricultural systems, since there is a possibility, on the one hand, of pollution of the biosphere with toxicants of industrial origin, and on the other, pollution of the environment with organic wastes of agricultural production. Because in the soil, the content of copper, chromium exceeds the maximum permissible concentration, and the soil has also been contaminated with strontium-90, it is necessary to develop a set of measures for the use of substances that improve the state of the ecosystem and reduce the transfer of toxicants into plants. A significant reduction in pollutant elements is facilitated by the use of hormonal symbiotic, humic preparations, which, being capacious ion exchangers, absorb mobile forms of elements and thereby reduce their entry into plants.

Table 11

The use of substances that improve the state of ecosystems and reduce the transfer of toxicants to plants

Substance name	Application features	The toxicant against which the action is directed
Sodium humate	Spraying plants of plants in a mixture with herbicides and fertilizers, helps to increase the adaptive capacity of agricultural crops, reduce the phytotoxicity of the herbicide
Symbiont preparations (symbiote 1, symbiont 2)	The drug is diluted 10,000 times, before sowing the seeds are sprayed with the drug and dried. To process 600 kg of cereal seeds, dilute 1 ml of the drug in 10 liters of water	They stimulate the growth and development of plants, increasing their resistance to adverse conditions, and protect plants from pathogenic fungi.
Vermicom-post	Optimal application rate 30 t / ha	Humic acids have good storage capacity. It is capable of binding radionuclides, limiting the intake of nitrates and HMs into plants, and has bactericidal properties.

Literature

1. Dogadina M.A., Stepanova L.P., Lysenko N.N. Fundamentals of toxicology Eagle: Publishing house OrelGAU 2006

2. Dogadina M.A., Lysenko N.N. Fundamentals of toxicology Eagle: Publishing house OrelGAU 2008

3. Savich V.I., Parakhin N.V., Sychev V.G., Stepanova L.P. Soil ecology Oryol: Publishing house OrelGAU 2002

4. Stepin B.D., Tsvetkov A.A. Inorganic chemistry M .: graduate School 1994

5. List of pesticides and agrochemicals permitted for use by the Russian Federation, 2008 / Appendix to the journal "Plant Protection and Quarantine" No. 6 - 2008

6. Bazdyrev G.I. Protection of crops from weeds. - Moscow: Kolos, 2004 - 328 p.

7. Chesalin G.A. Weed plants and their control M .: Kolos, 1975 - 186 p.

8. Gorlenko M.V. Phytopathology L .: Kolos 1980 -318 p.

9. Osmolovsky G.E., Bondarenko N.V. Entomogolia L .: Kolos - 1980 - 358 p.

The creation of an ecologically safe raw material zone that provides livestock enterprises with fodder is impossible without a system of intensive fodder production, which makes it possible to obtain ecologically safe fodder based on the use of rational crop rotations, biologically safe chemical agents for combating pests and diseases, the use of biological methods of plant protection, high-yielding varieties of forage crops, tolerant to negative effects, replacing herbicides in weed control.

The "purity" of agricultural crops is determined by the self-cleaning and buffering capacity of the soil, which largely depends on the content of humus in it, acidity, density, granulometric and mineral composition, and redox reaction.

Humus plays an important role in soil self-cleaning. It not only sorbs (absorbs) toxic substances, but also activates soil biota, normalizes the structure of the microbiological composition. Therefore, on podzolic soils, poor in organic matter, the environmental hazard of cultivated crops is much higher than on chernozems.

Soil acidity affects the solubility of toxicants and their entry into plants. In soils, the reaction of which is close to neutral, the danger of their contamination (for example, with heavy metals) is reduced. With an increase in both acidity and alkalinity, the solubility of heavy metals increases and their migration to plants increases. Soil acidity affects the structure of the microbiological composition, reducing or increasing its activity. To obtain safe products, it is very important to take into account the actual acidity of the soil when placing crops.

In case of excessive acidity, liming of the soil is required.

The granulometric and mineral composition of the soil affects the capacity of cation exchange, which determines the mobility of toxicants, and, consequently, the degree of their entry into plants. So on soils, the granulometric composition of which is characterized by a large area, the surface of the particles, the capacity of cation exchange is higher, which reduces the mobility of toxic substances (toxicants) and its entry into plants.

Agricultural crops grown on soils containing minerals with a low cation exchange capacity (for example, kaolinite) are more easily contaminated with toxicants than those grown on soils containing minerals of the montmorillonite group. On waterlogged soils (gley, gley), the risk of contamination of agricultural products with heavy metals increases due to an increase in their mobility. Excess water in the soil contributes to the appearance in it of metals with a low valence in a more soluble form. Soils with a disturbed hydrological regime should be used for growing crops only after reclamation work.

With soil compaction, the mobility of heavy metals increases, making it dangerous to grow crops. So, with an increase in soil density from 0.6-1 to 1.3-1.6 g / cm 3, the mobility of heavy metals increases several times.

The quality of cultivated agricultural products is influenced by living organisms inhabiting the soil, especially microbiota. The further behavior of toxicants entering the soil depends on the activity and structure of microbial cenoses, which determine the self-cleaning capacity of the soil, which is interrelated with soil-ecological factors. Therefore, for example, pesticides change most intensively in chernozems characterized by a high humus content, a favorable reaction of the environment, increased biological activity and microbial diversity. Chernozem soils are also able to withstand the action of toxicants entering the soil, i.e. have good buffering capacity.

Consequently, the preservation and increase of the humus content in the soil, its drainage and decompaction are the most important conditions for the cultivation of ecologically safe agricultural crops, including fodder crops.

The problem of obtaining ecologically safe crop production is to reduce the content of xenobiotics and improve the biological quality of crops. The solution to this problem is possible in three directions.

1. Selection of crops and varieties (especially with an increased content of radionuclides in the soil), ensuring the receipt of safe crop products.

2. The choice of soil and relief conditions, optimal for the crop and variety and minimizing the accumulation of xenobiotics in them. Contour-ecological crop rotations make it possible to fully take into account the soil conditions for the cultivation of a particular agricultural crop and its biological characteristics.

3. Improving the technology of cultivation of agricultural crops, scientifically grounded use of pesticides, micro- and macro-fertilizers. To obtain environmentally friendly products, it is necessary to commensurate the application of fertilizers with the ability of the crop to assimilate the nutrients contained in them without contaminating food and fodder products with harmful substances, and the load of pesticides on the agricultural landscape - with the intensity of physicochemical and biological processes their destruction in the environment and crop products.

To obtain environmentally friendly crop products, you need:

Resource-saving and environmental technologies, the creation on their basis of closed circulating and waste-free production cycles at livestock enterprises and reclamation systems, as well as at enterprises of the processing industry;

Optimization of natural mechanisms for regulating the number of pests, weeds and pathogens of agricultural crops; integrated plant protection based on adaptive agricultural landscapes;

Effective management of biological processes, creation of ecosystems and landscapes with desired properties.

To prevent the negative consequences of the use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides, an environmentally and hygienically sound regulation of their use is required.

In order to minimize soil cultivation when it is contaminated with radionuclides, liming, the introduction of phosphorus-potassium fertilizers, micronutrients, etc. are used.

Measures to protect the environment and agricultural production from chemical and microbiological pollution are of great importance. Under the existing farming system, a significant part of the agricultural land area is eroded, overcompacted, polluted, etc. The annual intensive tillage of the soil with heavy machines, the unregulated use of fertilizers and pesticides negatively affect the ecological system soil - plant - animal - human, which can lead to a decrease in soil fertility, field productivity, chemical contamination of agricultural raw materials and food products.

Thus, the production of environmentally friendly products is an essential component of socio-economic development. The solution to this problem involves the introduction of fundamental changes in the organization of farming, the existing technology of growing crops to obtain ecologically safe and biologically complete food products, especially for children, dietary, therapeutic and prophylactic nutrition.

Crop rotation design. To prevent soil from erosion, you must:

Include perennial legumes in the crop rotation (25-40% of the area); at the same time, losses from erosion are 3-8 times less than with a traditional system;

Use a variety of crops that differ in basic characteristics (developmental biology, pest damage, disease susceptibility, competitiveness, root system power, intensity of absorption of individual nutrients, moisture, etc.);

To not allow long periods"Fallowing" of arable land;

Include in the crop rotation at least one catch crop used as green manure or for forage purposes;

Create flexibility in crop rotation for the forced replacement of a particular crop under extreme conditions.

Features of soil cultivation. In organic farming, only surface tillage without turning the layer is advisable, which contributes to the biological activity of soils (plant residues and manure embedded in the upper layer contribute to the active development of microflora). Shallow plowing of the soil (15-20 cm) is only recommended if it cannot be avoided, for example, when processing a seam.

The use of fertilizers and soil fertility. It is recommended to replenish nutrients mainly from three sources: various organic fertilizers, hardly soluble minerals and nitrogen-fixing plants. In providing the microflora with energy material (hence, in maintaining the productive capacity of the soil), in the supply of nutrients to plants, the main role belongs to organic fertilizers. Organic fertilizers are recommended to be used from farms where the production of livestock products is organized on biological principles. The criterion for the application of these fertilizers is the application rate per 1 ha of the crop rotation area, which ensures a deficit-free balance of humus in the soil.

Selection of crops and varieties; seed production. In agricultural conditions, it is advisable to use varieties that are resistant to pests, diseases and extreme weather conditions. They should have relatively high productivity with low chemical application rates. It is recommended to import seeds from those agricultural enterprises in which their production is organized on biological principles. It is forbidden to use seeds treated with chemical disinfectants, except in special cases (for example, it has been established that untreated seeds will not sprout).

Protection of plants from pests and diseases. In the fight against pests and diseases great importance give the mechanism of self-regulation to the agroecosystem. Crop rotation and the correct rotation of crops in it, as well as agrotechnical methods for caring for plants, are of decisive importance. It is very important to balanced fertilization, the use of green manure crops, mixed crops of agricultural crops, the expansion of crops of plants resistant to pests and diseases, the preservation of beneficial organisms (entomophages) against plant pests, fungi, bacteria, nematodes and viruses, as well as saturation of agrophytocenoses with beneficial organisms. At the same time, it is necessary to reduce the population density of pests to an economically safe level.

Weed control. When mastering an alternative method of farming, the prerequisites for success are the prevention of the introduction of new weed seeds into the fields, the destruction of viable seeds and vegetative propagation organs of weeds in the soil, suppression and destruction of growing weeds in crops and natural forage lands. The following are recommended as preventive measures:

Application for sowing seeds thoroughly cleared of weeds;

Feeding to animals waste of cleaning seed and food grain and other products with preliminary mechanical and thermal treatment;

Mowing of plots, border areas, and field edges until weeds are seeding;

Loose storage of manure in order to destroy viable weed seeds during self-heating;

Timely harvesting of grain crops at a low cut (reducing the cut height from 20 to 10-12 cm reduces the number of weed seeds falling off by about 10 times).

The following highly effective techniques are used in weed control:

Inclusion in crop rotation of stubble crops that have the ability to biologically suppress weeds and improve the soil;

Combination of main, pre-sowing and inter-row treatments, different in depth and intensity;

The use of special machines, the use of mulching substances, the observance of the plant density.

Machine system. The main requirements for the selection of working machines are energy saving, economic efficiency, due primarily to the high productivity of machines and tools, as well as environmental friendliness as an indicator of the quality of the technological operations performed. In this case, the priority belongs to the environmental friendliness and efficiency of technology. Tillage machines and implements should ensure effective destruction of weeds, especially perennial ones, a favorable composition of the arable and root layers of the soil, and increase its anti-erosion resistance.

The criterion for the environmental friendliness of machines and tools is the level of compaction effect on the soil in terms of contact pressure and design stress at a depth of 0.5 m. Domestic caterpillar tractors for agricultural purposes and wheeled tractors satisfy this criterion.

At present, the scale of environmental pollution has a dangerous tendency due to direct impact on living organisms and indirectly as a result of a sharp change in the physicochemical parameters of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere.

The increasing amount of waste creates a pressing load on the soil and vegetation cover.

Substances that are alien to it and negatively affect living organisms enter the biosphere.

The problem of environmental protection is inextricably linked with the problem of the quality of agricultural products.

In crop production, the basis of the livestock industry, the main sources of pollution can be fertilizers, pesticides, fuels and lubricants, etc.

Previous

The production of environmentally friendly products is a key task in the greening of agricultural activities. Ecologically safe agricultural products are understood as such products, which, for the time taken for their various types, " life cycle»(Production-processing - consumption) complies with organoleptic, general hygienic, technological and toxicological standards and does not have a negative impact on human and animal health and the environment.

To obtain environmentally friendly products, it is necessary to have reliable initial data on the ecological and toxicological situation in agroecosystems, especially those experiencing the pressure of many years of intensive use of agrochemicals. The work should begin with an assessment of the ecological and toxicological state of agroecosystems, first of all, the soil cover.

To assess and prevent the negative impact of food on human health and feed on farm animals, they operate with such concepts as maximum permissible concentration (MPC), permissible residual amount (MRL) or maximum permissible levels (MRL) of a substance in them.

When assessing the degree of toxicity of an element (agrochemical) for plants, the concentration of the element is taken into account.

At the same time, there should not be a decrease in plant productivity, accumulation of an agrochemical in plants, feed and food products above the MPC. Lethal concentration causes plant death.

Output

Under the given conditions, corn is cultivated using intensive technology: organic and mineral fertilizers to increase yields, herbicides and insecticides to control pests and weeds. Soil and climatic conditions are generally favorable for the cultivation of crops; the lack of nutrients is compensated by the introduction of the necessary fertilizer rates. You can also add that corn has a different ripening period, which creates additional difficulties with the choice of the sown variety, determining the timing of sowing and harvesting.

To increase the yield and quality of the grown products, you can do the following:

1) Apply mineral fertilizers in strict accordance with the norms and doses to prevent the accumulation of toxic substances in the resulting product, and, accordingly, improve its quality;

2) Strictly observe the agrotechnics of growing crops, apply more modern methods of tillage;

3) To grow zoned varieties with higher yields and better indicators of the products obtained;

4) Minimize the use of herbicides and insecticides - also to improve product quality;

5) Carefully determine the timing of sowing, which in the future will facilitate the determination of the timing of harvesting.

List of used literature

1. Bondarenko N.F. Programming yields and its importance in increasing soil fertility / N.F. Bondarenko - M .: "Kolos", 1983.

2.Burlaka V.V. Plant growing of the Northern Trans-Urals / V.V. Burlaka - Tyumen, 1975.

3.Vavilov P.P. Plant growing / P.P. Vavilov, V.V. Gritsenko, VS Kuznetsov, NN Tretyakov, IS Shatilov - M .: "Agropromizdat" 1986.

4. Gritsenko V.V. Fundamentals of programming the productivity of agricultural crops / V.V. Gritsenko - M .: "Agropromizdat", 1986.

5. Ivanenko A.S. "Agroclimatic conditions of the Tyumen region" / A.S. Ivanenko, O.A. Kulyasova Tyumen, 2008.

6.Karetin L.N. "Soils of the Tyumen region" / L.N. Karetin - Tyumen, 1990.

8. Koreneva GV Plant growing with the basics of selection and seed production (textbook) / ed. / G. V. Koreneva - M .: "Kolos", 1983.

9.Kosogorova E.A. Protection of field and vegetable crops from diseases / E.A. Kosogonova - Tyumen, 2001.

10.Kryuchev V.D. Workshop on plant growing / V.D. Kryuchev - M .: "Agropomizdat", 1988.

13. Posypanov G.S. and others. Plant growing / GS. Posypanov - M .: Kolos, 2006.

14. Pryanishnikov D.N. Selected Works, T. 1-3 / D.N. Pryanishnikov - M .: Kolos, 1965.

15. Sinyagin I.I. Plant nutrition area / I.I. Sinyagina - M .: Kolos, 1972.

The main principle of biodiversity conservation and its use in agriculture is environmentally friendly production or, as it is also called, organic farming. Inevitable negative consequences for external environment with traditional farming, they became the reason for the requirement to strengthen the environmental friendliness of agricultural production.

Among the harmful consequences of traditional agriculture is not only a decrease in the quality of food, but also a deterioration in the situation with the environment in general. For example, the ingress of various harmful substances and residues into the soil and products, deterioration of the humus content of the soil and its structure, the release of nutrients and greenhouse gases into water bodies and the air, as well as changes in natural landscapes. Global problems the environment: human-induced climate change, soil erosion and desertification, water scarcity problems, and the decline in natural biodiversity are linked to food production and sustainable use of natural resources.

Eco-production philosophy

Non-conflict in relation to nature is the basis of eco-farming. Green production systems are not only prepared for threats that degrade the environment and products. According to the current definition in Western countries, clean production is an agriculture that is based on the principles of sustainable development. It includes techniques in accordance with which the principles and models of subsistence economy activity are taken into account at all stages of plant growing, caring for animals by analogy with how it happens in nature. In accordance with this, environmentally friendly production is a holistic and evolving production system, and not a series of disparate measures based only on the control of chemical, biological purity or the way a product is sold.

Manufacturing systems and housekeeping certification include control and traceability aimed at manufacturing systems, the implementation of various stages and compliance with the rules. Eco-farms in Europe receive special subsidies. Receipt of subsidies depends on the annual environmental control approved by the farm. The price of organic products is determined by the market. As a rule, it is higher than the price of conventional products if the products have a corresponding environmental certificate.

Intensive or Ecological?

Globally, the principles of organic agriculture and food processing are formalized by IFOAM.

Many of the goals, principles and practical adaptations of organic farming are attempted in other growing and production systems as well. These are, in particular:

The use of legumes for nitrogen fixation.

Application of organic fertilizers using manure and green manure.

Biological soil cultivation through deep-rooted plants and perennial crops.

Improving the welfare of production animals.

Prevention of diseases of plants and animals.

Reducing and even eliminating the use of chemicals.

Change of plants, as well as care for soil fertility and crop rotation.

An attempt to close the turnover of nutrients.

The use of natural entomophages.

Determination of food quality based on factors of nutritional physiology.

Balance of moves

From the point of view of plant protection in ecologically clean production, there is a question of the genetic background of plants, as well as the management of many complex biological interactions of environmental factors. In practice, this means taking preventive measures against diseases and pests. These include crop rotation, resistant varieties, healthy breeding material, preference for natural enemies of pests, and balance in the ecosystem. Direct, mechanical protection against typical weeds is also needed, as well as the use of natural, non-industrial means of protection. There are many complex problems in plant protection in organic production, which seriously interfere with production, as well as complicate the marketing of products. On the other hand, in environmentally friendly production, to some extent, weeds balance the ecology, and, for example, become a habitat for natural enemies of pests.

The use of synthetic plant protection products is considered as interfering with the activity of soil microorganisms and insects, and spreading over too large an area. They can have long-term effects that are unknown, as well as the combined effects of different drugs. The emergence of resistant populations of pests is the main harm from prolonged use of chemicals. They can concentrate in the soil, their residues are dangerous for consumers, etc. The ban in recent years on the use of many long-term remedies, such as those causing cancer, has raised the suspicion of drug consumers and users of other remedies as well.

The use of genetically modified (GMO) living organisms is even more strictly regulated. The use of such plants or animals is contrary to the principles of environmentally friendly cleaner production... That is, you cannot use, for example, genetically modified plant varieties that are resistant to any diseases or pests.

Russian eco-market is waiting for laws

In Russia, environmentally friendly production is not yet regulated at the national level. The first definition of organic agricultural products (organic products) was published in the document "Additions and amendments No. 8 to SanPiN 2.3.2.1078-01 Hygiene requirements food safety and nutritional value ”. There is no more precise national description, regulation, control or certification yet. Also, the market for environmentally friendly products is undeveloped and does not yet have clearly built structural links.

Organic products can be certified on a variety of grounds, such as purity. Environmentally friendly usually means being free from various residues. Production is considered environmentally friendly if chemical products are not used for plant protection and fertilization. In fact, many Russian farms, for example, in crop production, adhere to elements of environmental principles. Such as the application of organic fertilizers, the use of legumes, crop rotation and little or no significant use of crop protection products. That is, in practice, the movement in small steps towards environmentally friendly production for some farms can be organic and relatively easy.

However, agricultural production remains predominantly industrial. Large-scale production, concentration and centralization, specialization, imports of feed, problems associated with the storage of manure, its processing and application have little in common with the principles of eco-management. The same applies to the sectoral division of agricultural sectors. It would seem that the related crop and livestock production are in reality so far apart from each other that it is difficult to adapt to them an ecological way of thinking about the economy as a whole system in which nutrients are wrapped inside the enterprise.