Similarity concept. Define concepts

The fact that some things show similarities or differences among themselves is very important point for the classification process. Despite its apparent simplicity, the concept of similarity and especially the procedures used to measure similarity are not so simple. Indeed, the concept of similarity is closely related to such fundamental epistemological issues as: "How can we form useful abstract concepts that allow us to bring order to what we know?" Of course, to answer this question, you need to be able to sort things into classes, which requires the ability to combine things that are perceived as similar. The problem of similarity, however, lies not in the simple recognition of similar or dissimilar things, but in the place these concepts occupy in scientific research. Science for fruitful development must be based on objective, reproducible procedures; thus, the development of statistical procedures to measure a more “objective” similarity of things is a natural consequence of the need for reproducible and reliable classifications.

Quantifying similarity is based on the concept of a metric. In this approach to similarity, events are represented by points in a coordinate space, and the observed similarities and differences between the points are in accordance with the metric distances between them (Tversky, 1977). The dimension of space is determined by the number of variables used to describe events. There are four standard criteria that a similarity measure must meet in order to be a metric:

1) Symmetry. Two objects x and y are given; the distance between them satisfies the condition

2) Inequality of the triangle. Three objects x, y, z are given; the distances between them satisfy the condition

Obviously, this is simply a statement that the length of any side of a triangle is less than or equal to the sum of the other two sides. The resulting expression is also called metric inequality.

3) The distinguishability of non-identical objects. Given two objects x and y:

4) Indistinguishability of identical objects. For two identical objects

that is, the distance between these objects is zero.

These mathematical requirements are very important, therefore many researchers, among whom the most famous are Jardine and Sibsan (1971) and Clifford and Stephens (1975), put forward arguments against the mechanical use of similarity coefficients that are not metrics. Not all of the distance measures discussed below can be metrics. A number of correlation measures are not metrics. Coefficients that are not metrics may not be collectively monotonic; in other words, the values different ratios on the same data will not change consistently. This raises concerns that the ratios might indicate very different dependencies between objects. Since such a recognized measure of similarity as the mixed moment of Pearson's correlation clearly does not satisfy the third criterion, and, as Clifford and Stephenson (1975) believe, the second criterion (i.e., the triangle inequality) may not be satisfied in many applications, then it should be checked that whether some measure is really a metric.

Despite the obvious importance of metrics, they are by no means the only way to describe the similarity of objects. Of course, based on philosophical considerations, which are beginning to be confirmed by psychophysiological studies, it is possible to understand the similarity of objects as a comparison of them characteristic features; thus, similarity scores can be based on a feature matching process (Tversky, 1977). This notion of similarity does not lead to a natural dimension for its representation. Moreover, there is a large group of social studies in which the similarity between objects is directly assessed. For example, you can take as a basis the degree of relationship of objects, and in studies of this kind, there is often an asymmetry in the relationship of similarity. In other words, object A may correspond to B, but B may not correspond to A to the same extent (for example, Adam may love Betty, although Betty does not like him at all). This type of relationship is also characteristic of the economy in the case when one state imports more goods from another country than it exports. Asymmetry causes additional difficulties in calculating similarity rates. Tversky (1977) provides a good introduction to these issues. Cluster analysts should be aware that there are several types of similarities and that while many of the coefficients and measures commonly used in quantitative classification approaches are metrics, there are alternatives to applying these measures that may be appropriate and necessary in the context of the study. ... The choice of the similarity measure, therefore, should be an organic part of the research plan, determined by the theoretical, practical and philosophical content of the classification task.

Communication is the main cultural and historical condition for the transfer of social and historical experience, a complex multifaceted process of establishing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities, including the exchange of information, the development of a strategy for interaction, perception and understanding by people of each other.

Types of: communication (communication content) and interaction (communication form)

impact - transfer of movement / information / energy from one object to another

influence is the process and result of a change by one subject of the behavior and psyche of another subject, plus the impact on the state, thoughts, feelings and actions of another person using exclusively psychological means, with the granting of him the right and time of response to this effect.

Those. impact is a process, and impact is a process and a result.

Types of impact: physical, socio-psychological, psychological.

Types of impact by field of activity: economic, political, legal, etc.

Impact as a broad concept includes influence, but influence consists of acts of influence.

Psychological impact and influence is synonymous.

Types of impact: subject-object, subject-subject; direct, indirect; arbitrary, involuntary; direct, mediated.

33. The phenomenon of personal influence. Types of influence.
34. Tactics of influence: description and appropriateness of application.

Personal influence is the ability to influence another in a motivating, calming, or other developmental way. At the same time, changing not only human behavior, but also views, motives, consciousness, even character.

If only personal success, personal benefit and satisfaction of needs become the goals of the influence of the influencing person, then this will be a manifestation of personal influence and not personal, when higher or spiritual needs come into play - the need for self-actualization and motivation for growth, or the need to serve others, motivation for help is the ability personal influence.

Personal influence is carried out only when both subjects of interaction show good will to communicate, when one person transfers his personal (knowledge, experience) to the other, and the other sincerely wants to accept it.

Influence tactics and techniques:

Open: persuasion (be open about goals and compelling arguments)
Manipulation (hidden, cunning moves, tricks, combinations).
Overwhelming influence (paralysis of the opponent's will, submission (psychological boxing, psychological karate, etc.).
Non-standard influence (confusing, confusing)
Suggestion: hypnotic influence
Strategic influence (big combinations, tactical moves, playing chess)

Personal influence - needs: transfer of experience - goals - learning - strategies: developmental impact - result :?

Personal influence - needs: get 5 at the expense of others - goals: personal gain - strategy - manipulative influence - result: 5

In the psychological literature, we often find the definition of the concept of "influence" than the definition of the concept of "personal influence". Psychological influence is defined as "the process and result of change by one subject of behavior, psyche of another subject" or as "impact on the state, thoughts, feelings and actions of another person using exclusively psychological means, with the granting of him the right and time to respond to this impact." Personal influence was understood at the beginning of the 20th century as "the ability to act on the character of another person attractively or repulsively and at the same time be successful."

Personal influence a certain property of the individual, personal quality, a certain essential power of a person, namely his ability to influence another in an encouraging, restraining, calming or other developing way, while changing not only human behavior, but also views, motives, consciousness and even character.

In this case, the main result and the highest goal of personal influence is a change that occurs in the consciousness and soul of another person, and not beneficial for the influencing changes in actions. The author of "Fundamentals of Psychotechnics" Hugo Münsterberg noted that the main component of the phenomenon of personal influence is the enrichment or change of personality, which has constancy, no matter how insignificant it may be, and remains at the disposal of the individual as a new part of his system of knowledge. If only personal success, personal gain and satisfaction of one's own needs become the goals of the influence of the influencing person, then this will more likely be a manifestation of "personal" influence, and not "personal". Personal influence is involved in almost every act of human communication and interaction in society, when we satisfy any of the needs of our personality: the need for security, love, power, self-respect. When higher or spiritual needs come into play - the need for self-actualization and the motivation for growth, or the need to serve other people and the motivation for help - the ability of personal influence is manifested, which is more connected with the essence of a person, and not with his personality, the role of which defines society. But as for the manifestation of the needs for self-actualization and growth, according to A. Maslow, "good", healthy conditions are needed, so for the manifestation of the ability of personal influence of a higher level, a healthy, mature individuality is needed. A person can exercise a truly personal, or "essential" influence, freed from all "personal" predilections, from philosophical dogmas, prejudices, stereotypes, social norms, abandoned a sense of significance, superiority, self-sufficiency, having a creative or expanded level of consciousness. Personal influence is an act of creativity, and creativity takes place not so much in the external world as inside a person who strives for self-knowledge and self-improvement.

Personal influence is exercised only when both subjects of interaction show good will to communicate, when one person transfers to the other - in an open, non-violent form - something of his own, personal(knowledge, life experience), and the other sincerely wants to adopt it, and not take it by force or lure it out by cunning. It is obvious that the interaction of people at this level cannot take place in an atmosphere of fussiness or aggressiveness, when the consciousness is "clogged" purely personal needs. It requires the presence in the relationship of at least a minimum of trust, self-disclosure and condescension to the partner's position.

The complexity, multidimensionality of the ability of personal influence is also confirmed by the ideas of everyday consciousness.

Thus, personal influence is a complex phenomenon, representing and personality ability, and the process of interaction, and the result of the impact, which is not always obvious. It can manifest itself on different levels, depending on the development of a person's self-awareness and spirituality. Its nature is multifaceted and is associated with the manifestations of various biosocial properties of a person, and its explicit and hidden effects are associated with both everyday surface contacts and deeper trusting relationships.

Types of influence

As a basis for identifying types of influence and personality types, such properties were taken as aggressiveness - friendliness, emotional instability - self-regulation, sociability - isolation, risk motive - the motive for avoiding failure, authoritarianism - partnership, as well as frustration, conflict, impulsivity, reflexivity, adaptability, empathy, exhaustion, activity, and such factors of self-awareness as self-esteem, self-control. The criterion of developed self-awareness was the main one in identifying the highest level of personal influence, to which the “Personal magnetism” type belongs. The criterion of dissatisfaction with relationships and life in general was the main one in determining the lower continuum of levels of personal influence. According to this criterion, the lower position is occupied by the type of "manipulative adaptability", followed by "militant virtue" and "frustration influence".

In total, we distinguish 7 types of influence, of which four are the main ones, and three are compensatory. The main types of personal influence: 1) social intelligence, 2) personal magnetism, 3) frustration influence, 4) partnership and trust based on empathy. The types of compensatory, or indirect, influence include: manipulative adaptability, responsibility and competence, "militant virtue."

The first type of influence is social intelligence - unites people who are easy to communicate, adapt well to any situation, self-confident, with high adequate self-esteem. Their communication is based on the affiliation need and motivation for help, while they are characterized by satisfaction with communication and life in general. These are individuals with good self-regulation, who are able to develop willpower in themselves.

Personal magnetism - type of influence, close to the first, only with even more pronounced social intelligence, self-esteem and a high degree of self-acceptance, as well as with higher indicators of influence, communication skills, adaptability and self-confidence. Representatives of this type influences are sensitive to the emotional states of others, understand people well and their non-verbal reactions, are friendly, susceptible to criticism. Their distinguishing feature is complete composure and tact.

Frustrating the type of personal influence draws us a portrait of a sociable and even somewhat charming person who easily comes into contact, endowed with a sense of humor, self-confident, impulsive, able to take risks, focused on achievements and results in significant activities, but at the same time does not differ in high self-esteem, self-control , stability, reflexivity and satisfaction with communication. In the communication of such people, an authoritarian style and a desire to lock a partner on their problems and emotions are often manifested (egocentric self-disclosure). The state is characterized by tension and discomfort, since frustration, aggression, conflict and neuroticism prevail in it. Frustration plays an important role in the lives of these people. Any person will be frustrated if he is told: "You will never succeed", "You will never be able to do such a thing" or "This is not given to you." But for people of this type, such words are at the same time a challenge, an incentive to action. It is this constructive component of frustration that prevails in individuals prone to aggressive frustration.

Individuals with trust-partner type of influence are humble, considerate, understanding and trusting interlocutors. They have a strongly expressed affiliation need and need for self-disclosure, for confidential communication, while they are altruistic, inclined to maintain equal partnerships. These personalities are distinguished by high empathy, reflection and sensitivity and, possibly, because of this, high exhaustion. This type of influence often manifests itself in an atmosphere of intimate and confidential communication, when partners feel safe, no one encroaches on their status quo and there are conditions for realizing the need for self.The next three types of influence are compensatory, or indirect, since their representatives belong to categories of low-power, super-cautious, not very self-confident people. Nevertheless, each of these three groups has its own characteristics in terms of ways of influencing people, therefore it is considered as an independent type.

Influence manifested as manipulativeadaptability, presupposes the presence of good communication skills, adaptability and manipulative abilities: flexibility of tactics, diplomacy and at the same time persistence, persistence in contacts. These personalities are also characterized by stability, sensitivity, caution in decision-making and motivation to avoid failure. They are not impulsive, do not like to take risks, do not differ in high confidence, responsibility, their moral attitudes and motivation to help are not very high. disclosure.

As a stable type, "manipulative influence" in its pure form is not often found, but as a tactic - everywhere, since it has not only a negative, but also a positive communicative aspect associated with flexibility, insight, and social intelligence.

Targeting responsibility and competence is inherent in individuals with a very high responsibility, educated, with sufficiently high moral standards and self-esteem. These are mostly shy people, they have a low test indicator of influence, they are not impulsive and do not like to take risks, they are very prudent and careful in their actions and decisions, painstaking and thorough in their work. Striving for stability, compliance, competence, high efficiency and endurance are their main features. These are subjects that are logical by nature, unwilling to quickly change their position or course, patient, but capable of being stubborn. Such people achieve authority thanks to their intelligence, thorough knowledge of the subject, reliability and responsibility. People around you know that you can rely on these people, they will not let you down, so they are trusted and their opinions are listened to. Most often it is found among representatives of professions requiring accuracy, punctuality and increased responsibility, among professions of the "man-technician" type.

The seventh type of influence - "Militant virtue"(the term is borrowed from K. Naranjo; Naranjo, 1995). He is represented by rather authoritarian personalities with high moral principles, but low responsibility. Their attitudes include the obligation of correct, in compliance with all moral norms, behavior of others, but not always - their own. This is a rare type of people who make great claims to the behavior of others, exceeding the requirements in relation to themselves. In this way, they influence other people, transforming their "I want" into "You have to."

New Zealand psychologist B. Turin (Guerin, 1995) set the goal of his research to confirm the theory that the basic properties of groups can determine (predict) the tactics of influence that an individual uses in relation to them. He used a version of the Hinkin and Shrishaim questionnaire, which examines six main tactics of influence:

Exchange(exchange) - friendship exchange or material assets;
Flattery(ingratiation) - gaining favor, trust;
Belief(rationality) - appeal to logical arguments and additional information;
Persistence(assertiveness) - is realized in a mixture of emotional pressure and confrontation;
Union(coalition) - using the support of your group;
Appeal to authority(upward appeal) - a reference to authority for the purpose of influence, appeal.

B. Turin found that persistence and tactics exchange used with an individual rather than a group, and with friends rather than strangers. People try to avoid using these tactics in group situations, since in the group the power of persistence and exchange is distributed among the participants. The results regarding the influence on strangers are explained by the same reasons as the results of the influence on the group, when the distribution of the influence power is based on the reduction of social consequences and responsibility in group situations. The mutual social foresight and responsibility that are required with the tactics of sharing and perseverance are less pronounced in the case of strangers.

brain teaser and formal arguments used more often in groups than with an individual person, and more with strangers than with friends. The author suggests that logic and formality may be unacceptable ways of communicating with friends. In turn, when influencing a group, the force of influence of logical and formal arguments does not dissipate. That is, if the result determined by logical arguments is correct, these arguments will have the same impact on all members of the group. In the case of tactics of exchange and persistence, we get the opposite effect, since these tactics rely on social acceptance of consequences throughout the entire process of influence. (An example is the use of these tactics in court: when the facts or evidence of the defense is weak, then lawyers tend to develop more rapport in front of a jury by using persistence tactics instead of rational arguments.)

As for tactics coalitions and appeals to authority, then they are more often used in a group than with an individual person, and more often with strangers than with friends.

Results for winning tactics by ingratiating themselves and flattery showed no difference between group and individual exposure, friends or strangers. In addition, these tactics are viewed negatively: participants noted that other people use these tactics more often than themselves, and more often with strangers than with friends. This is consistent with the views of many other psychologists, according to which fawning is a kind of "illegal" behavior.

Thus, if you decide to influence not one person, but the whole group, or at strangers to you of people, it's better to rely logical and formal arguments; it is good to refer to authority or ask for support to his group. But when communicating friends or spouses logic and formality unacceptable (Fig. 10.b). Here tactics may be more effective. exchange or emotional pressure(fig.10.66). Flattery and ingratiation can also have questionable effects. If you enjoy using them, then do it better with strangers than with friends.

35. The concept of relationships in psychological science. Modern classification types of relationships.
36. Psychological characteristics of social and psychological relations.

Relationship types:

Official, unofficial (for work); Horizontal Vertical; business (joint activities), personal (not related to the implementation of joint activities); rational (per object), emotional (per subject)

Social relations: ideological, economic, political, social.

Whole groups form the type of interpersonal relationship and determine the degree of interconnectedness between individuals. Conditional relationship types can be as follows:

a) friendships (acquaintances, determined by the degree of interpersonal attractiveness, not obliging to maintain a stable relationship);
b) companionship (relations arising in official organization with a business focus, sufficiently formalized, determined social activities of people);
c) friendly (relationships differentiated into emotional (confessional) and instrumental (effective);
d) matrimonial, including all the variety of interactions.

The essence of social and psychological relations... In the process of their life and activity, production and consumption of material goods, people interact with each other, as a result of which there arise and develop public relations... Their nature and content are largely determined by the conditions of the interaction itself, the goals pursued by specific people in its course, as well as the place and role that they occupy in society.

There are certain social relationships:

in the form of manifestation, they include material (economic or industrial), legal, ideological, political, moral, religious, aesthetic and other relations;
from the point of view of belonging to various subjects, one can speak of national (interethnic), class, confessional, etc. relations;
analysis of the functioning of connections between people in society allows you to distinguish vertical and horizontal relations;
by the nature of the regulation, public relations are divided into official and unofficial

All types of social relations are permeated with the psychological relations of people, that is, subjective connections that arise as a result of their actual interaction and are already accompanied by various emotional and other experiences (likes and dislikes) of the individuals participating in them.

The difference between social and psychological relations is that the former are inherently “material” and are a consequence of a certain distribution of social roles in society, which in most cases are taken for granted, are in a sense impersonal. Psychological relationships are completely subjective.

In social relations, first of all, essential features are manifested social connections between the spheres of human activity, types of work and communities. They have an objective dependence on each other of persons performing certain social functions(roles), but at the same time without regard to those specific individuals who, in the implementation of these functions, interact and personify them with their personal characteristics.

Psychological (interpersonal) relationships are the result of direct contacts between specific people who are endowed with certain characteristics, are able to express their likes and dislikes, be aware and experience them

The personality is inevitably presented in the system of social relations, that is, in a certain "social context" reflecting the picture of the personality's real relations with outside world... Each individual, each group enters into a relationship with each other.

Individual moments of social relations are presented to their participants only as interpersonal relationships, which are perceived accordingly: "evil person", "cunning merchant", "soulless official", etc. Quite often the motives of behavior are explained by this one, lying on the surface a picture of relations, and not at all real, objective relations. Everything is further complicated by the fact that psychological relations are the real reality of social relations - outside of them there are no “pure” social relations somewhere. Therefore, in almost all group interactions, participants act simultaneously in two qualities - as performers of impersonal social role and as unique human personalities.

Each side in the system of interpersonal relations is bound by special rights and responsibilities. This makes it possible to introduce the concept of "interpersonal role" as a fixation of a person's position in the system of not social relations, but only group ties, on the basis of not an objective place in this system, but only individual psychological characteristics personality.

Among the interpersonal roles that arise in competition due to similar interests, there may be “adversary,” “enemy,” “conspirator,” and “ally.” And in situations, for example, cooperation can be “colleague”, “partner”, “supplier”, “client”, “fan”, etc. board "," scapegoat ", etc.

There is a distinction between interpersonal and social roles. Despite the fact that both types of roles can be determined by the uniqueness of the expectations of the participants in interpersonal relations, interpersonal and social roles are different.

Social roles are standardized and impersonal. Rights and obligations remain unchanged regardless of who exercises them. However, the rights and responsibilities that are established in interpersonal roles depend entirely on the individual characteristics of the participants, their feelings and preferences. Each person implements his own type of interaction and communication with a partner, adapting to the requirements presented to him by specific individuals with whom he comes into contact. Still detection personality traits in the style of performing a social role, it evokes responses in other members of the group, and, thus, a certain system of interpersonal relations arises in the group.

Attitude is the subjective side of the reflection of reality, the result of human interaction with the environment. In psychology - in the very general view- the mutual arrangement of objects and their properties.

The founder of the psychology of relations in Russia was A.F. Lazursky. According to Lazursky, attitude is a system-forming factor in the structure of personality. Characterizing the personality as a complex whole, he divided its manifestations into two kinds: endopsychic and exopsychic. Endopsychics is a collection of all interrelated and interdependent mental elements and functions. This is the "internal mechanism of the human personality"

Exopsychics is determined by the attitude of the individual to external objects, to the environment. The concept of the environment is taken in the broadest sense of the word. This is nature, material things, other people, social groups, science, art, religion, mental life the person himself. Relationship to different categories reality differ in the form of relations, the form of achievements, the form of satisfaction with them, in direction (in sign) (positive - negative). The foundation of personality, according to Lazursky, are 2 types of relationships: 1) the relationship between the personality and environment and 2) the relationship between its endo- and exopsychic manifestations. These relations go through different levels of development, and their ratios are also different at different levels.

The starting point for personality psychology, according to Myasishchev, is the characterization of the essence of a person as an ensemble of social relations. Social relations exist in two forms: as objective relations and as subjective relations.

The latter are also called personality relationships, psychological, internal, life relationships. Reflecting objective social relations, these subjective relations "characterize the personality of each person to the greatest extent ... It is these internal relations that actually constitute the core of the personality." In a developed form, they represent an integral system individual, selective, conscious ties with various aspects of objective reality. The levels of development of the system of relations are determined by: 1) the level of personality relations: ideological, concrete-personal and vital; 2) the comparative role of socio-collectivistic and individual-egoistic tendencies in relationships with people; 3) selectively positive or negative attitude towards certain objects in one or another form of activity. On these grounds, 3 levels are distinguished in the development of the system of relations. So, the lower level corresponds to the primitive, vital, situationally conditioned nature of relations (drives). The middle level corresponds to the predominance of relations of a concrete-personal nature of personal sympathy, antipathy, direct utilitarian interest or calculation. VN Myasishchev proposed an original concept for measuring relationships. As parameters of this measurement, he identified the degree of stability, basic character, derivation from basic relations, dominance, emotionality, degree of generalization, adherence to principles, degree of activity, level of consciousness.

The system of relations is formed as a result of the development, education and self-education of a person. These processes take place in the context of communication and social practice.

PURPOSE: To study the individual differences of schoolchildren in the development of the processes of analysis and generalization.

EQUIPMENT:

a set of 9 pairs of words to be compared,
blank sheet of paper, pen.

WORKING PROCESS: Before starting the experiment, the experimenter prepares an assignment form. To do this, you need to choose from the proposed three sets of 9 pairs of words, only one (any) and write these 9 Pairs of words on a separate sheet of paper. During the experiment, the experimenter gives the subject a task form, a blank sheet of paper, a pen and gives him the following instruction: “The form contains 9 pairs of words. For each pair of words, list as many similarities and differences as possible. Complete the assignment in writing, in the order in which the word pairs are given. "

When conducting an experiment, the experimenter should pay special attention to the subject's behavior when he begins to compare the first incomparable pair of concepts (No. 4 in the set). If the student finds it difficult to compare these words, expresses surprise, confusion, then the experimenter immediately gives an explanation: “There are such pairs of words that are incomparable. In this case, you need to write:

"You can't compare them." If the student immediately begins to compare this pair, then he is given the opportunity to write down the answer for this pair, and then an explanation is made regarding the "incomparable" ones.

Cow horse	Sparrow chicken	Sparrow crow
Tram bus	Plane train	Sleigh cart
Morning evening	Rain-snow	Evening - morning
Bird river		Glass - cock
Apple-cherry	Birch oak	Lake-river
Deception-error	Hunger-thirst	Fairy tale-song
Owl basket	Wolf moon	Wind-salt
Pilot tanker	Doctor-teacher	Gold Silver
Little girl is a big doll	Painting-portrait	Milk-water

PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS:

The number of signs of similarity and difference is calculated for each pair and in general for the task. This is a quantitative indicator.
Held qualitative analysis highlighted features. In terms of content, each of the signs can be attributed to one of three groups (see the name below, in the protocol table).
The table is filled. The table indicates the number of signs of similarity and difference for each pair (as a whole and for each of the three groups separately).

SAMPLE TABLE TO THE METHODOLOGY COMPARISON OF CONCEPTS

Compared concept pairs	number of similarities	identical components and similarity in size, color, shape	functional similarity	belong to one class (one generic concept	number of differences	difference in size, color, shape	functional differences	Belong to different generic concepts









Total signs

NOTE: The signs of the 1st group are insignificant, the signs of the 2nd group and the 3rd are significant.

CONCLUSION: The more significant signs of similarity and difference, the subject names, the better his processes of analysis and generalization are developed.

What are the similarities and differences between the concepts of "humanism", "humanity", "humanization of education"? .

The similarity of the concepts lies in the fact that they are all a manifestation of universal human values, which must be considered in two mutually complementary senses. First, these are values that are significant not for some narrow, limited circle of people, but for all of humanity. Moreover, the features of their expression depend on the specifics of the cultural and historical development of a particular country, its religious traditions, and the type of civilization. Secondly, universal human values are a concept that is not historically and socially localized. They have a permanent, enduring nature, acting as an ideal, a regulatory idea, a model of behavior for all people.

The difference in concepts is that humanism means views, ideas, views that affirm the value of a person as a person, humanity is a quality of a person, which is a combination of its moral and psychological characteristics, expressing a conscious and empathic attitude towards a person as to highest value, and the humanization of education is considered as the most important socio-pedagogical principle, reflecting modern social trends in the development of the education system, affirming the poly-subject essence of the modern educational process.

On the the present stage development of society, all these concepts acquire the meaning of a social ideal. At the same time, a person is considered as the highest goal of social development, in the process of which conditions are created for the full realization of all his potentials, the achievement of harmony in the socio-economic and spiritual spheres of life, the highest flowering of his personality.

In the modern interpretation of humanism, the emphasis is on the holistic universal understanding human personality - the harmonious development of its intellectual, spiritual, moral and aesthetic potential. Thus, from the standpoint of humanism, the ultimate goal of upbringing is so that every person can become a full-fledged subject of activity, cognition and communication, that is, a free, independent creature responsible for what is happening in this world.

What is the role of the teacher in the implementation of the main directions of humanistic educational activities?

The role of the teacher in the implementation of the main directions of humanistic educational activity is to focus on the personality of the child:

Study of children;

Creation of conditions for self-development;

Organization of the active life of children;

Ensuring the comfort of every child in the children's community.

What are the similarities and differences between the traditional approach to the content of education and the approach from the standpoint of the values of education?

The similarity between the traditional approach to the content of upbringing and the approach from the standpoint of the values of upbringing is thatupbringing characterizes the functioning of any society and is aimed at transferring social, universal values to the individual

The difference is that the focus of pedagogical axiology is orientation pedagogical process on the value orientations of the individual (their identification, study and formation), the approach from the standpoint of values in pedagogy involves considering the mechanisms of transforming cultural values into the world of the individual and, accordingly, the influence of a developing personality on changes in the value system of society, its cultural forms.

Education by itself is not able to change the objective conditions of the life of an individual and society. However, forming the reasonable needs of students, developing their moral attitudes and qualities, spirituality, it lays the prerequisites for change life circumstances in the positive direction. That is, upbringing as a part of education and school are the most important fields of activity in which creative transformations are possible, capable of giving a value start to the spiritual transformation of the country.

Name at least three of the most significant essential characteristics moral education.

The fundamental basic category of moral education is the concept of moral feeling.

The subjective driving force behind the development of moral consciousness is moral thinking.

Moral feelings, consciousness and thinking are the basis and stimulus for the manifestation of moral will.

Moral behavior- this is the understanding by each person of the realities of the surrounding world, which results in a system of actions

2. Pick up at least three statements of famous teachers about the essence and significance of humanistic education of children.

1. “If a teacher has only love for the work, he will be a good teacher. If a teacher has only love for the student, like a father or mother, he will be better than the teacher who has read all the books, but has no love either for the work or for the students. If a teacher combines love for work and for students, he is a perfect teacher "

(L. N. Tolstoy)

Humanism is the only thing that is probably left of the peoples and civilizations that have gone into oblivion - books, folk tales, marble sculptures, architectural proportions.

(L. N. Tolstoy)

The great Russian writer and teacher Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy saw in the teaching profession, first of all, a humanistic principle, which finds its expression in love for children ..

2. “The age of mathematics is a good catch phrase, but it does not reflect the whole essence of what is happening today. The world is entering the Age of Man. More than ever before, we are obliged to think now about what we put into a person's soul. "

(V.A. Sukhomlinsky)

Genuine means, first of all, .

(V.A. Sukhomlinsky)

V. A. Sukhomlinskymade a significant contribution to the theory and practice of humanistic education made. his ideas of citizenship and humanity in pedagogy turned out to be consonant with our modernity.

3. "A person should be approached with an optimistic hypothesis, even if with some risk of making a mistake."

(A.S. Makarenko)

The thought expressed in these words and running like a red thread through the entire educational system of Makarenko is one of its basic principles, the author deeply believes in the creative powers of man, in his great opportunities.

Target: the technique is used in the study of comparison operations, analysis and synthesis in the thinking of children and adolescents

Description:

The subject reads or listens to the given pairs of words and answers for each pair to the question: "How are they similar?", And then to the question: "How are they different?" All his answers are fully recorded in the protocol.

Using the first examples, the researcher can explain to the subject the moments that he does not understand, and must also insist on the subject's observance of the sequence of the task: first, a description of the similarities, and then the differences.

Stimulus material:

1. Morning - evening

2. Cow - horse

3. Pilot - tanker

4. Skis - skates

5. Tram - bus

6. River - lake

7. Bicycle - motorcycle

8. Dog - cat

9. The crow is a fish

10. Lion - tiger

11. Train - plane

12. Cheating is a mistake

13. Shoe - pencil

14. Apple - cherry

15. Lion - dog

16. The crow is a sparrow

17. Milk - water

18. Gold - silver

19. Sleigh - cart

20. Sparrow - chicken

21. Oak - birch

22. Fairy tale - song

23. Painting - portrait

24. Horse - rider

25. Cat - Apple

26. Hunger is thirst

Analysis of the results:

It takes into account the extent to which the subject can distinguish essential signs of similarity and difference in concepts. The inability to distinguish these signs indicates the weakness of generalizations and a tendency to concrete thinking.

In addition, the researcher needs to pay attention to how the subject fulfills the requirements regarding a given sequence when performing tasks, which is easier for him - finding similarities or differences.

Preschoolers and junior schoolchildren, instead of highlighting the general, usually point to differences in objects, since the operation of difference is based on visual-effective and visual-figurative thinking. Behind the indication of the general lies the operation of introducing into an abstract category.Thus, the fact that difference ripens earlier and then generalization indicates a change in psychological operations, a transition from visual forms of thinking to verbal-logical generalization. Therefore, for schoolchildren, tasks of such categories will be especially difficult: for example, "crow is a fish" - words that have a hard time finding common ground. In younger schoolchildren, a generalization operation arises, which takes the form of highlighting common features, but very often it also hides a visual comparison or introduction of objects into a general visual situation, the tasks of the category are difficult for them, for example, "rider - horse", words are in conflict , they are very difficult to compare.

The consistency of the course of the subject's statements is also assessed.

Having an inert, viscous thinking, the subject slides when comparing words from similarities to differences or vice versa, being distracted by insignificant, secondary points, paying great attention to them, can lose the thread of reasoning, etc.

Source: Almanac psychological tests... M., 1995.

The list also contains "incomparable concepts" (river - bird; glass - rooster; shoe - pencil; wolf - moon; wind - salt; glasses - money; cat - apple). When presenting such a pair, there is no need to rush into explanations. If the child is confused, then he can be prompted that there are words that are not comparable. In the future, such explanations are not made. The point is that these pairs of words are chosen in such a way that they provoke a specific "situational" statement. In addition to the concreteness of thinking, you can also see "slipping", which indicates the instability of the mind. If a student insists on the comparability of incomparable concepts and comes up with unnatural explanations, there is reason to assume reasonableness, a tendency to demagoguery. The norm is 18-23 compared concepts.

Analysis of the results.

A quantitative and qualitative analysis of the results is carried out. Quantitative processing consists in counting the number of similarities and differences identified by the subjects in each pair. A high level of development of the comparison operation is noted in the case when the student named more than twenty features, the average - ten to fifteen features, low - less than ten features. In the process of processing the answers, it is important to take into account which traits the student noted in a larger number - similarities or differences. how often did he use generic concepts.

This method is important for the diagnosis of mental underdevelopment or retardation. A mentally retarded child will not be able to complete the task of distracting a trait and introducing objects into the hierarchy of one category and will always replace such an answer either by indicating a difference or by introducing it into some visual situation. For a person with schizophrenia, the opposite is characteristic - a complete separation from the visual situation and generalization according to non-existent features of objects.

After conducting a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the results, we can conclude: out of 10 subjects high level development of comparison operations has only one child, 1 - above average, 2 - average and 6 people have a low level of development of comparison operations.

Form for registration of answers according to the methodology "Comparison of concepts"

Full name _____________________________ Age ______ Date ______________________

A couple of words	How are they similar?	What is the difference?
Morning evening
Cow horse
Pilot tanker
Skis
Tram bus
River-lake
Bike motorcycle
Dog Cat
Crow fish

Plane train
Deception-error
Pencil boot
Apple-cherry
Lion dog
Sparrow crow
Milk-water
Gold Silver
Sleigh cart
Sparrow chicken
Birch oak
Fairy tale song
Painting-portrait
Horse rider
Apple cat
Hunger-thirst

1 See Diagnostics learning activities and intellectual development of children / Ed. D.B. Elkonin. M., 1981 Features of the mental development of children of six to seven years of age / Ed. D.B. Elkonin, A.L. Venger, 1988.

2 Data on mass examination are presented in the works: A.L. Venger, E.V. Filippova, 1980, Diagnostics of educational activity ..., 1981.