Population mobility. What is social mobility: examples, factors. Factors shaping social mobility

Social mobility is a situation in which a person or a group of people changes their social status. In this case, a person can change his social stratum or remain in the same stratum and only his status will change.

Social status (or social position) is a position in society, in society, which is occupied by a person (individual) or a group of individuals.

Social layer - the division of people into classes or groups. The process of dividing society into layers or strata (Latin stratum - layer, layer) is called social stratification.

Types of social mobility

Vertical and horizontal

With a vertical, a person changes his social stratum. Vertical mobility is subdivided into:

• individual (status changes for an individual);
• group (the status changes for a group of people);
• professional (a person changes position at work - with an increase or decrease);
• economic (a person's level of well-being changes);
• political (when a person is promoted to public service, that is, his level of power is changing);
• upward (increase social level);
• descending (lowering the social level);
• immobility (social status and position remain unchanged);
• intergenerational (children have a different social status than their parents);
• intragenerational (affects one person, his status changes throughout his life).

With horizontal mobility, there is no change in the social stratum; a person changes only his social group. An example would be a situation when a person changes his place of residence, that is, moves to another district or city. Or when he changes his place of work. At the same time, the social status does not change. In this case, we are talking about geographic mobility.

If a person moves and, in addition, his social status changes, this situation is called geographic migration.

Social mobility elevators

Russian and American sociologist and culturologist Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin talked about "elevators", "stairs" or "paths" by which people move and change their social status and (or) social stratum. Sorokin identified 7 main such paths:

• army (especially in war time, when a successful military operation can lift a person up the social ladder, and vice versa, loss can cause loss social position);
• church (there are cases when a low-class man became the pope of the Roman Catholic Church);
• schools (in some countries, schools allowed promising children from poor families to reach great heights (for example, China), in others, people from the lower strata were not allowed to receive education (for example, India, England));
• political organizations / parties / groups (movement within a political organization or between different organizations as an example career growth and changes in social status);
• professional organizations / associations (for example, associations of medical workers, literary organizations, associations of musicians, scientists, lawyers, etc. The mass media have a special influence, which can quickly promote a person or just as quickly harm his social status);
• organization to create material values(in other words, groups of people who achieved success or moved up the social ladder due to the fact that they accumulated capital: gold, money and other values. With the help of this capital, titles, titles, privileges were bought);
• family and marriage (for example, marriage with a person from a higher social stratum will open access to this stratum, from a lower one - can lead to a loss of social status).

Social mobility and education

According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the social mobility of children depends on the education and profession of the parents. As a rule, if the family has a low level of education, then the child, most likely, will not receive a higher education either.

If the parents are engaged in manual labor, then the probability that the child will take a managerial position is small.

What affects social mobility?

Among the factors that affect social mobility, i.e., the number of movements between social strata or the frequency of changes in social status, the following main ones can be distinguished:

• economic;
• historical;
• demographic;
• migratory;
• place of residence;
• nationality;
• the level of education;
• abilities and personal qualities of the individual (physical and mental).

Economic factor

The economic situation in the country directly affects the availability of jobs and the professions in demand. If the economy needs, for example, highly qualified specialists, then this will lead to the fact that people will seek to fill vacant positions. Social mobility will become more active.

Historical factor

Historical events such as wars, revolutions have a direct impact on mobility. At such a time, some people quickly climbed the social ladder, receiving great power in their hands or great wealth. That is, there was political and economic mobility. Others lost their status. The most well-born nobles were deprived of their savings and privileges.

Mobility also depends on the type of society that is historically present in a given country. There are three types of society: closed, open and intermediate.

In a closed society, as a rule, the status is assigned to a person at birth and its change is extremely difficult or impossible. In the open, people actively move between social strata and change their status throughout their lives.

An example of an intermediate type is feudal society, in which transfers between classes or estates were not officially allowed, but they did take place.

Demographic factor

Population growth affects social mobility. If the population is growing in the country, so is the mobility. Since young people are more willing to change their social stratum or status.

Adults are more likely to show economic mobility. Having accumulated money, they seek to change the conditions of their life in better side: move to a better area (geographic mobility) or take a high position (professional mobility).

It is a fact that the lower classes have higher fertility rates. If there is a shortage of people in the upper strata, then their places are taken by people who have climbed the social ladder, and not born representatives of this class.

Migratory

Countries with high rates of migration tend to have active social mobility. Migrants create competition for local residents. Cheap labor creates a surplus of workers, forcing local residents to create competitive advantages and move up the social ladder.

Place of residence

There are more opportunities for promotion in cities. career ladder, to change their financial situation. Young people are eager to move to big cities in search of such opportunities. In this case, we can also talk about intergenerational mobility, when children reach a higher status in comparison with the status of their parents.

Nationality

Even in a multinational state, preference is given to the very nation, the number of which prevails in this state. People of this nationality are more likely to occupy high positions and get promoted.

The level of education

The level of education can be a competitive advantage, regardless of the stratum in which a person was born. People with a higher education level are more likely to get promoted. At the same time, they can also create competition for people from the upper strata who did not pay due attention to their education, relying on their privileges or connections to get a job, position, title.

UDC 314.04; 314.7; 332.1

spatial mobility of the population:

economic and social aspects*

STROEV PAVEL VIKTOROVICH, Cand. econom. Sci., Director of the Center for Regional Economics and Interbudgetary Relations, Financial University, Moscow, Russia [email protected]

KAN MARIA IGOREVNA, postgraduate student of the Department of State and Municipal Administration,

Financial University, Moscow, Russia

[email protected]

The article discusses domestic and foreign approaches to determining the process spatial mobility population. Based on the analysis of the leading practices of international organizations, the factors that have the greatest impact on the processes of spatial mobility of the population have been identified. The influence of the economic and ethnic components on the spatial distribution of megalopolises and agglomerations is reflected. The relationship between the spatial mobility of the population and the socio-economic development of individual territories, regions and the country as a whole has been substantiated. The analysis of models and methods for assessing the spatial mobility of the population is carried out, approaches to improving the system of its assessment are formulated.

Key words: migration; regional economy; spatial development; social mobility; population; standard of living; assessment of spatial mobility.

The Spatial Mobility of Population: Economic and Social Aspects

STROYEV PAVEL V., PhD (Economics), director of the Center for Regional Economics and Interbudget Relations,

Financial University

[email protected]

KAN MARIA I., PhD student at the State and Municipal Management Department, Financial University [email protected]

The paper examines domestic and foreign approaches to the definition of the process of spatial mobility of population. The analysis of international best practices revealed factors that have the greatest effect on.mobility processes. The impact of the economic and ethnic components on the spatial distribution of megacities and agglomerations is reflected. The interdependence between the spatial mobility of the population and the socio-economic development of individual areas, regions and the country in the whole is substantiated. The analysis of models and methods for evaluation of the spatial mobility of population is made; approaches to improvement of the system for assessment of the spatial mobility of the population in Russia are developed.

Keywords: migration; regional economy; spatial development; social mobility; population, living standards; spatial mobility evaluation.

* The article was prepared based on the results of research carried out at the expense of budgetary funds on the state order of the Financial University in 2016.

Approaches to Determining the Spatial Mobility of the Population

Spatial mobility is one of the ways society organizes space. There are many different approaches to determining spatial mobility. One of the most common is the approach where mobility is defined as movement or movement from one place to another. Such movement can imply as an object not only people, but also material goods and information. Accordingly, the method of assessing the movement and the unit of its measurement depend on what is moving.

Russian researcher N.V. Mkrtchyan understands spatial mobility exclusively as migration processes. At the same time, spatial mobility includes both migration itself, which presupposes a change by an individual permanent place residence, and temporary, episodic movements, the role of which increases in recent times... Spatial mobility through migration is also determined by P.V. Vasilenko. The assessment of spatial mobility with this approach is based primarily on the indicators of migration activity (the coefficient of immigration and emigration is the ratio of the number of arrivals / departures to the average population of the territory where they arrived / left, the balance of migration, etc.). The internal migration of the population, which is carried out between regions, is also assessed, however, when assessing internal migration, limitations are possible, since in some cases it can be replaced by daily trips to work from one city to another, sometimes with the crossing of regional borders. Attempts to assess internal migration are made by both the statistical authorities of the state and various research organizations. For example, in 2013, the Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat conducted an extensive cross-country comparison of internal migration.

Taking into account the rapidly changing realities, including mobility patterns, over the past decade

Over the last decade, there has been a reassessment of the attitude of researchers to mobility and its perception solely as movement in space. The researchers conclude that this definition is limited. Currently, mobility tends to become a "whole" that includes the movement itself, everything that precedes, accompanies and prolongs it1. Thus, spatial mobility is more than a gap or connection between a starting point and a destination, it is a structured dimension of life in society. This broad understanding of mobility leads to the fact that mobility is perceived as a metaphor for a completely different form of relationship to distance and space2. In this context, the binary classification of space is no longer opposed - “near” and “distant”, “here” or “there”, a number of meanings become interdimensional, for example, the understanding of “emigrants” and “immigrants” disappears, they simply become “migrants”. Mobility becomes a way of life that connects spatial and social categories. More and more researchers in the field of spatial mobility come to the conclusion that spatial mobility is inextricably linked with social mobility. In order to emphasize this connection, research often uses the term "spatial-social mobility" or "social-spatial mobility".

In the works of G. Simmel and Z. Bauman, it is shown that spatial location and movement in physical space play a significant role in the formation social relations... The ability to move freely in space is one of the basic needs of a person, with the satisfaction of which his social status is associated. V modern society researchers note

1 See works: Kaufmann V. Re-thinking mobility // Contemporary sociology. Ashgate. 2002. P. 112; Urry J. Sociologie des mobilités. Une nouvelle frontière pour la sociologie? / Paris, Armand Colin. 2005.

2 Cattan N. Territoire mobile. De l "impossible concept à l" apport

des études genres // Penser l "espace politique. Ellipses, Paris. 2009.

not only the intensification of migration processes, but also the transformation of spatial mobility into one of the most important social resources of individuals and groups.

At the beginning of the XX century. As a result of the increased interest of sociologists in the influence of urbanization on the social position of man, R. Park and R. McKenzie proposed the "Theory of Human Ecology", according to which the ecological order is the spatial structuring of human movements. In turn, R. Park noted that mobility is associated with a change of residence, a change of place of work, a change in the location of an institution, service or type of activity. In addition, in their joint work "City", the idea was put forward that migration (spatial mobility of families, individuals, institutions) often acts as an indicator and accelerator social mobility.

Factors of spatial mobility of the population

There are indicators that affect spatial mobility. One of the fundamental factors for moving is the financial and economic component. It determines whether an individual (household) really has the opportunity to move to another area (region) with better conditions and which areas will be available based on his financial and economic situation. In addition, when assessing spatial mobility, researchers take into account factors such as success in the labor market and ethnicity3, as well as the individual's class of origin4. In addition, people differ in their aspirations for organizing life at different points in their life cycle, when age, marital status and period influence the choice of place and length of residence.

3 See: Silvestre J. The Internal Migration of Immigrants: Differences between One-Time and Multiple Movers in Spain / Population, space and place. 2014. No. 20, pp. 50-65; Magi K. Types of Spatial Mobility and the Ethnic Context of Destination Neighborhoods in Estonia / IZA Discussion Papers. 2015. No. 9602, pp. 22.

4 Sociology of the European Union / Edited by A. Favell, V. Guiraudon. Palgrave, Basingstoke, 2011, pp. 224.

in life when the individual made the decision to move5.

The economic component and ethnicity play a significant role in the spatial arrangement of cities, megacities and agglomerations. Over time, differences in economic development and ethnicity have created residential mosaics that are stratified by class and race6. Residential mobility outcomes are not random and result from people expressing their preferences (for example, in terms of income, composition and ethnicity).

Currently, the economic component is becoming an increasingly powerful factor in explaining the socio-spatial results of population mobility. In recent decades, migration processes directed to developed countries or the most developed regions of the country (if we are talking about internal migration) have formed one of the main nodes of economic, social and cultural problems of the global world. A significant volume of migration flows are labor migrants, with the help of which the economic problems of not only poor, but also developed countries, which need an influx of labor, are solved. V modern world the mobility of the population is rapidly developing, associated with the satisfaction of the cultural and recreational needs of a person - scientific, educational, tourist, etc. Access to such mobility is significant factor social stratification both between groups and within them.

Neighborhoods in Toronto, for example, have become significantly more income polarized over the past few decades as a result of increased attention

5 See works: Kulu H., Milewski N. Family change and migration in the life course: An introduction // Demographic Reasearch. 2007. No. 17 (19), pp. 567-590. and Lundholm E. Returning Home? Migration to Birthplace among Migrants after Age 55 / Population, Space and Place. 2012. No. 18 (1), pp. 74-84.

6 See: Friedman S. Bringing Proximate Neighbors into the Study of US Residential Segregation / Urban Studies. 2011. No. 48, pp. 611639; South S.J. Exiting and entering high-poverty neighborhoods: Latinos, Blacks and Anglos compared / Social Forces. 2005. No. 84 (2), pp. 873-900.

to a more prosperous region in social and economic terms of those individuals who had the opportunity to choose7. At the same time, the likelihood of polarization of areas grows with the growth of the number of resources available for choosing among possible places of residence. And selective migration processes can offset the benefits achieved by public investments in the territory.

Linking spatial mobility with social mobility, researchers note that a number of households move in order to get more good conditions life, respectively, they move to more prosperous regions compared to their place of residence, while another category of households tends to move to areas where the characteristics of the population are similar to their own8. This division of household preferences in choosing a place of residence embodies vertical and horizontal social mobility.

In addition, various authors have noted the phenomenon of “staying, not moving” 9. Mobility is inherent in individuals who are able and willing to continue change, for example when they are not satisfied with their stay or their housing no longer meets the needs of the household. There is also a category of people who are dissatisfied with their stay and who are unable to move according to their preferences. At the same time, other individuals may represent a category of satisfied living conditions, but not willing to move, even if they can afford it.

WA Clarke, M. van Ham and R. Coulter made an enormous contribution to the study and assessment of spatial mobility in their works "Socio-spatial mobility in British society" and "Spatial

7 Hulchanski J.D. The three cities within Toronto: Income polarization among Toronto's neighborhoods, 1970-2000 / Center for Urban and Community Studies. 2007. Research Bulletin 41, University of Toronto.

8 Schelling T. C. Dynamic models of segregation / Journal of Mathe - matical Sociology. 1971. No. 1, pp. 143-186.

9 Coulter R. and van Ham, M. Following People Through Time: An Analysis of Individual Residential Mobility Biographies / Housing Studies. 2013. No. 28 (7), pp. 1037-1055.

mobility and social consequences ”. One of the objectives of the research was to study the consequences of the movement of people in vertical social mobility as a result of resettlement from one territory to another, especially for poor families, as well as to measure the chances of people to improve their lives when their position in the socio-spatial system of the country changes. The authors proceed from the fact that throughout life a person acts and makes decisions in order to balance their needs for housing and employment opportunities, as well as in order to achieve the highest satisfaction of life goals. Indeed, most governments now recognize that mobility leads to socioeconomic advantage and is a key mechanism for creating overall socioeconomic gain. The Social Mobility Strategy and High Ambition report by the UK Department of Business, Innovation and Skills (2009) indicate that achieving high social mobility benefits society as a whole. Thus, socio-spatial mobility is a key issue of the state, which has implications for the growth of socio-economic inequality.

Assessment of the spatial mobility of the population

There are many different approaches to assessing the spatial mobility of the population. W.A.W. Clark, M. van Ham, and R. Coulter assess spatial mobility and its social consequences through the National Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD), calculated since 1970 by the Department of Communities and local government Great Britain. To calculate the indicators, the entire territory of the country was divided into small areas of England and Wales - LSOA (Lower-Layer Super Output Areas), the population of which is on average 1,500 people, and for Scotland, DZ (DataZone) is used - data of records on the residence of individuals Scotland, the average DZ population is 750. Have-

The following deprivation indices (from the Latin deprivatio - loss, deprivation) are provided, which provide a set of relative deprivation measures for small areas (LSOA / DZ) across the UK, taking into account seven main areas of deprivation experienced by households:

Lack of livelihood (de-privation of income);

Lack of access to decent work (de-privation of employment);

Low level of education and qualifications (deprivation of education, skills and training);

Unsatisfactory state of health and nutrition (deprivation of health);

Dissatisfaction with conditions the environment;

High crime;

Barriers to housing and services.

Each of the above areas is based on a group of indicators for which data are taken from censuses, surveys and other sources. At the level of each region, its own deprivation index is calculated, as well as two additional indicators: income deprivation, which affects the index of children, and income deprivation of the elderly (both of these indicators are subindices of income deprivation). Moreover, each area of ​​deprivation experienced by households is assigned the following weights: income deprivation - 22.5%; deprivation of work - 22.5%; deprivation of education, skills and training - 13.5%; deprivation of health - 13.5%; crime - 9.3%; barriers to housing and necessary services - 9.3%; dissatisfaction with environmental conditions - 9.3%.

Thus, the Multiple De-Privation Index (IMD) includes information from seven areas to determine general measure relative deprivation.

As a result, to assess and track the spatial and social mobility of the population, each time it is recorded that individual or the household moves from one area to another, the IMD of origin and destination is compared

district. A positive change in scores indicates that the household moves to a less prosperous area, while a decrease in scores indicates a move to more prosperous areas. The IMD index also makes it possible to assess whether the position in the decile group has changed due to displacement. It is important to keep in mind that the computation of the IMD index is significantly influenced by the distribution of weight among the areas of deprivation experienced by households, as well as the scale at which the IMD is calculated (LSOA or DZ).

In the work “Types of spatial mobility and the ethnic context of the designation of neighborhoods in Estonia” 10, the emphasis in assessing spatial mobility is placed on the movement of ethnic groups and the impact of displacement on their standard of living. The authors begin their analysis with descriptive information regarding the intensity of movement between the two ethnolinguistic groups. This indicator measured as the percentage of those moving in different directions and compares the location of the household with respect to the location of ethnolinguistic groups (Russian-speaking) before and after the move. This process is followed by the application of a binary regression model to investigate whether there are significant differences in the likelihood that subgroups of the population remain in the same place of residence or move.

The analysis continues with the creation of a linear regression model using moving households and individuals only to change patterns in personal ethnic residential contexts as a result of displacement. An absolute percentage change (decrease or increase) was used as a continuous dependent variable. In addition, the models also include a set of control variables, namely: gender, age (10-year groups), educational attainment, and employment status. Brazilian researcher L.M. Cavalcante de Melo approaches the assessment of spatial mobility not only in

10 Magi K., Leetmaa K., Tammaru T. Maarten van Ham Types of Spatial Mobility and the Ethnic Context of Destination Neighborhoods in Estonia / IZA Discussion Papers. 2015, No. 9602, p. 22.

interconnected with social mobility, but separately distinguishes professional mobility11. Spatial mobility is based on an economic reason, as in general people move from stagnant regions in search of better conditions to life, which affects their chances of moving up the socio-professional ladder. Thus, workers migrate in search of jobs that offer better social and professional conditions, better chances of access to education, health care, vocational training and employment in sectors of greater social prestige. For most of the population, movement between social strata is associated exclusively with spatial mobility. It should also be noted that the researcher points to the strong social and professional mobility within and between generations, which took place during the period of intensive migration and urbanization in Brazil since the 1950s.

To measure socio-professional and spatial mobility, the author introduces a number of variables, including the change in the socio-professional position for certain period time, variables characterizing the level of development of the region in which the individual stayed and to which the individual moved, as well as variables related to the level of education, age, work experience, occupation and gender. Then, when using polynomial logistic regression L.M. Cavalcante de Melo offers a way to assess the possibility of social and professional mobility of migrants in a new region in comparison with the region of origin. The researcher concludes that new dynamic spaces for attracting capital and labor prove that migration is inherent in economic rationality. Thus, the individual continues to migrate to regions with growth potential that is expected to be better for achieving the desired socio-economic conditions. In the case of Brazil, the economy

11 Cavalcante de Melo L.M. Mobilidade sócio-ocupacional e mobilidade espacial: diferenciaçôes entre hierarquias urbanas para o mercado de trabalho formal, Brasil, 2000-2009 // Belo Horizonte, MG UFMG / Cedeplar. 2012, p. 166.

the mic factor has been dominant for several decades.

V modern science until there is a clear and unified understanding of what is meant by spatial mobility. Depending on the approach to understanding this term, a methodology for assessing spatial mobility is established. After analyzing the research, we can conclude that at the moment most scientists agree that the process of spatial mobility is inextricably linked with the process of social (and sometimes socio-economic) mobility. Spatial mobility is seen as an accompanying social mobility, sometimes as its result or as its prerequisite. In addition, researchers agree that spatial mobility has a significant impact on the socio-economic inequality of the territory.

Spatial mobility is one of the causes of inequality in income and wealth of regions in the country. Any individual or household strives for more prosperous conditions, accordingly chooses for itself the most comfortable territories for living, where it is possible to provide itself with the required conditions. The individual makes certain requirements for the conditions of infrastructure, obtaining a quality education and decent work, providing medical services and providing leisure time. In this regard, those citizens who have good income, highly qualified in professional activity... Thus, the less developed regions leave the most talented and professional personnel, which also affects the economy of this region. Most researchers directly associate movement in space with movement along the social ladder. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the standard of living in the region, when citizens move from one region to another, and take measures to increase it and develop the economy, if the goal is to attract the population to a specific territory.

Literature

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Social mobility presupposes not only movement in social space, but also access to movement in geographic space - spatial mobility... As G. Simmel, Z. Bauman, J. Urry and others have shown, spatial arrangement and movement in physical space are of great importance for the formation of social relations. The ability to move freely in space is one of the basic needs of a person, with the satisfaction of which his social status is associated. Freedom of movement, primarily in order to solve economic problems, as well as improve the political and cultural situation, has always been of high social value. For dependent social groups, restrictions on freedom of movement were one of the most important markers of their subordinate position. In totalitarian societies, one of the instruments of control is precisely the ban on free movement. V soviet period one of the most painfully perceived restrictions at all levels was precisely the lack of freedom of movement: the institution of registration, which rigidly binds citizens to their place of residence; the lack of passports for collective farmers, which prevents migration to cities for work and study; numerous restrictions on traveling abroad, both on business and tourist trips, etc.

In addition to voluntary spatial mobility as the most important need and manifestation of the freedom of individuals and groups, there has always been forced migration of refugees, forced migrants, exiles, vagabonds - all those social categories for which spatial movement is not a voluntary matter, but a necessity caused by a difficult life situation... On the basis of these differences, 3. Bauman singled out among migrants groups of "tourists" who move voluntarily and receive various economic, cultural, status benefits from their movements, and "vagrants" who are forced to migrate by life difficulties, and for whom it becomes a factor in reducing social status, and often social exclusion.

Like social mobility in general, spatial mobility also fluctuates. In some historical periods it is limited, in some it is intensified. In modern society, researchers note not only the intensification of migration processes, but also the transformation of spatial mobility into one of the most important social resources of individuals and groups. In recent decades, migration processes directed to the developed countries of Western Europe and North America have formed one of the main nodes of the economic, social and cultural problems of the global world.

A significant volume of migration flows is labor migrants , with the help of which the economic problems of not only poor countries, but also developed countries, which need an influx of labor, are solved. These are highly qualified specialists, especially in the innovative economy ( information Technology etc.), and some categories of average and even unskilled workers, the need for which, for some reason, is not met by internal reproduction (for example, middle and junior medical personnel). Students make up a significant share in migration flows; for some countries, the education of foreign students is turning into a significant sector of the economy (Ireland, New Zealand).

The problems generated by labor migration for the receiving countries consist, firstly, in the uncontrolled flow of illegal migrants who perform unskilled work in construction, seasonal production, in the service sector, feeding the shadow sector of the economy and constantly reproducing socially excluded and criminogenic groups. Secondly, as a result of the influx of foreign cultural migrants to the countries of Western Europe, numerous problems of their adaptation and integration arise, which have not yet been resolved. Migrants belonging to other religions and civilizations form closed communities in which they maintain their usual way of life, reproduce models of behavior that are not adequate to the culture of the host countries, which gives rise to numerous intercultural and interfaith conflicts. For example, in 2013 in areas populated by Muslim migrants in London, and in 2014 in Germany, "Sharia patrols" appeared, monitoring the observance of customary Islamic law by everyone who found themselves in their territories. Such actions cause the strengthening of radical nationalist sentiments and the activation of the corresponding political forces in the countries of Western Europe, where tolerance is considered the most important value. Third, in receiving countries, the influx of migrants creates social and political problems. The integration of migrants can be achieved by providing them with access to social infrastructure and political activity based on the principles of democracy, but immigrants often prefer to enjoy the social benefits of the host countries by avoiding work, which seriously increases the burden on taxpayers and the welfare state, which already face difficulties in conditions of the economic crisis.

In addition to labor immigrants from poor countries, in the context of a globalized economy, constant displacement is becoming an attribute of the professional strategies and lifestyles of highly qualified specialists working in global companies. For them, access to free movement on a global scale is a prerequisite for career growth, professional development and increased prestige. In global companies, managers and technical specialists high level, as a rule, gain experience in different divisions located in different countries, for them frequent travel, change of place of work and residence become attributes of their high status.

In the modern world, mobility is also intensively developing, associated with the satisfaction of cultural and recreational needs - scientific, educational, tourist, etc. Access to such mobility is a significant factor in social stratification both between and within groups. Participation in international research, conferences, competitions, etc. is a prerequisite for the professional growth of scientists and at the same time contributes to an increase in the status of a researcher within the scientific community itself. For creative professions (artists, painters, writers, etc.) an international concert and exhibition activities also becomes the path to more high level recognition. At the same time, outside the professional communities, the opportunity to move freely, get acquainted with the cultural heritage and lifestyle of different countries, as well as access to recreational resources creates the preconditions for increasing cultural capital.

Thus, access to spatial mobility is a factor of social stratification, the importance of which is increasing in the context of globalization.

Concept "Social mobility" introduced into scientific sociological circulation P. Sorokin. He believed that society is a huge social space in which people move both physically, realistically, and conventionally, in the opinion of others and in their own way. Sorokin introduced the concept of "social space" and put into it a different meaning than it was before - the totality of all members of society as a whole. In this society, where people are not equal, they occupy different places in the ideas and opinions of others.

Some of them are high, others are lower in the social space. Social space, according to Sorokin, is an abstract, conditional space where people and whole groups of people occupy one or another place in public perceptions.

Social mobility- This is a change by an individual or a group of their position in the social space. According to the directions of social movements, there are vertical and horizontal social mobility.

Vertical mobility means a social movement that is accompanied by an increase or decrease in social status.

At the same time, the transition to a higher social position is called upward mobility, and to a lower one - downward mobility.

Horizontal mobility presupposes social movement that is not associated with a change in social status, for example, a transfer to another place of work in the same position, a change of place of residence.

In accordance with the change in the social subject of his position in society, one distinguishes between individual, characteristic of a steadily developing society, and group mobility associated with cardinal displacement in society, when the status of entire social groups and classes changes.

In sociology, intergenerational and intragenerational mobility is also distinguished.

The first assumes a comparative change in the social status of different generations, for example, the son of a worker becomes the president of the country, the second - a change in status within one generation.

For a quantitative assessment of the processes of social mobility, indicators of its speed and intensity are usually used. The speed of mobility can be thought of as the vertical social distance that an individual travels over a certain period of time. The intensity of mobility is understood as the number of individuals changing social positions in a vertical or horizontal direction over a certain period of time.

Social mobility is an important indicator and characteristic for any society, which reveals the degree of its openness.

In an open society, the status achieved is highly valued and there are relatively wide opportunities for the transition from one social group to another. A closed society gives preference to the prescribed status and in every possible way makes it difficult to move from one stratum to another.

Modern society presupposes a flexible system of stratification and is characterized by high rates of social mobility.

This is primarily due to the needs of socio-economic and scientific and technological development, with the need for a constant influx of highly educated specialists and professionals to key social positions, who are capable of generating ideas and solving complex problems of managing social processes.

Opportunities for social mobility depend on both socio-political and economic organization society, and from the individual himself, his abilities and personal qualities. The ways to overcome barriers in the process of social movement are called channels of social mobility.

The main ones are getting education, advanced training, political career, military service, changing the social environment, marriage with a representative of a higher status group, etc.

Thus, the factors of social mobility can be distinguished, which are classified into two levels: micro-level and macro-level. At the micro level, there are such factors of social mobility as the immediate social environment of the individual, as well as his aggregate life resource.

The macro-level factors include the state of the economy, the level of scientific and technological development, the nature of the political regime, the prevailing system of stratification, the nature of natural conditions, etc.

24. Sorokin P. A. Theory of social stratification and social mobility.
Developed the theory of social. stratification and social. mobility in his theory, he explained that any society is not homogeneous, the layers that make up it are determined by a number of positions: property inequality, educational inequality. In the theory of social. mobility, he explained how the movement from one layer to another occurs.

The term stratification comes from the word stratum - meaning layer. The term stratification means the following: social inequality of people takes place in society, i.e. inequality in their social position relative to each other. Simply put, in society, some people occupy a higher position than others, and this is unmistakably determined and felt by everyone. There are several reasons for this inequality. One of the first to address this problem was P.A. Sorokin. He believed that such a basis for inequality could be wealth, the size of wealth, education, occupation, party affiliation, etc.
In Sorokin sociology, the more typical (until the last decade) was the traditional principle of stratification, which had been leaving in the 19th century. It is based on the theory of classes, large groups of people, the main basis for the differences in social. the provisions of which are income and occupation and another 2-3, which are complementary. The strata were distinguished: owners of capital, workers, officials, peasants, people of free professions (actors, artists).
The Western concept of social stratification 20c is based on the principles of universal social stratification and inequalities having:
natural (biological, physical and mental) characteristics of people;
social (division of labor, income, power, property, way of life, status-role positions) nature.
And the social structure is interpreted as a set of hierarchical interconnected social groups, which are characterized by vertical and horizontal decency:
they occupy different positions in the system of social inequality of a given society in terms of the main social criteria(power, income, prestige, property);
they are linked by economic, political and cultural relations;
they are subjects of the functioning of all social institutions of a given society, and above all economic ones.
In Soviet sociology, instead of the term stratification, the term class structure of society was used, where the class of workers, peasants and the intelligentsia were distinguished in relation to Soviet society. It was believed that the intelligentsia did not have its own special relationship to property that was different from others. She works either in state-owned enterprises as workers, or on collective farms as peasants. There was no third class.
Social mobility- This is movement in a social position, a change in the status of people that is constantly taking place in society. Sorokin pointed out the main channels (elevators) through which people change their position - mainly through education, the army, the church, and business. The greatest contribution to the research was made by Sorokin, he believed that society is a huge social. the space in which people move both physically, realistically, and conventionally in the opinion of others and in their own way. To fix the displacements, he introduced a number of concepts related to the sociology scale:
vertical and horizontal mobility (horizontal - moving without changing the status, vertical - with changing the status);
individual and group mobility (group mobility occurs when the position in society changes for the entire group, that is, its assessment by society changes. In the 60s, the authority of physicists grew;
upward and downward dynamics. Ascending when they increase their status, descending - decrease (after the revolution, a downward dynamic was characteristic of the nobility, an upward one - for workers and peasants).
Sorokin came to the conclusion that the social. mobility is positive and inherent in democratic, dynamic societies. An exception is the situation when the whole society is in a state of dynamic movement, sharp mobility. This means a crisis, instability, undesirable mobility for society, but the other extreme - the opposite situation - no mobility, stagnation, which is characteristic of totalitarian societies.
25.Social structure of modern Russian society

In the process of developing democratic and market reforms, the social structure of Russian society has undergone a significant transformation. Currently, there are several models of the social structure of Russian society. Let's take a look at some of them.

Domestic sociologist N.M. Rimashevskaya identifies the following elements in the social structure of Russian society:

1) "all-Russian elite groups", combining the possession of property in a size comparable to the largest Western states, and the means of power influence at the all-Russian level;

2) "regional and corporate elites" possessing a significant state in Russia, as well as influence at the level of regions and sectors of the economy;

3) the Russian "upper middle class", which has property and incomes that are provided for it by Western consumption standards, claims to increase its social status and is guided by the established practice and ethical norms of economic relations;

4) the Russian "dynamic middle class" with incomes that ensure the satisfaction of the average Russian and higher consumption standards, relatively high potential adaptability, significant social aspirations and motivations, social activity and focus on legal ways its manifestations;

5) “outsiders”, characterized by low adaptation and social activity, low incomes and an orientation towards legal ways of acquiring them;

6) "marginalized", characterized by low adaptation and antisocial attitudes in their socio-economic activities;

7) “criminals” possessing high social activity and adaptation, but at the same time quite rationally acting contrary to the legal norms of economic activity.

Scientist A. V. Dmitrov Taking three characteristics as a basis for structuring (income, level of education and prestige), he identified five main social groups that make up the social structure of modern Russian society:

1) the administrative elite (the ruling elite), consisting of the old party nomenclature of the first and second echelons, as well as the new political elite;

2) the working class, which, in turn, is divided according to industry and qualifications;

3) the intelligentsia;

4) the "new bourgeoisie", which is made up of entrepreneurs and bankers;

5) the peasantry.

Academician of RAS T. N. Zaslavskaya On the basis of data from specific sociological studies, I tried to identify the main social groups that make up the structure of Russian society and determine their percentage. The most privileged, but the smallest (7%) is the "upper layer". He, according to T.N. Zaslavskaya, acts as a real subject of reforms, since he includes elite and sub-elite groups that occupy an important place in the system government controlled, as well as in economic and power structures.

At the same time, the directly ruling political and economic elite constitutes only 0.5%, and the rest (6.5%) falls on large and medium-sized entrepreneurs, directors of large and medium-sized privatized enterprises.

Following the top one goes "Middle layer"... It is more numerous (20%) and includes small entrepreneurs, managers of medium and small businesses, the middle echelon of the bureaucracy, officers, the most qualified specialists and workers.

The most numerous is "Base layer"... The main part of it is made up of such groups as the intelligentsia (specialists), semi-intelligentsia (assistants to specialists), employees from technical personnel, workers of mass professions in the field of trade and service, as well as workers.

This layer unites about 60% of the population of our country. Moreover, according to Zaslavskaya, the inability to realize their vital goals pushes the representatives of this stratum to express mass protest.

The basic one is followed by « bottom layer» ... It is represented by low-skilled and unskilled workers, the unemployed, refugees, etc.

They are characterized by low activity potential, inability to adapt to social conditions, their share in the structure of the population is 8%.

The last layer in the classification of Zaslavskaya was called the "social bottom" and amounted to 5%.

It includes criminal and semi-criminal elements, as well as individuals with an asocial type of behavior (drug addicts, alcoholics, vagabonds, etc.).

It should be noted that this structural model was proposed on the basis of a study of only the employed population, therefore, the occupancy rate of the above strata can be refined and changed taking into account marital status, a significant proportion of pensioners and disabled people, and unemployed youth.

An important place in the study of the social structure is occupied by the issues of social mobility of the population, that is, the transition of a person from one class to another, from one intraclass group to another, social transfers between generations. Social displacements are massive and become more and more intense as society develops. Sociologists study the nature of social movements, their direction, intensity; movement between classes, generations, cities and regions. They can be positive and negative, encouraged or, conversely, restrained. In the sociology of social movements, the main stages of a professional career are studied, the social status of parents and children is compared. Moreover, such a difficulty arises: there are two parents and they can belong to different social-class groups, that is, families are socially homogeneous, or socially homogeneous, and socially heterogeneous. In heterogeneous families, as a rule, social movements are observed according to the scheme: mother - daughter, father - son. The social position of children and parents at the very beginning of the career of the young generation is compared. At the same time, one has to take into account that this problem has always been excessively politicized and ideologized. In our country, for decades, social origin was at the forefront of characterization and biography, and people with workers 'and peasants' roots were given priority. For example, young people from intelligent families, in order to enter a university, initially went to work for a year or two, get work experience, change their social status. Thus, having received a new social status of a worker, they were, as it were, cleared of their "defective" social origin. In addition, applicants with seniority received benefits upon admission, were enrolled in the most prestigious specialties with virtually no competition.

The main focus of intergenerational social movements is from physical to mental work, from village to city. Sociological studies have shown that in heterogeneous families, the social group of the mother is more often inherited. She is an educator specialist in career guidance. According to research data, more than 40 percent of children came from families where the father was engaged in physical labor and the mother was engaged in mental work, and, in the opposite situation, 15 percent. Perhaps the point is also that the social origin was designated mainly by the social position of the father.

The social biography of people from working-class families is characterized by the fact that the overwhelming majority begins to labor activity from an unskilled manual labor- more than 80 percent. Only a tenth of them goes to the intelligentsia group. Only 70 percent of people from heterogeneous families start with unskilled manual labor, and about a fifth of them move to the intelligentsia. Among those who came from intelligent families, two-thirds began their working biography with physical labor, and a third - with mental labor, despite the fact that there were mechanisms for regulating this process.

In Western sociology, the problem of social mobility is also very widely studied. Strictly speaking, social mobility is a change in social status. There is a status - real and imaginary, ascribed. Any person receives a certain status already at birth, depending on belonging to a particular race, gender, place of birth, position of parents.

In all social systems, the principles of both imaginary and real merit operate. The more imaginary merit prevails in determining social status, the more rigid the society, the less social mobility ( medieval Europe, castes in India). This situation can only persist in an extremely simple society, and even then up to a certain level. Further, it simply slows down social development. The fact is that, according to all the laws of genetics, talented and gifted young people are found equally evenly in all social groups of the population.

The more developed a society, the more dynamic it is, the more principles of real status and real merit work in its system. Society is interested in this.

Sociologists do not limit themselves to describing objective processes, but strive to influence the social orientation of young people, the choice of a profession, taking into account social needs. Following P. Sorokin, we will distinguish between two types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual or social group from one social position to another at the same level. But the most important is vertical mobility, for example, career advancement, a significant increase in material well-being, a transition to another level of power, etc.

Society can raise the status of some individuals and lower the status of others. And this is understandable: some individuals possessing talent, energy, youth, must displace individuals who do not possess these qualities from higher status positions. Thus, upward and downward social mobility can be distinguished. Of course, when a person retires, his status almost always goes down.

In social movements, group and individual social mobility are distinguished. Group mobility is observed when, due to major changes in society, often in conditions of instability, large social groups are rapidly moving, the political and economic elite are changing. A typical example, when the team of E. Gaidar was put at the helm of the state in our country. In the same way, the situation associated with E. Gaidar can serve as an example of a decline in social status, downward social mobility.

Of course, group social mobility consists of individual movements, but the latter always has its own characteristics. These movements regulate social institutions, establishing certain rules of the game. For example, the education system represented by prestigious universities, political parties play the role of social lifts for the formation of a managerial and political elite.

In the view of many, success in life is associated with the achievement of certain heights in the social hierarchy, that is, upward social mobility. But, first of all, you need to understand the rules of the game: that is, what kind of society you live in and on what principles its stratification structure is built. It is clear that if the title, origin or high position of your parents is the basis of success in life, and you do not have "blue bloods", influential relatives, then your chances of advancement in life are low.

If a person's monetary potential is highly valued in society, it is necessary to assess their entrepreneurial abilities, if the government, then it is necessary to deal with political activities... But at the same time, it should be borne in mind that in a particular society everything is interconnected: political power, influence is easier to get with money. "New Russians" - Mavrodi, Berezovsky, Gusinsky and many others - having acquired a lot of money no matter what way, break through to political power. Social lifts such as a successful and profitable marriage, participation in mafia groups, religious communities, etc. can also work.

As a result of social displacement, a person finds himself in a new social group, which often means a new socio-cultural environment, to which he will not always be able to adapt. -What reasons are down? It is no coincidence that the common word "scourge" stands for "a former intelligent person." It is as a result of the inability to adapt to the new socio-cultural environment that marginal groups are formed.

Thus, the study of the social-class structure of society, the processes associated with its change, occupies an important place in sociological practice. Moreover, not only domestic sociologists analyze the stratification processes in society, but also Western scientists pay great attention to this issue.