Types of management decisions. Impulsivity: Causes of Impulsive Behavior Impulsive Decisions

UR classification is carried out according to the following criteria:

Ø the stage of bringing the product to the market (strategic marketing, R&D, preparation of production, bringing the product to the market, sale, etc.);

Ø subsystem of the management system (target, providing, etc.);

Ø scope (social, technical, technological, economic, production, financial, organizational, etc.);

Ø by management level (decisions of top, middle and lower management);

Ø by the source of the decision (proactive, programmatic [as prescribed], at the suggestion “from below”, situational);

Ø goals (commercial and non-commercial, quantitative, qualitative, general private, single-purpose, multi-purpose);

Ø management rank (top, middle, lowest);

Ø degree of regulation, i.e. the rigidity of setting the terms and conditions for the action of subordinates (regulating, orienting, recommending);

Ø scale (complex and individual solutions);

Ø the degree of uncertainty of the initial information (deterministic, probabilistic [risky], uncertain);

Ø production coverage (for the whole company, specialized);

Ø number of decisions in the process of their adoption (one- and multi-stage);

Ø decision makers (collective, collegial, individual, from the side of managers, from the side of performers);

Ø duration of consequences (long-, medium-, short-term);

Ø nature of the decision, connection with the planning hierarchy (strategic, tactical and operational);

Ø object of influence (external and internal);

Ø repeatability (one-time, repetitive);

Ø formalization methods (text, graphic and mathematical);

Ø forms of reflection (plan, program, order, order, instruction, instruction, request);

Ø accounting for data changes (rigid, flexible);

Ø independence (autonomous, complementary);

Ø uniqueness (standard [programmable] and non-standard, routine and innovative);

Ø complexity (situational, routine, departmental; solutions of medium complexity [current clarifications of the field of activity, solutions under stress and under pressure of time, solutions in exceptional cases]; innovative and strategic solutions);

Ø transmission method (verbal [oral], written and electronic);

Ø the principle of making and justifying decisions (intuitive , based on judgment, rational);

Ø personal characteristics of the manager (balanced, impulsive, inert, risky and cautious decisions);

Ø by development methods (quantitative, heuristic).

Collective solutions accepted by a group of people who may have different positions, powers, rights, degrees of responsibility, etc. (collectives of enterprises, working groups on problems). Collegial decision - a decision made by a group of equal participants (councils, board, etc.).

Quantitative solutions based on the application of mathematical methods and models, for example, methods of mathematical programming, statistical methods. Heuristic decisions based on the use of logic, intuition, experience.

Deterministic solutions are accepted in conditions of certainty in the presence complete information. Probabilistic (risk) decisions are accepted under conditions of probabilistic certainty (risk). Uncertain decisions accepted in conditions of uncertainty, i.e. in the absence of the necessary information on the problem.

Regulatory decisions, excluding independence, completely direct the activities of subordinates. Orientation solutions only the main points of activity are unambiguously determined; in solving secondary issues, the manifestation of the independence of subordinates is allowed. Recommended solutions outline the possibilities of activity of subordinates, providing a wide choice of specific ways and manifestations of initiative.

The ratio of proactive, situational and software solutions to a certain extent characterizes the style management activities... So, the absence of proactive decisions indicates the prevalence of a formal approach of the leader to his duties or his inability to independently manage the object. A large number of situational decisions, i.e. caused by the current situation in the controlled object, leads to the conclusion about the presence of deficiencies in management, about the ineffectiveness of the construction and functioning of the management system as a whole.

On the basis of uniqueness, 90% of solutions are programmable (standard) and are related to the purchase of goods, recruitment, formation of an assortment, etc. Non-standard (non-programmable) solutions have a one-time creative nature and are associated with the development of new technologies, the formation of a new structure. For programmable solutions, the structure of the solution itself and the procedure for its preparation and adoption have been worked out, while non-programmable solutions require a creative approach to development.

Usually, in making any decision, three points take place to varying degrees: intuition, judgment and rationality... When making intuitive solution people are based on their own feeling that their choice is correct. There is a "sixth sense" here, a kind of enlightenment, usually attended by representatives of the highest echelon of power. Middle managers rely more on information and computer assistance. Despite the fact that intuition sharpens along with the acquisition of experience, the continuation of which is precisely a high position, a manager who focuses only on it becomes a hostage of chance, and from the point of view of statistics, his chances for right choice not very high.

At the heart of judgment based judgment knowledge and meaningful experience of the past, as opposed to intuitive decisions, lie. Using them and relying on common sense, as amended to date, managers choose the option that brought the greatest success in a similar situation in the past. The problem is that past judgments cannot be correlated with a situation that did not take place before, and therefore there is simply no experience of solving it. In addition, with this approach, a leader tends to act mainly in those directions that are familiar to him, as a result of which he risks missing out on a good result in another area.

Rational solutions are taken on the basis of the strict logic of the process of finding a solution, based on the use of scientific methods of analysis, justification and optimization.

Since decisions are made by people, their character largely bears the imprint of the personality of the manager involved in their birth.

Balanced solutions accept managers who are attentive and critical of their actions, hypotheses and their testing. Usually, before starting to make a decision, they have a formulated initial idea, analyze and weigh all the pros and cons. Impulsive decisions – these are those whose authors easily generate a wide variety of ideas in an unlimited number, but are not able to properly check, clarify, evaluate them. Therefore, decisions turn out to be insufficiently substantiated and reliable; Inert solutions become the result of a careful and controlled search. In them, on the contrary, control and clarifying actions prevail over the generation of ideas, therefore it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance, and innovation in such decisions. Risky decisions differ from impulsive ones in that their authors do not thoroughly substantiate their hypotheses, since confident, unafraid of potential dangers, and willing to take risks. Cautious decisions characterized by a thorough assessment by the manager of all options, a supercritical approach to business. They are, to an even lesser extent than inert, distinguished by their novelty and originality.

Best option actions are usually called optimal. The solution is called optimal , if it provides an extremum (maximum or minimum) of the selection criterion.

The solution is called admissible(rational) if it meets certain constraints: resource, legal, moral and ethical.

Strategic decisions primarily related to the development of strategic documents (concepts, plans, targeted programs). Such solutions are focused on a fairly long-term perspective (at least 3-5 years).

Tactical decisions are aimed at detailing strategic decisions in a relatively short (medium-term and shorter) time interval in terms of the choice of methods, methods of implementing strategic decisions. They are sometimes referred to as strategic decisions for this time frame. While strategic decisions are made by top management, tactical decisions are made mainly by middle managers.

Operational solutions directly affect the implementation of strategic and tactical decisions. Operational decisions determine the content of the organization's current activities, form the basis of operational calendar plans and actions for their implementation. Sometimes operational decisions take on the character of urgent decisions. Decisions on hiring and firing, conducting advertising campaign, price changes and many others can be of an operational nature, their acceptance is often conditioned by changes in external and internal conditions, the course of implementation of plans.

Decision making can be done as formalized, and so informal by.

In the first case, we are talking about solutions to highly structured problems based on fairly clear algorithms, when formal means are used to substantiate the solutions under consideration - mathematical methods and Computer Engineering(at least - simple arithmetic calculations, for example, drawing up a schedule for entering the work of nurses based on the task of ensuring the necessary ratio between them and the number of patients).

In the second case, solutions are chosen mainly on the basis of the thinking of decision makers and specialists, i.e. informally.

Partially formalized solutions to a greater extent reflect the actual practice of making management decisions... For example, mathematical methods are used to process data of heuristic origin.

Management solution- This directive act of targeted impact on the object of management, based on the analysis of reliable data characterizing a specific management situation, defining the goal of action and containing a program to achieve the goal.

This is the result of analysis, forecasting, optimization, economic and medico-social justification and the choice of the only solution from a variety of options to achieve the goal.

The managerial decision is made by the authorized manager (the person responsible for making managerial decisions) within the powers granted to him, taking into account the current legislation. Management decisions are classified according to various criteria:

by solution implementation time(strategic, tactical, operational, routine);

according to the degree of participation of the team, individual specialists(individual, collegial);

taking into account the style and characterological characteristics of the leader(intuitive, judgmental, balanced, impulsive, inert, risky, cautious, etc.).

Let us dwell in more detail on solutions that take into account the management style and characterological characteristics of the leader. Practice shows that it is these circumstances (characteristics) that often play a decisive role in making a decision, and therefore, largely determine its consequences.

Intuitive solutions. When making an intuitive decision, people are based on their own feeling that their choice is correct, without following any logic.

There is a kind of enlightenment here. Despite the fact that intuition sharpens with experience, a leader who focuses only on it becomes a hostage of accidents, with different, in all kinds of situations, chances of making the right choice. However, in a completely unfamiliar, extreme situation that requires the adoption of operational decisions, intuition may turn out to be the correct and the only way out of this situation.

Judgment based decisions. In many ways they are similar to intuitive ones, probably because, at first glance, logic is poorly visible in them. They are based on knowledge and meaningful experience of the past. Using this experience, adjusted for the current circumstances, the manager chooses the solution option that brought the greatest result in a similar situation in the past.. Balanced solutions- accept leaders who are attentive and critical of their actions, hypotheses and their testing. As a rule, before starting to make a decision, they have a formulated initial idea.

Impulsive decisions- are accepted emotionally, without proper justification and verification, which is called "swoop". These decisions often turn out to be insufficiently correct and effective.

Inert solutions- are the result of a careful search. In them, on the contrary, control and clarifying actions prevail over the generation of ideas; therefore, such solutions lack modernity, originality, and innovation.

Risky decisions- associated with the responsibility assumed by the head for the implementation of the developed management decision without full confidence (guarantee) in a positive end result. Such decisions are justified when the leader has special qualities: initiative, courage, great competence - and makes a decision based on a deep analysis of the situation. At the same time, he does not miss the opportunity to assess the degree of risk of the decision made using special methods mathematical statistics and probability theory.

Cautious decisions- are characterized by a thorough assessment by the manager of all alternative solutions, a very critical approach to business, excluding any risk. They are, to an even lesser extent than inert, distinguished by novelty and originality.

Management decision making technology is a complex, closed management cycle, which includes the following main stages:

Diagnostics of a management problem or tasks;

Preliminary goal setting;

Collecting the necessary information;

Analysis of information;

Clarification and final formulation of goals, models of end results;

Justification and construction of a formalized model of a problem situation;

Development of alternative solutions to the problem;

Choice of a solution method;

Economic justification of the chosen solution;

Coordination of the decision with the higher management bodies;

Finalization and approval of the decision;

Organization of implementation of the decision;

Monitoring the implementation of the decision;

Encouraging performers to improve the quality of work, save resources, meet deadlines;

Analysis of individual stages of the solution implementation, making (if necessary) adjustments to it;

Analysis of the achievement of the set goals and models of the final results (upon completion of the deadlines for the execution of the decision).

The management solution must meet the following requirements:

targeting(full compliance with the set goals and objectives);

validity(the need to make this decision, and not another);

targeting(by performer);

consistency(consistency with previous solutions);

legitimacy(compliance with legal acts and regulatory documents);

efficiency(achieving maximum results with minimum costs);

concreteness in time, space and timeliness(making exactly at the moment when the implementation of the decision can lead to the desired result).

Requirements for the design of solutions. Management decisions can be made in writing in the form of documents, on electronic media, or transmitted verbally (for example, oral orders).

The documents can be classified according to the following criteria:

hierarchical level regulatory and methodological support(federal, subject Russian Federation, municipality, a healthcare organization or its structural subdivision, personal);

legal status document - binding (law, decree, standard, decree, order, order, regulation, program, plan) and recommendatory (instructions, guidelines, resolutions and decisions of advisory bodies, etc.);

document content- medical (decisions of the medical and control, medical and social expert commissions, a plan for conducting medical and social research, a targeted medical and social program, etc.); financial and economic (business plan for the organization of health care, feasibility study for the construction of a health care facility, the budget of the compulsory health insurance fund, etc.); medical-organizational (charter medical organization, patient management protocol, safety instructions, etc.).

The main criteria for the quality of the prepared solution (document):

complexity, that is, consideration in it of medical, social, organizational, economic, environmental, legal, etc. in their relationship;

compliance of the document with federal and international requirements;

use of modern scientific approaches in the development of the document(systemic, logical, virtual, standardized, marketing functional, process, structural, normative, situational and other approaches);

use of modern methods in the development of the document(modeling, forecasting, functional and cost analysis, optimization, etc.);

medical, social and economic feasibility;

prospects, replicability and scope;

the hierarchical level of the authorities (organizations) that agreed and approved the document;

compliance with established standards for document execution(unambiguity in the interpretation of concepts and terms, accessibility and clarity of presentation, clarity, etc.).

Marketing- This - entrepreneurial activity that governs the movement of goods and services from producer to consumer or user (Ralph Alexander, 1960).

- a kind of human activity aimed at meeting needs and wants through exchange (Philip Kotler, 1991).

Healthcare marketing is a system of principles, methods and measures based on a comprehensive study of consumer demand and targeted formation of the supply of medical services by the manufacturer (V.Z.Kucherenko, N.I. Filatov, 1991).

Basic concepts in marketing: need, need, request, commodity, exchange, deal and market. Need is the feeling of a lack of something felt by a person.

Need is a need that has taken a specific form in accordance with the cultural structure and personality of the individual.

Request is a need supported by purchasing power.

A product is anything that can satisfy a need or need.

Exchange is the act of receiving a desired object from someone with an offer of something in return.

Marketing complex (4P) 1964 Harvard Business School professor Neil Borden

Product, or assortment policy.

Price, or price

Promotion - promotion of goods on the market

Place product delivery to consumers

Additionally, they also distinguish:

Packaging (PACKAGE);

Purchase (PURCHASE)

Clientele (PEOPLE)

Personnel (PERSONAL);

Purchase process (PROCESS)

Environment(PHYSICAL PREMISES)

Profit (PROFIT)

Public Relations (PR for short)

Marketing is a complex process of planning, economic justification and management of health services, pricing policy in the field of treatment and prevention, promotion of services to consumers, as well as the process of their implementation (American Medical Association).

The marketer cannot influence the needs of people, but he can create an unlimited number of needs that meet these needs.

The main goal of a marketer's activity- creation of conditions that guarantee absolute satisfaction of any needs and requirements of people.

The main stages in the implementation of this goal are: determination potential consumers; analysis of factors influencing the formation and development of specific needs in the future; development and establishment of production of goods that meet these needs.

Market structure in healthcare

Medical services

Labor of medical personnel

Medicines

Scientific and medical developments

Medical equipment and technology

Securities, etc.

The mechanism of the market for health services functions through the interaction of:

1. demand,

2. suggestions,

Demand law: all other things being equal, the demand for services changes inversely with the price.

Supply law: all other things being equal, the offer changes in direct proportion to the price.

Depending on the basis on which the decision is made, there are:

intuitive solutions;

decisions based on judgments;

rational decisions.

Intuitive solutions.

A purely intuitive decision is a choice made only on the basis of the feeling that it is correct.

The decision-maker does not consciously weigh the pros and cons for each alternative and does not even need to understand the situation. It's just that a person makes a choice. What we call insight or "sixth sense" are intuitive decisions.

- Hello student! Tired of looking for information?)

- Course student / diploma / essay quickly.

Management specialist Peter Schoderbeck points out that “while more information about an issue can provide significant decision-making support for middle managers, the upper echelons of government still have to rely on intuitive judgments. Moreover, computers allow management to pay more attention to data, but do not cancel out the time-honored management intuitive know-how. "

Judgment based decisions. Such decisions sometimes seem intuitive because their logic is not obvious. Judgment decision is a choice driven by knowledge or past experience. A person uses knowledge of what happened in similar situations earlier to predict the outcome of alternative choices in the existing situation. Using common sense, he chooses an alternative that has brought success in the past. However, common sense is rare in humans, so this method of making decisions is also not very reliable, although it captivates with its speed and cheapness.

When, for example, you choose whether to study a management training program or a training program accounting, you are most likely making judgmental decisions based on the experience of introductory courses in each subject.

Judgment as a basis for managerial decision is useful because many situations in organizations tend to be conquered frequently. In this case, the previously made decision can work again no worse than before, which is the main advantage of the programmed decisions.

Another weakness is that a judgment cannot be correlated with a situation that did not take place before, and therefore there is simply no experience of solving it. In addition, with this approach, the leader seeks to act mainly in those directions that are familiar to him, as a result of which he risks missing out on a good result in another area, consciously or unconsciously refusing to invade it.

Rational decisions are based on methods of economic analysis, justification and optimization.

Depending on personal manager characteristics decision maker, it is customary to distinguish:

balanced solutions;

impulsive decisions;

inert solutions;

risky decisions;

careful decisions.

Balanced decisions are made by managers who are careful and critical of their actions, hypotheses and their testing. Usually, they have a formulated initial idea before making a decision.

Impulsive solutions, the authors of which easily generate a wide variety of ideas in an unlimited number, but are not able to properly check, clarify, and evaluate them. Therefore, decisions turn out to be insufficiently substantiated and reliable;

Inert decisions are the result of careful search. In them, on the contrary, control and clarifying actions prevail over the generation of ideas, therefore it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance, and innovation in such decisions.

Risky decisions differ from impulsive ones in that their authors do not need to thoroughly substantiate their hypotheses and, if they are confident in themselves, may not be afraid of any dangers.

Careful decisions are characterized by the manager's thorough assessment of all options, a supercritical approach to business. They are, to an even lesser extent than inert, distinguished by novelty and originality.

Types of solutions depending on personal characteristics manager, are characteristic mainly in the process operational management staff.

For strategic and tactical control in any subsystem of the management system, rational decisions are made based on the methods economic analysis, justification and optimization.

Depending on the degree of preliminary formalization, there are:

programmed solutions;

unprogrammed solutions.

A programmed decision is the result of the implementation of a certain sequence of steps or actions. As a rule, the number of possible alternatives is limited and the choice must be made within the directions given by the organization.

For example, the head of the purchasing department of a production association, when scheduling the procurement of raw materials and materials, may proceed from a formula that requires a certain ratio between the planned volume of production and the numbers of raw materials and materials for the production of a unit of finished goods.

If the budget stipulates that 2 kg of raw materials and materials are consumed for the manufacture of a unit of production, then the decision is made automatically - the planned volume of production is 1000 pieces, therefore, it is necessary to purchase 2,000 kg of raw materials.

Similarly, if from the boss finance department demanded to invest excess cash in certificates of deposit, municipal bonds or ordinary shares, depending on what exactly provides the greatest return on invested capital at a given time, the choice is determined by the results of a simple calculation for each option and the establishment of the most profitable one.

Programming can be considered an important aid in making effective management decisions. By determining what the solution should be, management reduces the chance of error. It also saves time, since subordinates do not have to develop a new correct procedure every time the appropriate situation arises.

Unsurprisingly, management often programs solutions for situations that recur at regular intervals.

It is very important for a manager to have confidence that the decision-making procedure is, in fact, correct and desirable. Obviously, if the programmed procedure becomes incorrect and undesirable, the decisions made with its help will be ineffective, and management will lose the respect of their employees and those outside the organization who are affected by the decisions. Moreover, it is highly desirable to communicate the rationale for the programmed decision-making methodology to those who use this methodology, rather than simply suggest it for use. Failure to answer questions starting with “why” in relation to a decision-making procedure often creates tension and offends the people who must use the procedure. Effective exchange of information improves the efficiency of decision making.

Unprogrammed solutions. Solutions of this type are required in situations that are to some extent new, not internally structured, or involve unknown factors. Since it is impossible to draw up a specific sequence of necessary steps in advance, the manager must develop a procedure for making a decision. The unprogrammed solutions include the following types of solutions:

what should be the goals of the organization;

how to improve products;

how to improve the structure of the management unit;

how to increase the motivation of subordinates.

In each of these situations (as is most often the case with unprogrammed solutions), any of the factors can be the true cause of the problem. At the same time, the manager has many options to choose from.

In practice, few management decisions turn out to be programmed or unprogrammed in their pure form.

Most likely, they are extreme displays of a certain spectrum in the case of both everyday and fundamental decisions. Almost all solutions fall somewhere between the extreme options.

Few programmed decisions are so structured that the personal initiative of the person who makes them is completely ruled out.

And even in a situation of the most difficult choice, the methodology of making programmed decisions can be useful.

Indicators of the quality and effectiveness of management decisions

The purpose of the management decision- ensuring movement towards the tasks assigned to the organization. Therefore, the most effective organizational decision will be the choice that will actually be implemented and will make the greatest contribution to the achievement of the ultimate goal.

The quality of management decisions is a set of solution parameters that satisfy a specific consumer (specific consumers) and ensure the reality of its implementation.

Quality parameters of management decisions:

the entropy index, i.e. quantitative uncertainty of the problem. If the problem is formulated only qualitatively, without quantitative indicators, then the entropy index approaches zero. If all indicators of the problem are expressed quantitatively, the indicator of entropy approaches one;

the degree of investment risk;

the likelihood of the solution being implemented in terms of quality, costs and timing;

• the degree of adequacy (or the degree of forecast accuracy) of the theoretical model to the actual data on the basis of which it was developed.

Have you noticed that sometimes it is very difficult to decide something, which depends on the quantity decisions taken during the day you are just tired and start to commit different impulsive actions. Why is this happening?

Let's imagine this situation first. Three men serving sentences in prisons appeared before the parole board in Israel. All of them have already served more than 2/3 of their terms, but the commission released only one of them. Guess who?

• Case No. 1 was heard at 8:50. An Arab manslaughter case was heard.
• Case No. 2 was heard at 15:10. The case of a Jew about a robbery was heard.
• Case No. 3 was heard at 16:25. An Arab case of theft was heard.

A certain pattern was observed in the decisions of the commission, but it had nothing to do with either the crimes themselves or the sentences of these men. It was all about the time of day. This is the conclusion that scientists have come to after analyzing more than a thousand decisions made during the year. After hearing the prisoners' appeals and consulting with the members of the commission, the judges made a positive decision in about one in three cases, but over the course of the day, the likelihood of parole changed. A positive decision was made in 70% of cases in cases that were heard in the morning, and in 10% of cases in cases that were heard in the afternoon.

Research conducted this year by Jonathan Levav of Stanford University and Shai Danziger of Ben-Gurion University confirms that there was no malice or oddity in the judge's behavior. The volatility of his decisions is a cost to the profession of a "solver," as George W. Bush once put it. Whatever the circumstances of a particular case, brainwork adjudication in different cases, going one after another, tires the judges. It is this decision fatigue that pushes football defenders into strange behavior at the end of the game, and finance directors- to dubious entertainment at the end of the day. She constantly interferes in the judgment of everyone: bosses and subordinates, rich and poor. However, not many people realize this, and researchers are just beginning to understand why this is happening and how to deal with it.

Decision fatigue helps explain why sane people suddenly get angry with colleagues and relatives, spend money on clothes, break their diet, and cannot turn down a dealer's offer to coat a new car with anti-corrosion compound. No matter how sane and noble you try to be, you cannot make decision after decision without paying a biological price for it. This fatigue differs from ordinary physical fatigue in that you are not aware of it, but the supply of psychic energy decreases. The wider the choices that you face during the day, the more difficult it is for the brain to make each subsequent decision, and eventually it starts looking for the shortest paths and, as a rule, chooses one of the following significantly different options.

• The first is recklessness: to act impulsively and not waste energy thinking about the consequences. (Of course, upload this picture! What could happen?)
• The second way is to save energy as much as possible: do nothing at all. In order not to worry about making decisions, it is best to avoid any choice. In the long term, decision-avoidance often creates even bigger problems, but at the moment, mental stress subsides. You begin to resist any change and any potentially risky behavior like freeing a criminal who might commit a crime. Therefore, a tired judge from the parole board chooses the easy path and the prisoner continues to serve his sentence.

Decision fatigue- This newest discovery, associated with the phenomenon of the so-called "depleted ego" - a term coined by social psychologist Roy F. Baumeister (Roy F. Baumeister). The scientist's experiments have confirmed that there is an ultimate source of psychic energy that fuels self-control. After the subjects turned down a bag of M & M's or freshly baked chocolate chip cookies, they later found it harder to resist other temptations. After watching a heartbreaking movie in which subjects forced themselves to remain indifferent, they gave up faster when performing laboratory tasks that required self-discipline, such as solving a geometric puzzle or squeezing a hand expander.

It turned out that willpower is not a popular concept or a metaphor. It is indeed a form of psychic energy that can be depleted. The 19th century concept of willpower, according to which willpower is like a muscle that can get tired when used, and energy that can be saved by avoiding temptation, has been experimentally confirmed.

Experiment

A nearby department store had just started a close-sale sale, and scientists headed there to fill the trunks of their cars with all sorts of trinkets - not as high quality as wedding gifts, but quite attractive to college students. Back in the lab, they told the students that they would be able to get one of the things offered, but they had to choose first. Would you prefer a pen or a candle? A vanilla or almond-scented candle? Candle or T-shirt? Black T-shirt or red? In the meantime, the control group, let's call them indecisive, spent the same amount of time contemplating the same objects, without having to choose anything. They were only asked to give their opinion on each item and to report how often they have used it over the past six months.

After that, all participants passed one of the classic self-control tests: you need to keep your hand in ice water for as long as you can. Impulsively you want to take your hand out, therefore, to keep it in the water, you need to apply self-discipline. Solvers gave up faster; they lasted only 28 seconds, while the undecided lasted twice as long - 67 seconds. Obviously, the need for choice undermined their willpower, and this was not the only isolated case. (I talked about similar experiments)

To test their theory in real-world settings, the researchers ventured into today's big arena of decision and choice: the commuter shopping center... They asked customers about what they were doing in stores that day, and then asked them to solve a few simple arithmetic problems. The researchers asked to solve as many problems as possible, but said that you can stop at any time. Naturally, shoppers who already had to make a lot of decisions when making purchases gave up faster. If you go shopping to the point of exhaustion, the same will happen with willpower.

Trade-offs and vulnerabilities

When your mental strength is depleted, you are reluctant to make the compromises associated with the need to make difficult decisions. In the rest of the animal kingdom, predator and prey do not have lengthy negotiations. Finding compromise solutions is a complex inherent skill and therefore it deteriorates first when willpower is depleted. In this case, the person becomes a so-called cognitive curmudgeon who saves energy. In a store, you only start looking at one dimension, like price: just give me the cheaper one. Or you start to indulge yourself, paying attention only to quality: I need the best (this is an especially easy strategy if someone else pays). Decision fatigue leaves you vulnerable to the pranks of marketers who know when to start selling, as Stanford professor Jonathan Levav demonstrated in his experiments with new cars.

The experiment was carried out in German car dealerships, where customers chose the configuration of the vehicle. Car buyers - and these were real customers spending their own money - had to choose, for example, from 4 types of gear lever knobs, 13 types rims, 25 engine and gearbox configurations and 56 interior colors.

Customers carefully weighed each option as they began to select components, but as decision fatigue developed, they agreed to all the default options. And the more difficult the choices were at the beginning of this process, such as choosing the exact shade of gray or brown, the sooner they got tired and took the path of least resistance, agreeing to the default options. By changing the order in which customers were presented with a choice various options The researchers found that customers end up agreeing to different options, the cost of which varied on average by € 1,500. Whether they paid a little more for the fancy rims, or a lot more for a more powerful engine, depended on when they were given that choice and how much willpower they had left.

For the same reason, sweets in supermarkets lie so invitingly on the shelves near the checkout, even when customers are exhausted after all the decisions they had to make while wandering between the shelves with the goods. With their willpower, they are more likely to succumb to any temptation and are especially vulnerable to chocolates, soda and other things from which you can quickly get a portion of sugar. After making a lot of compromise decisions, reaching the checkout, they have less willpower to resist the Mars chocolate bars and Skittles candies. It is not for nothing that such purchases are called impulsive. Despite the fact that supermarket sellers have long understood this, scientists have only recently figured out why this is happening.

Why do you want sweets

In January 2011, the head of the Society for the Study of Personal and Social Psychology, Todd Heatherton, announced the results of his long-term experiments: the use of glucose completely reversed the brain changes caused by wasting. That is, glucose plays an important role in the formation of willpower.

The insights into glucose help explain why diet and good nutrition are extremely challenging tests of self-control, and why even people with phenomenally strong willpower found elsewhere in life can find it so difficult to lose weight. They start the day with good intentions, forgo croissants at breakfast and dessert at lunch, but with each rejection, their willpower diminishes. By the evening, there is so little of it that there is a need for recovery. But to restore energy, the body needs glucose. So we get a vicious circle:

1. In order not to eat, you need willpower.

2. To have willpower, you need to eat.

After this, it becomes even more sad to look at different ones.

Expending glucose, the body looks for ways to quickly "refuel" and requires sugar. After completing the self-control tasks, the subjects eat more sweets, and not, for example, salty and fatty potato chips. Even just waiting for the moment to exercise self-control, people begin to feel hungry and crave sweets. This effect explains why many women want chocolate or something sweet before menstruation: when glucose levels begin to fluctuate, the body looks for ways to quickly restore it. Sugar-containing foods and drinks will quickly increase self-control (which is why they are convenient to use in experiments), but this is only a temporary solution. The problem is that sugar throughout the day does not help as well as glucose that is stably obtained from food containing protein and the like.

In a study of the parole board, the benefits of glucose were evident. In the morning - usually around 10:30 am, the members of the commission had a break, during which they were served sandwiches and fruits. The chances of receiving parole by prisoners brought in immediately before the break were only 20%, and the chances of those who were brought immediately after the break were already 65%. As the time approached lunchtime, the likelihood of receiving parole dropped again, and the prisoners did not want to come to the commission just before lunch: the chances of a positive decision were only 10%. After lunch, this value soared to 60%.

It is easy to imagine how the work of the parole commission can be reformed: for example, to limit work shift judges only half a day, preferably the first, with frequent breaks for food and rest. However, what to do with the decision fatigue of the rest of society is not so obvious. Even if everyone could afford to work half a day, we would still be draining willpower all day, as Baumeister and his colleagues found out when they went on research in Würzburg in central Germany.

Resisting desires

The experiment involved more than two hundred people, who for a week in all their affairs were accompanied by BlackBerry telephones received from psychologists and specially configured. From time to time, a signal went off in the phone, asking the owner to report if he was experiencing this moment or whether you have recently experienced any desire. This time-consuming study, led by Wilhelm Hofmann, then at the University of Würzburg, collected more than ten thousand of these mini-reports from morning to midnight.

It turned out that desire is the norm, not the exception. Half of the subjects felt any desire when the signal was triggered: to have a snack, to laze around, to express everything to their boss; and a quarter said they wanted something in the last half hour. They tried to resist many of these desires, and the more willpower they spent, the more surely they succumbed to the next temptation that came along. Faced with another desire, as a result of which a certain internal conflict of the type “I want, but it would not be worth it” arises, the subjects succumbed to it more willingly, if recently they already had to “fight off” some temptations, and especially if there was a break between them. small.

After analyzing the results, the researchers came to the conclusion that, on average, it takes about 3-4 hours a day to resist desires. In other words, if it were possible to read the thoughts of four or five people at any given time, then we would definitely find that one of them resists any desire, using willpower. The most common desires of this "telephone" research were the desire to eat and sleep, followed by the desire to rest - for example, take a break and solve a puzzle or play a game instead of writing. memo... Next on the list of desires that have been most resisted are sexual urges - slightly ahead of other types of communication like checking Facebook, etc. According to the stories of the subjects, they used various strategic tricks to deal with temptations. The most popular is to get distracted by something or switch to another activity, although sometimes they tried to suppress the desire directly or simply endure. They succeeded, naturally, with varying degrees of success. They have successfully resisted the urges to sleep, have sex and spend money, and not very successfully - the temptations of television and the Internet, as well as all kinds of temptations to relax instead of working.

Self-control

How often self-control was used by our ancestors in the days before the invention of the iPhone and social psychology is unknown to us, but it seems that not many of them experienced such debilitating pressure. When you don't have to make so many decisions, then you don't get so tired. The breadth of choice these days is simply discouraging. Even if the body arrives on time workplace, the mind can slip away at any moment. An ordinary user browses about 30 sites a day and the continuous decision-making process tires him: continue to work on a project, go to, watch a video on YouTube or buy something on Ozone? For 10 minutes of online shopping, you can cause irreparable damage to your budget, which will have to be worked out until the end of the year.

The cumulative effect of all these temptations and decisions is not so obvious. Almost no one internally feels how tedious it is to make decisions. Big and small decisions are cumulative. What to eat for breakfast, where to go on vacation, who to hire, how much to spend - all of this expends willpower, and there are no warning signs of low willpower. This is not the same as being out of breath or bumping into a wall in a marathon. Ego depletion does not manifest itself as a single feeling, but rather as a tendency towards stronger experiences. When the regulatory powers of the mind are weakened, despair and frustration are more annoying than usual. Impulsive urges to eat, drink, spend, or say stupid things become stronger (and under the influence of alcohol, the level of self-control drops even lower).

“Good decision making is not a common skill that is always with you,” explains Baumeister. "This is a fluctuating state." In his research, he was convinced that the best things with self-control are in those who build their lives taking into account the economy of willpower. They don't have endless side-by-side meetings. They avoid temptations like buffet meals and develop habits that won't waste their mental energy on unimportant decisions. They do not have to decide every morning whether or not to force themselves to exercise, they agree to regularly work out together with a friend. They do not have to hope that they will have enough willpower for the whole day, they save it for emergencies and important decisions.

“Even the wisest of us can't make the right choices when we're tired and our glucose levels are low,” notes Baumeister. This is why the really wise people won't schedule a company restructuring meeting at 4:00 pm. They also don't make big decisions before lunch. And if there is a need to make a decision at the end of the day, then they know that it cannot be done on an empty stomach. "The best decisions are made by the one," Baumeister continues, "who knows when you CAN'T trust yourself."

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Real management decisions differ from each other. Due to the complexity of the conditions (the number of influencing factors), the goals of decision-making, the requirements and structure of the decision, it seems problematic to create a simple and clear classification of them. Therefore, there can be and there are different classifications of management decisions.

The most complete classification of SD can also be presented in the following form (Fig. 1.1). Predicting decisions are based on a special study to form a conclusion about the possible development and results of any management process. The most suitable for development are selected from the set of forecasts. detailed plan development ( planning solution). These decisions define the necessary parameters for strategic or tactical planning of the company's activities. To implement the plan, a set is being developed organizational decisions . They provide for the formation of a new or improvement of the existing structure of company management, as well as a set of administrative measures to organize the execution of the task. To increase the efficiency of the task, decisions are made to enhance the activities of the company's employees by stimulating and mobilizing ( activating solutions). In the event of unforeseen interfering influences coordinate driving solutions are needed to harmonize the company's activities. Controlling decisions are aimed at ensuring the timely implementation of plans and targets for development.

Rice. 1.1. Typology of management decisions

Informing decisions are aimed at familiarizing the initiators and executors of the decision with the information they need, as well as with the intermediate and final results of the assignment.

Organization of SD development and implementation is based on the choice of priority in an individual or collegial approach to this process. Individual approach to SD development is very typical for organizations. Group approach to the development of SD is characterized by greater validity, fewer errors and uncertainties, the development of original approaches, the involvement of developers in its implementation. At collegial approach to the development of SD significantly increases in comparison with the individual time of preparation of the solution. This approach limits managers in the freedom to choose an SD and requires a balance of interests of the specialists involved in its development. Corporate The nature of SD development and implementation requires managers to comply with corporate guidelines, rules, morals and company values. This limits the initiative of managers and deviations from the approved strategy (“a step to the left or to the right is unacceptable”).

The reasons that caused the development of SD are very diverse, but can be reduced to two groups: unexpected and planned. Unexpected ones include situational and proactive ones, and planned ones - by prescription, programmatic and seasonal ones. Situational SD are caused by events that disrupt or may disrupt the planned course of the company. These decisions are often referred to as “turnover,” ie. to small, everyday decisions of the head. Proactive SD is the creative contribution of the head to the activities of the company within the framework of the powers given to him. These decisions should complement the main decisions of higher-level managers - everyone in the company should "row" in one direction. A step to the left or to the right is not always welcome in a company and, in fact, is not always necessary. SD by prescription is included in the functional responsibilities of the subordinate leader and is determined by the relevant regulations. Software SD are the implementation of the program-target technology of the RUR, according to which at a given time the manager must take the SD about further work your unit, replenishment of resources, etc. Seasonal SD - more stable in time than software SD, are associated with calendar dates. For example, closer to spring - this is a decision to draw up a vacation schedule, closer to autumn - a decision to carry out work on the insulation of the company's premises, etc.

The repeatability of SD execution is important for the correct setting of the controllability standard in the company. Frequency is determined by the size of the company and the degree of division of managerial labor. Homogeneous SD have a common subject area (economics, technology). For example, a chief accountant big company implements SD related to the activities of groups of material and technical accounting, accountants, cashiers, calculators, etc. Diverse SD have different databases of controlled parameters, local for the company. These SD require more time and stress of the leader, so their number should be significantly less than the same type. So, the director of the company must take SD in the technical field, economic, social, etc. Innovative SD usually relate to the process of restructuring and reforming a company to increase its competitiveness - these are complex solutions and their labor intensity is even higher than that of different types.

The scale of the impact of SD can be limited to one person, a separate team, or it is the entire team of a company. Each SD has a target orientation, which determines the SD objects. So, if SD is developed for mandatory execution by all personnel ( general decisions), then it must be executed in the form of an order and communicated to each employee. If SD is developed for one person ( private solution), then it can be implemented in the form business conversation with a specific person in the manager's office. It is considered unethical to reprimand an employee with the obligatory familiarization of all employees of the company, but it is advisable to convey gratitude to an employee to all employees who know him.

The total duration of the SD is determined by its importance. There are strategic, tactical and operational SDs. Strategic SD are developed for a long term (5-10 years) covering the key elements of the company (personnel, structure, production, etc.). Tactical SD are a toolkit for strategic decisions and are developed for a shorter period (1-3 years), covering some of the key elements of the company. Operational SD are developed when situations arise that interfere with the implementation of tactical SD. Operational SDs are short-term.

The predicted results of the SD implementation can be predicted either with sufficient accuracy (solutions with a definite result) or with a probabilistic outcome. There are many reasons, understandable and incomprehensible to the manager, due to which the results of SD do not coincide with the planned ones. After all, usually the decisions of the head are carried out by several people in different directions - sometimes sequentially, sometimes in parallel. The final result depends on the performers' understanding of the task and their professionalism. Performers can even improve the final SD result.

The process of development and implementation of SD (RUR) is greatly influenced by the socio-psychological and technological environment in the company. Managers and specialists involved in the REM process experience a constant, explicit or implicit influence of this environment on the course of their thinking and the choice of the final decision. SD must harmonize with this environment, otherwise the decision will be rejected or implemented ineffectively. In this regard, distinguish balanced, impulsive, inert, risky and cautious solutions. The personal characteristics of the SD developer or the organizer of its implementation also influence this choice. Each of these types of SD has areas of effective implementation.

Balanced solutions take into account the balance of interests of stakeholders. These solutions may not be the most effective, but they are more readily executed and produce the best results. Managers who are attentive and critical of their actions, hypotheses and their testing are prone to such decisions. Starting to develop a solution, they already have a formulated initial idea, an analyzed situation, an identified problem and a list of reasons that caused it. These solutions are effective for performers with high qualifications or high self-esteem.

Impulsive decisions are based on an unexpected insight of the leader, coincidence of circumstances, strong nervous excitement of both the leader and the executors. Sometimes impulsive decisions are the output of long-overdue ideas, conversations, desires. For example, the "Belovezhskaya Agreement" adopted in 1991 on the state independence of a number of union republics that were part of the USSR is regarded by many as impulsive. These solutions are peculiar to leaders who easily generate a variety of ideas in an unlimited number, but are not able to properly check, refine and evaluate them. Such decisions are made “at a swoop”, “in jerks” and most often turn out to be insufficiently substantiated and reliable. For the effective implementation of impulsive decisions, a high personal and professional authority of the leader among subordinates and his high charisma are required.

Inert decisions are a time-delayed process of responding to disturbances. They are based on the confidence and monopoly of the leader. These decisions are the result of careful research. In them, control and clarification actions prevail over the generation of ideas, so in such solutions it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance and innovation. They do little to motivate staff to implement decisions. Inert decisions are effective in the existing process of management activities, good support from managers at all levels, as well as, if possible, to lobby their interests in the external environment.

Risky decisions are based on possible justified luck with the expenditure of minimal resources on the principle: "pan or go". Such decisions are characteristic of gamblers - gamblers. In some cases, there is not enough data for informed decisions, and the manager has two main options: not to implement the decision or take the risk - "what if it works out." As practice shows, the absence of a decision can cause more damage than a promptly made decision, even a bad one. Therefore, there is always room for risky decisions. These solutions are effective in the general positive attitude of the leader and performers, when a possible failure does not significantly worsen the material and social state of the team. Risky decisions usually provide insurance or other methods to mitigate potential damage.

Cautious decisions are made when there is a past unsuccessful experience - "burnt in milk - blowing on the water", as well as the exceptional importance of the task entrusted. They are characterized by a thorough assessment by the manager of all options, a supercritical approach to business, and a large number of approvals. Such solutions are effective in resolving problems related to human life and the state of the environment. For example, decisions related to the activities of personnel at nuclear, thermal and power plants.

Methods of processing information at RRM are of great importance, since it is based on information. Most often, solution developers use algorithmic a method of information processing, which assumes a relatively strict formalization of the execution of procedures and operations based on rules, algorithms, formulas, statistical data. For example, the calculation of the economic efficiency of a new production should be carried out according to the developed algorithms in order to be able to compare with the efficiency of other projects.

Heuristic methods of information processing at RUR are based on intuition, generalizations, perceptions, experience, associations. This is due to the fact that in economics, management and other social sciences, information is not always logical, definite and does not always adequately reflect real processes, and not all parameters can be measured quantitatively. Something is assessed qualitatively by using the accepted norms of business turnover. You can process and evaluate such information through conversation, discussion, asking leading questions, activating thinking at the level of consciousness and subconsciousness. Thus, it is possible to obtain new essential information from the client, partner and other carrier of the necessary information for making a quality decision.

Determining the number of criteria for evaluating SD options (alternatives) is a rather difficult task. The criteria can be such parameters as the level of comfort in the workplace, the percentage of increase in labor productivity, the level of product profitability, etc. Simple SDs are usually compared according to one criterion. (single-criterion solutions ) , and complex or responsible ones - on several ( multicriteria ).

The direction of the impact of SD most often goes to objects of the internal environment, i.e. on company personnel (internal solutions). Leaders have the appropriate authority to make decisions within the company's mission. However, any company is a system open to the external environment. Therefore, a leader who has the authority to represent the company in the external environment - working with clients and partners - must be able to develop and implement SD among people equal to himself ( external solutions). New approaches and technologies are required here.

The depth of SD impact is determined by the number of management levels for which this decision is mandatory. So, a manager can implement SD only at the level of a workshop or department - this is single-level depth of impact. If SD, in addition to workshops and departments, will be mandatory for deputy heads, then this multilevel impact.

Almost any solution has limitations on resources and parameters (solutions with restrictions ). These restrictions are both objective and subjective. Objective restrictions include the restrictions determined by the laws of the theory of organization and management, the legislation of the Russian Federation, and the budget. Subjective constraints include parameters that depend on the specifics of the resources, the product produced, the supply-demand ratio, etc. These limitations are in themselves the criteria for the reality of the proposed solution. There is a group of decisions that are made in conditions of abundance of resources, in which they no restrictions .

The method of fixing the SD can be written and oral. According to the regulations of many firms, managers must writing provide the most responsible SD for economic and legal expertise and further for execution. Oral SD also have legal force, they can be appealed in court if there are at least two people who have heard this decision voiced by the head. Virtual the method of fixing the UR is associated with the gradual introduction of e-mail, electronic signature and seal. Electronic signature and stamp relieve the management of the company from the costly transportation of original documents over long distances. According to the legislation of the Russian Federation, documents in in electronic format have a legal status.