In the process of labor, people enter into certain social relations interacting with each other. Social interactions in the sphere of labor are a form of social ties, realized in the exchange of activities and mutual action. The objective basis for the interaction of people is the commonality or divergence of their interests, close or distant goals, views. The tools and objects of labor, material and spiritual benefits act as intermediaries of human interaction in the sphere of labor, its intermediate links. Constant interaction of individuals or communities in the process labor activity in certain social conditions forms specific social relationships.
Social relationships are relationships between members social communities and these communities about their social status, lifestyle and way of life, ultimately, about the conditions for the formation and development of personality, social communities. They are manifested in the position of individual groups of workers in the labor process, communication links between them, i.e. in the mutual exchange of information to influence the behavior and performance of others, as well as to assess their own position, which affects the formation of interests and behavior of these groups.
These relations are inextricably linked with labor relations and are initially determined by them. For example, workers get used to the labor organization, adapt due to objective needs and thus enter into labor relations, regardless of who will work nearby, who is the leader, what is his style of activity. However, then each employee manifests himself in his own way in relations with each other, with the manager, in relation to work, to the order of distribution of work, etc. Consequently, on the basis of objective relations, relations of a socio-psychological nature begin to take shape, characterized by a certain emotional mood, the nature of communication between people and relationships in labor organization, the atmosphere in it.
Thus, social and labor relations make it possible to determine the social significance, role, place, social status of an individual and a group. They are the link between the worker and the foreman, the leader and a group of subordinates, certain groups of workers and their individual members. Not a single group of workers, not a single member of a labor organization can exist outside of such relations, outside of mutual obligations relative to each other, outside of interactions.
As you can see, in practice there is a variety of social and labor relations. They, as well as various social phenomena and processes in the conditions of the existing market, are studied by the sociology of labor. Therefore, the sociology of labor is a study of the functioning and social aspects of the market in the world of work. If you try to narrow down this concept, then we can say that the sociology of labor is the behavior of employers and employees in response to the action of economic and social incentives to work. It is this kind of incentives, on the one hand, induce individual choice, and on the other, limit it. In sociological theory, the emphasis is on incentives that regulate labor behavior, which are not impersonal in nature and relate to workers, large groups of people.
The subject of sociology of labor is the structure and mechanism of social and labor relations, as well as social processes and phenomena in the world of work.
The goal of labor sociology is the study of social processes and the development of recommendations for their regulation and management, forecasting and planning aimed at creating optimal conditions for the functioning of society, a team, a group, an individual in the world of work and achieving, on this basis, the most complete implementation and optimal combination their interests.
The tasks of the sociology of labor are:
study and optimization social structure society, labor organization (team);
analysis of the labor market as a regulator of optimal and rational mobility labor resources;
finding ways to optimally realize labor potential modern worker;
the optimal combination of moral and material incentives and the improvement of attitudes towards work in market conditions;
strengthening social control and combating various kinds of deviations from generally accepted moral principles and norms in the world of work;
studying the causes and developing a system of measures to prevent and resolve labor conflicts;
creating a system of social guarantees that protect workers in society, labor organization, etc.
In other words, the tasks of the sociology of labor are reduced to the development of methods and techniques for using social factors in the interests of solving the most important socio-economic problems of society and the individual, which include the creation of a system of social guarantees, maintaining and consolidating the social protection of citizens in order to accelerate the social reorientation of the economy.
To collect and analyze information in the sociology of labor, sociological methods are widely used, which are manifested in:
the achieved knowledge about the subject of research (understanding the essence of labor and relations in the world of work);
process methods of gathering facts;
way of making a conclusion, i.e. formulate conclusions about causal relationships between phenomena.
It should be noted that research carried out within the framework of the sociology of labor provides the necessary and sufficiently reliable information for the formation of social policy, the development of scientifically based programs for the socio-economic development of labor organizations (collectives), for solving social problems and contradictions that constantly accompany labor activity and workers. ... Thus, the sociology of labor is called upon, on the one hand, to expand knowledge about the reality of reality, on the other, to promote the establishment of new connections and processes occurring in the world of work.
Labor sciences of a sociological profile exist within sociology as a whole, but are not necessarily constituent parts of the sociology of labor. They are sociological not only in methods, but also in the subject of research. Them common feature–- study of social aspects of social labor. The emergence of disciplines within the sociology of labor became possible due to the fact that this science analyzes social labor at the macro and micro levels. The first concerns the institutional aspect of labor, and the second - motivational and behavioral.
Economic sociology is one of the young branches of knowledge; its subject is the value orientations, needs, interests and behavior of large social groups (demographic, vocational qualifications, etc.) at the macro and micro levels in a market environment. How is the reduction and employment of management, unskilled workers, engineers, doctors, etc. occurring? How does the assessment of remuneration (moral and material) of labor change in certain community groups, in the areas of individual and collective labor, public, private and cooperative production? These and other questions are called and answered by economic sociology. The subject of research in the sociology of labor is precisely the circle of its scientific problems in intersection with other sociological disciplines.
Labor economics studies the mechanism of action of economic laws in the sphere of labor, the forms of their manifestation in the social organization of labor. The economy is interested in the process of value creation itself. For her, labor costs are important at all stages of the production cycle, while the sociology of labor considers the labor interactions of workers and the labor relations arising between them. For example, in stimulating labor, the economy is interested in wages. In this case, the tariff system, wages, and the relationship between them are studied. The sociology of labor, giving due attention to the problem of material incentives, considers, first of all, the totality of motives for work, such incentives as the content of labor, its organization and conditions, the degree of independence in work, the nature of relationships in the team, etc.

The concept and content of social and labor relations

Social and labor relations characterize economic,

psychological and legal aspects of the relationship of individuals and

social groups in processes conditioned by work activity.

The analysis of social and labor relations is usually carried out in three directions: subjects, objects and types.

Subjects social and labor relations are individuals or social groups. For the modern economy, the main subjects of the relations under consideration are: the employee, the union of employees (trade union), the union of employers, the state.

Salaried worker Is a person who has entered into an employment contract with a representative of an enterprise, public organization or state. An employee must have certain qualities, the actual assessment of which makes it possible to represent the environment for the formation of social and labor relations. The hired worker, first of all, must have the willingness and ability to personally participate in social and labor relations, have a certain mindset on the preferred ways of participating in these relations.

Employer as a subject of social and labor relations, according to the international classification of the status of members of society in terms of their employment, this is a person who works independently and constantly hires one or more workers to perform work. The employer can be the owner of the means of production or his representative. In particular, the employer is the manager state enterprise, who, in turn, is an employee in relation to the state.

Trade union is created to protect the socio-economic interests of employees or persons of free professions in a particular field of activity. The most important areas of activity of trade unions are: providing employment, improving conditions and wages.

State as a subject of social and labor relations in conditions market economy acts in the following main roles: legislator, defender of the rights of citizens and organizations, employer, mediator and arbitrator in labor disputes. The measure of realization of each of these role functions of the state, the nature of their combination at each specific moment in time are determined by the historical, political, economic conditions of the development of the state. Therefore, the role of the state in social and labor relations can change. But in any case, the state as a subject of social and labor relations should be interested in effective interaction between employees and employers.

There are various interconnections between the subjects of social and labor relations, which also differ in levels:

- employee - employee;

- employee - employer;

- trade union - employer;

- the employer is the state;

- employee - the state, etc.

Items social and labor relations are determined goals that people strive to achieve at various stages of their life cycle... The following main stages are distinguished:

- from birth to graduation;

- the period of work and / or family activity;

- the period after employment.

At the first stage, social and labor relations are mainly associated with the problems of general and special education; on the second - with the problems of labor activity, including the relationship of hiring and firing, professional development, working conditions and remuneration, on the third - with the problems of retirement security and keeping active.

To the greatest extent, the subjects of social and labor relations are due to two blocks of problems: employment, organization and remuneration. The first block determines the possibilities of providing people with the means of subsistence, as well as the realization of individual abilities. The second block includes working conditions, the nature of the relationship between members of the production team, material reimbursement of labor costs, the possibility of human development in the process of labor activity.

Types of social and labor relations characterize psychological, ethical and legal forms relationships in the process of employment. By organizational forms, the following types of social and labor relations are distinguished: solidarity, paternalism, subsidiarity, partnership, conflict, discrimination.

Solidarity- presupposes common responsibility and mutual assistance based on the common interests of a group of people. Most often, they talk about the solidarity of trade union members in defending the interests of hired personnel. Members of employers' unions and members of other unions also show solidarity.

Paternalism characterized by a significant proportion of the regulation of social and labor relations by the state or the management of the enterprise. It is carried out under the guise of "paternal care" of the state for the needs of the population or the administration of the enterprise for its employees. The former USSR is an example of state paternalism. At the enterprise level, paternalism is common in Japan and some other Asian countries.

Subsidiarity means a person's desire for personal responsibility for achieving their goals and their actions in solving social and labor problems. Subsidiarity can be seen as the opposite of paternalism. If a person enters into a professional or other union to achieve his goals, then subsidiarity can be realized in the form of solidarity. At the same time, a person acts in solidarity with full awareness of his goals and his personal responsibility, not succumbing to the influence of the "crowd".

Partnership most typical for Germany. The economy of this country is based on a system of detailed legal documents, in accordance with which employees, entrepreneurs and the state are considered as partners in solving economic and social problems. At the same time, trade unions act from the standpoint of not only protecting the interests of hired personnel, but also the efficiency of production at enterprises and the national economy as a whole. Partnership relationships ensure the achievement of a synergistic effect from the coordinated activities of people and social groups.

Conflict is an extreme expression of contradictions in social and labor relations. The most obvious forms of labor conflicts are labor disputes, strikes, mass layoffs (lockouts). Contradictions in social and labor relations are objectively inevitable and with certain conditions necessary for development economic systems... In this sense, conflicts can be useful, since they most clearly express the interests of the opposing sides. However, protracted conflicts lead to significant losses for the enterprise, its employees and the country's economy as a whole. This determines the need for methods of rational management of conflict situations.

Discrimination- is based on arbitrariness, illegal restriction of the rights of subjects of social and labor relations. Discrimination violates the principles of equality of opportunity in labor markets. Discrimination can be based on gender, age, race, nationality, confession and other grounds. Discrimination is possible when choosing a profession and enrolling in schools, promotion, remuneration, provision of enterprise services to employees, dismissal.

Equality of opportunity in social and labor relations is ensured, first of all, by the system of legislation. For Russia, these are the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, the Law on Employment of the Population of the Russian Federation. Russia has ratified the ILO conventions on equality of opportunity in labor and employment.

By the nature of the influence on results economic activity distinguish between social and labor relations:

- constructive, conducive successful activities enterprises and societies;

- destructive, interfering with the successful operation of the enterprise and society.

Constructive are relations of either cooperation, mutual assistance, or competition, organized in such a way as to facilitate the achievement of positive results. The constructive interaction of the company's employees is based on the authority of the managers, the system of lifelong recruitment, a high level of income, a rational management style, and the psychological atmosphere in the team.

Destructive relationships arise when the general orientation of the interests of employees and social groups does not correspond to the goals of the enterprise. The interests of employees of an enterprise can differ in a number of ways: gender, age, health, temperament, level of ability, nationality, marital status, education, attitude to religion, social status, political orientation, income level, profession, place in the hierarchy of the enterprise, etc. ... By itself, the difference between employees of the enterprise on these and other grounds does not necessarily lead to destructive relationships. There are many examples of effective cooperation of various people. The main condition for such cooperation is the presence of a unifying situation or idea, before which individual and group differences become insignificant.

Among the most important social relationships are those between managers and subordinates. The experience of developed countries shows that partnership relations are more effective than relations based on administrative coercion. Income inequality can be significant, but at work, all employees need to feel like partners.

8.2. Social partnership: concept, basic principles, system and forms

Domestic and world practice shows that there are two ways of forming social and labor relations and resolving labor conflicts - violent and peaceful. Social partnership is a type and system of relations between employers and employees, in which within social peace coordination of their most important social and labor interests is ensured. Since the end of 1991, the term “social partnership” has been introduced into the practice of regulating social and labor relations in Russia. In real life, social partnership is a civilized method for resolving social conflicts at various levels.

Social partnership- a system of relationships between employees,

employers, public authorities, local authorities

self-government aimed at ensuring the alignment of interests

employees and employers on the regulation of labor relations

Relationships between social partners should be based on principles developed by the ILO, which include:

- the establishment of a universal and lasting peace based on social justice;

- providing employees with normal working conditions;

- recognition and guarantee of the rights to association;

- the right of all people to material well-being and spiritual development in conditions of freedom, dignity and equal opportunities;

- full employment and improved living standards.

Along with the general principles of the ILO, on which the ideology of the entire system of social partnership is built, each member state of the ILO formulates specific principles organizing the work of social partners. In accordance with the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (Article 24), the main principles of social partnership are:

- equality of the parties;

- respect and consideration of the interests of the parties;

- the parties' interest in participating in contractual relations;

- assistance of the state in strengthening and developing social partnership on a democratic basis;

- compliance by the parties with laws and other regulatory legal acts;

- the authority of the representatives of the parties;

- freedom of choice when discussing issues related to the sphere of work;

- voluntary assumption of obligations;

- the reality of the obligations assumed by the parties;

- the obligation to comply with collective bargaining agreements and agreements;

- control over the implementation of the adopted collective agreements and agreements;

- responsibility of the parties for non-fulfillment through their fault of collective agreements and agreements.

The social partnership system includes the following levels(Labor Code of the Russian Federation, Art. 26): federal, regional, sectoral, territorial and organizational level.

Social partnership is carried out in forms(Labor Code of the Russian Federation, Art.27):

- collective bargaining for the preparation of draft collective agreements, agreements and their conclusion;

- mutual consultations on the regulation of labor relations;

- participation of employees, their representatives in the management of the organization;

- participation of representatives of employees and employers in the pre-trial resolution of labor disputes.

To ensure the regulation of social and labor relations, collective bargaining and the preparation of draft agreements, collective agreements, their conclusion, the organization of control of implementation at all levels on an equal basis, special commissions at all levels (Labor Code of the Russian Federation, Art. 35).

The Labor Code of the Russian Federation defines the procedure for collective bargaining (Articles 36 and 37), the establishment of agreements and the settlement of disagreements (Article 38).

The agreement may include mutual obligations of the parties on the following questions:

- salary;

- conditions and labor protection;

- modes of work and rest;

- development of social partnership;

- other issues identified by the parties.

Agreement- a legal act establishing general principles regulation of social and labor relations and related economic relations, concluded between authorized representatives of employees and employers at the federal, regional, sectoral (intersectoral) and territorial levels within their competence (Labor Code of the Russian Federation, Article 45).

Depending on the scope of regulation of social and labor relations, agreements may be concluded: general, regional, sectoral (intersectoral), territorial.

General agreement defines the general principles of regulation of social and labor relations at the federal level.

Regional agreement establishes general principles for the regulation of social and labor relations at the level of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation.

Sectoral (intersectoral) agreement determines the general conditions of remuneration, labor guarantees and benefits for employees of the industry (branches).

Territorial agreement establishes general working conditions, labor guarantees and benefits for employees on the territory of the relevant municipality.

The Labor Code of the Russian Federation also defines the procedure for developing a draft agreement and its conclusion, the validity of the agreement, the procedure for making changes and additions, registering and monitoring implementation (Articles 47, 48, 49, 50, 51).

Collective agreement- a legal act regulating social and labor relations in an organization and concluded by employees and the employer represented by their representatives (Labor Code of the Russian Federation, art. 40)

- forms, systems and amounts of remuneration;

- payment of benefits, compensations;

- a mechanism for regulating labor remuneration, taking into account the rise in prices, the level of inflation, the fulfillment of the indicators determined by the collective agreement;

- employment, retraining, conditions for the release of workers;

– work time and time of rest, including issues of granting and duration of leave;

- improvement of working conditions and labor protection for employees, including women and youth;

- observance of the interests of employees during the privatization of an organization, departmental housing;

- environmental safety and health protection of workers at work;

- guarantees and benefits for employees who combine work with training;

- health improvement and recreation of employees and their families;

- control over the implementation of the collective agreement, the procedure for introducing amendments and additions to it, the responsibility of the parties, ensuring normal conditions for the activities of employees' representatives;

- refusal to strike if the relevant conditions of the collective agreement are met;

- other questions.

The Labor Code of the Russian Federation also defines the procedure for developing a draft collective agreement and concluding its final version, actions of the parties, conditions for making changes and additions, procedures for registration and monitoring implementation (Articles 42, 43, 44, 50, 51).

In addition, the Labor Code of the Russian Federation considers possible forms of employee participation in the management of an organization (Article 43). Articles 54 and 55 define responsibility of the parties social partnership:

- for avoiding participation in collective bargaining;

- failure to provide information necessary for collective bargaining and monitoring compliance with a collective agreement or agreement;

- for violation or non-fulfillment of contractual obligations.

Planning the social development of labor collectives

To implement a targeted impact on social processes in terms of the development of collectives and individual citizens, they must be subject to management at all levels.

Social Development Management- a set of methods, techniques and procedures that allow solving social problems of personnel on the basis of a scientific approach, knowledge of the laws governing the course of social processes, accurate analytical calculation and verified social standards.

It follows from the definition that the management of social development is an organizational mechanism of a pre-thought, predicted, complex impact on the social environment.

Social planning serves these purposes, or social development planning labor collectives.

With the transition of Russia to market relations, the issues of planning social development at enterprises were relegated to the second, and perhaps to the third plan. Some issues are reflected in collective agreements, but not all are calculated and justified for the duration of the agreement. Most organizations now do not have collective agreements at all. Therefore, the need to work on planning the social development of organizations is very relevant.

Social development means changes for the better in the social environment of the organization, which is the object of the organization's management and, at the same time, an integral part of personnel management. According to its purpose, the management of social development is focused exclusively on people, on creating appropriate working and living conditions for employees, and constantly improving these conditions.

To the main factors of development of the social environment organizations include:

organization potential- these are the material and technical and organizational and economic capabilities of the organization (its size and territorial location, the number and quality of personnel, the nature of the leading professions, the industry affiliation and profile of the enterprise, the scope of work, the form of ownership, financial position, the state of fixed assets and the technical level of production, content and organizational forms labor process, the image of the organization, its traditions, etc.) These are basic conditions that have a multifaceted and complex impact on the social environment, stimulate and ensure the social development of the organization;

social infrastructure Is a complex of objects intended for the life support of the organization's employees and members of their families, satisfaction of social, household, cultural and intellectual needs (housing stock and public utilities, medical and treatment-and-prophylactic institutions, educational and cultural facilities, trade and Catering, consumer services, sports facilities, collective summer cottages and gardening partnerships);

working conditions and labor protection- these are factors that, in one way or another, affect the well-being and useful output of workers, ensure the safe conduct of work, the prevention of injuries and occupational diseases (psychophysiological, sanitary and hygienic, aesthetic and socio-psychological conditions of the working environment and the labor process; uniform regulatory requirements labor protection, state supervision and public control of the observance of the legal rights of workers to work that meets the requirements of safety and hygiene, the fulfillment by employers and the workers themselves of labor protection requirements, etc.);

material reward labor contribution of employees includes: remuneration of labor in accordance with its quantity and quality, compensation additional costs labor, pensions, scholarships, allowances, etc., ensuring an appropriate standard of living;

social protection of workers organizations are social insurance, observance of civil rights and social guarantees established by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, the collective agreement and other legal acts;

socio-psychological climate- This is the cumulative effect of the impact of many factors affecting the personnel of the organization. It manifests itself in labor motivation, communication between employees, their interpersonal and group relationships;

outside working hours, which includes the conditions for rest and recuperation of workers, the arrangement of their home life, the fulfillment of family and social responsibilities (sleep, hygiene, food, movement to and from work, housekeeping and subsidiary farming, caring for children and classes with them, etc.) etc.);

free time is of particular importance for the versatile development of the individual. It serves to restore the physical and intellectual strength of workers and is associated with the satisfaction of the social and cultural needs of a person (reading literature, cinema, theater, watching television, communicating with relatives and friends, studying, etc.).

Based on this, we can formulate main goals of social development organizations:

- improving the social structure of workers, their demographic and professional qualifications;

- regulation of the number of employees, increasing their educational, cultural and technical level;

- improvement of ergonomic, psychophysiological, sanitary-hygienic, and aesthetic and other working conditions, labor protection and safety of workers;

- provision of social insurance for employees, observance of their rights and social guarantees;

- motivation both by means of material reward and various encouragement of effective work, proactive and creative attitude to business, group and individual responsibility for the results joint activities;

- creating and maintaining a healthy moral and psychological atmosphere in the team, optimal interpersonal and intergroup connections;

- an increase in the standard of living of workers and their families, full use of leisure time.

Social planning in the enterprise should be preceded by a comprehensive sociological research labor collective, the purpose of which may be to study the social structure of workers, to identify its weak links and areas of improvement. The issues of people's attitude to work, factors of attractiveness and unattractiveness of labor at the enterprise as a whole and in each of its divisions are subject to study. Particular attention should be paid to the study of the degree of meaningfulness of work, its conditions and level of remuneration, staff turnover, labor discipline, value orientations in the team. All this will make it possible to develop scientifically grounded recommendations for changing the social parameters of the labor collective, as well as specific proposals for various areas of work in the collective of the enterprise. Such recommendations and suggestions become the basis social planning for the future.

In terms of social development, the following should be formed sections of works.

1) Improvement of the social structure of personnel... It is advisable to include in this section such issues as: raising the general educational and professional level of workers, reducing the share of low-skilled labor, changing (if necessary) the gender and age structure of personnel. The work of women, adolescents, persons of pre-retirement age is considered separately. As a result, indicate those structural changes that are advisable to carry out among these categories of workers.

2) Impact on social factors of development production and increasing its efficiency. This includes activities related to the technical re-equipment of production; improving the organization of work, ensuring an increase in the content of work; improvement of wages, etc.

3) Improving working and living conditions workers in production . To carry out work in this direction, you should:

· To identify areas and subdivisions with unfavorable sanitary and hygienic working conditions;

· To provide measures to improve the working environment, allowing to reduce the share or completely eliminate work, heavy and harmful to human health;

Provide measures to ensure compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards, labor safety standards, to organize well-equipped household premises, food points, medical points, etc .;

· Highlight the issues of providing employees with housing, kindergartens, recreation areas, etc.

4) Education of labor discipline, development of labor activity and creative initiative. Measures in this area of ​​work are developed on the basis of an analysis of the value orientations of employees and should ensure high labor and production discipline, the development of various forms of personnel involvement in production management.

In addition to social development plans, special programs can be developed to address the most pressing problems for the organization. For example, such as: "Health", "Youth", "Women's Labor", "Working Conditions", etc.

It is advisable to restore, and where they were not developed, the so-called social passports of the organization. Social passport data is used in the development of social development plans.

Social passport- document,

in dynamics (over the years since the creation of the organization)

The planning of social development at the enterprise and the implementation of such plans ensures the growth of social efficiency, which creates conditions for increasing the economic efficiency of the organization and the well-being of its personnel.

Capitalism, i.e. market economy is a system of social interaction and division of labor based on private ownership of funds

production. The material factors of production are owned by individual citizens, capitalists and landowners. Production in factories and farms is organized by entrepreneurs and farmers, that is, individuals or associations of individuals who are either themselves owners of capital, or borrowed or leased from the owners. Characteristic feature capitalism is free enterprise. The goal of any entrepreneur, be it an industrialist or a farmer, is to make a profit.

Using the text, indicate any two characteristics of the market economy discussed by the author!

Capitalism, i.e. market economy is a system of social interaction and division of labor based on private ownership of the environment

production facilities. The material factors of production are owned by individual citizens, capitalists and landowners. Production in factories and farms is organized by entrepreneurs and farmers, that is, individuals or associations of individuals who are either themselves owners of capital, or borrowed or leased from the owners. Free enterprise is a characteristic feature of capitalism. The goal of any entrepreneur, be it an industrialist or a farmer, is to make a profit.

Consumers are the real masters in the capitalist system of the market economy. By buying or refraining from buying, they decide who should own the capital and run businesses. They determine what should be produced, as well as how much and of what quality. Their choice translates into profits or losses for the entrepreneur. They make the poor rich and the rich poor. Such owners are not easy to get along with. They are full of whims and quirks, they are fickle and unpredictable. They do not give a penny to the previous merits. As soon as they are offered something that suits their taste or is cheaper, they leave the old suppliers. The main thing for them is their own benefit and satisfaction. They do not care about the money costs of the capitalists, or the fate of the workers who lose their jobs; as consumers, they stop buying what they bought before.

When we say that production a specific product And it doesn't pay off, what do you mean? This indicates that consumers no longer want to pay producers as much as they need to cover the necessary production costs, while at the same time the income of other producers turns out to be higher than production costs. Consumer demands play an important role in the allocation of productive resources between various industries in the production of consumer goods. Consumers thus decide how much raw material and labor will go into making A and how much another good will require. It makes no sense, therefore, to oppose production for the sake of profit and production for the sake of consumption. The desire for profit forces the entrepreneur to supply consumers with those goods for which there is a demand in the first place. If the entrepreneur was not guided by the profit motive, he could produce more goods And, despite the preferences of consumers to have something else. The drive for profit is the factor that compels a businessman to ensure the production of the goods most preferred by consumers themselves in the most efficient way.

Thus, the capitalist system of production is an economic democracy, where every cent has a say. The consumer is the sovereign people. Capitalists, entrepreneurs and farmers are empowered by the people. If they do not meet the assigned task, if they are not able to produce the goods demanded by the consumers with the minimum cost, they lose their positions. Their responsibility is to serve consumers. Profits and losses are the instruments by which consumers control all types of economic activity.

using the text, give three explanations of the author's idea that the consumer is the master of the market

What is the labor market for?

How does demand for supply work in the labor market?
Why is it difficult to achieve equilibrium in the labor market?
What are the causes of unemployment?
What are the features different types unemployment?
Why is unemployment an inevitable companion of a market economy?
How does the state regulate the employment of the population?

How has labor influenced the processes of anthropo and sociogenesis? What are the goals of labor activity? How they manifest themselves in terms of profession

Specialty, qualifications? What are the differences between work and play in human life?

Help me check the test if I did it right. 1. The social consequences of the scientific and technological revolution are discussed in the judgment:

Thanks to scientific and technological revolution, it is possible to increase labor productivity and quality

products

in the era of scientific and technological revolution, the subject of labor changes qualitatively - materials that are processed in the production process

under the influence of scientific and technological revolution changes professional structure working class

2. Intensive economic growth is most characterized by:

involving additional factors of production in the production process: natural resources, work force

Using the achievements of scientific and technological progress

improving the quality of goods

3. Extensive economic growth is most characterized by:
+ involving additional factors of production in the production process: natural resources, labor

Using the achievements of scientific and technological progress

An increase in the number of manufactured products

4. Opponents of economic growth:

believe that economic growth is in conflict with universal human values

refer to the effects of environmental pollution

Growth is believed to be a source of concern for people

5. The need for state intervention in the market economy is associated with:

ideology

the need to use resources efficiently

Uneven economic development

6. Social regulation of a market economy means:

Maintaining the poor

equal distribution of income

tax increases for the rich

7. Legal regulation market economy means:

the publication of laws that strictly regulate the behavior of market participants

process

the publication of laws aimed at protecting the interests of all participants in market relations

Enactment of laws aimed at limiting monopolies

8. At which stage of the economic cycle is there a sharp decline in demand for goods and services?
Depression
+ Crisis
Revitalization

9. Which of the following characteristics corresponds to the stage of revival?
The release of the quantity of goods reaches the pre-crisis state
+ The release of the quantity of goods exceeds the pre-crisis level
Unemployment and inflation rise

10. Which of the characteristics most accurately reflects the essence of the crisis of overproduction?
The crisis leads to people's uncertainty about the future
The crisis is characterized as a negative phenomenon in the economy
+ A crisis is a natural stage of development, an imbalance in the economy

11. The economic function of the state:
ensuring the country's defense
protection of law and order
+ support for disabled people and retirees

12. The task of the Central Bank in regulating the monetary sphere of the state:
+ fight against inflation
distribution of the state budget
financing of large transactions

13. Benefits from higher inflation:
fixed income military
+ debtors who borrowed money at a fixed interest rate
creditors lending money at a fixed interest rate

14. Emission is:

undesirable phenomenon in the economy

The process of issuing banknotes in order to regulate the amount of money supply

The process of issuing banknotes, inevitably leading to inflation

3. Social aspects of labor activities
Introduction. Labor is a purposeful activity of people aimed at creating material and cultural values.

This section reveals the essence of labor as a broad social process. The social functions and forms of labor are highlighted, its social quality is determined.

The sociological aspect of labor relations is compared with functional approach... The types of social and labor relations are distinguished depending on the content, subjects of activity, the method of communication, the amount of power and on other grounds.

The content and types of labor adaptation, its main stages, conditions for the full adaptation of the subject in the work collective are determined.

The definition of social control in the labor sphere is given, its main functions are highlighted. The classification of types and forms of social control in the work collective, types of social norms and sanctions is given.

Social and labor relations are explained using the concepts of job satisfaction, employment, unemployment, mobility, migration.

This section also introduces the main methods of resolving labor conflicts and the principles of analyzing the results of economic activity.

^ 3.1 Labor as a basic socio-economic process:

social essence of labor, classification

social and labor relations.

Labor is the basis and an indispensable condition for the life of people. By influencing the natural environment, changing and adapting it to their needs, people not only ensure their existence, but also create conditions for the development and progress of society. The labor process is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The main forms of its manifestation are the expenditure of human energy, the interaction of the worker with the means of production and the production interaction of workers with each other. The role of labor in the development of a person and society lies in the fact that in the labor process not only material and spiritual values ​​are created that are designed to meet the needs of people, but also the workers themselves develop, who acquire skills, reveal their abilities, replenish and enrich knowledge. The creative nature of labor finds its expression in the emergence of new ideas, progressive technologies, more perfect and highly productive tools of labor, new types of products, materials, energy, which, in turn, lead to the development of needs. In the process of labor, labor relations arise between the carriers of living labor. They can be viewed in two aspects: functional and sociological

Functional the aspect of labor relations involves identifying the required number of workers, the proportions of their professional and qualified staff based on the required time spent on the manufacture of a certain product of labor, the labor intensity of manufacturing products, etc.

Sociological the aspect of labor relations means the identification of equality-inequality between participants in the labor process, the social status of individual subjects and groups of workers, their interests, motives, labor behavior, etc.

Labor is not only an economic, but also a fundamental social factor that determines all life aspirations modern society... Labor determines the economic activity and social structure, the most important factors of socialization of the individual, the culture of society, the way of life of people, the level of their material well-being, etc. By interacting with each other in the labor process, people enter into a wide network of social and labor relations. Thanks to them, the distribution of the results of economic activity ( economic function labor relations) , employees are given the opportunity to participate in the affairs of the enterprise (democratic function), conditions are provided for the subjects for their integration into public life ( social function) . Among the variety of social and labor relations, their characteristic types and types are distinguished.

The main types of social and labor relations include:

1. Paternalistic relations. They are characterized by strong regulation by the state or the administration of the enterprise.

2. Partnership relations are based on contractual regulation, taking into account the interests of all parties involved.

3. Competitive relations express the desire to obtain unilateral advantages without taking into account the interests of the other party.

4. Solidarity relations presuppose common responsibility and mutual assistance based on the common interests of the parties.

5. Subsidiary relations mean the desire of subjects to take personal responsibility for their actions and the achievement of their goals.

6. Discriminatory relations are based on arbitrariness, illegal restriction of the rights of subjects of social and labor relations.

7. Conflict relations express the aggravation of contradictions between the subjects of social and labor relations.

I also highlight the types of social and labor relations (Table 3.1.1)

Table 3.1.1 Types of social and labor relations

№	Basis of classification	Relationship types
1	By the content of the activity	Production and functional Vocational qualification Socio-organizational
2	By subjects of relations	Inter-organizational (inter-production) Intra-organizational (intra-production)
3	By the nature of income distribution	According to labor contribution Not in line with labor input
4	By the way of communication	Impersonal (mediated) Personal (direct)
5	By the amount of power	Horizontally Vertically
6	By the degree of regulation	Formal (official) Informal (unofficial)

Social essence labor is expressed primarily through the social functions and forms of labor, as well as the social quality of labor. The main social functions of labor.

1. Creation of social wealth (material and spiritual).

2. Realization of potential social wealth (natural minerals, intellectual potential of society).

3. Development, self-expression and self-affirmation of personality.

Labor is realized in such social forms as socialized labor, small-group labor, individual labor.

The social quality of labor consists in the impact of the employee's labor activity on his social roles, social status, interests, educational and professional qualification level, other social characteristics. This impact is due to the influence of tools of labor, technology, working conditions, forms of labor organization, etc.

The nature of work reflects the way of connecting the producer with the means of production, conditioned by the property relations prevailing in the given society. So, in a slave society, the slave and the means of labor were combined as the property of the slave owner. And this gave rise to the personal dependence of the worker on the one who appropriated the results of his labor. In a capitalist society, the worker can unite with the means of labor by selling his labor power and remaining personally free. Thus, labor by its nature can be slave, corvee, hired (Sokolova G.N., 2002).

Attitude to work , according to G.N. Sokolova , – complex social and labor phenomenon. This is a characteristic of the type of spiritual connection of the individual with the object, means and product of labor, as well as with working environment... Its main elements are:

Motives and orientations of labor behavior;

Real or actual labor behavior;

Verbal work behavior (employees' assessment of their work situation).

Among the indicators of attitudes towards work, objective indicators (responsibility, conscientiousness, initiative, discipline, etc.) and subjective indicators (general job satisfaction, partial satisfaction with certain elements of the labor process: wages, working conditions, relationships in the team, etc.).

The attitude to work is influenced by a number of factors: production and non-production. TO production factors include: pay and working conditions; organization of work; production independence; relationships in the team, etc. Among the non-production factors of attitudes to work are: the standard of living of workers; educational and professional level workers; work experience; development of social infrastructure; the state of labor morality, etc.

The concept of the content of labor expresses the production and technical side of the worker's connection with the means of labor, characterizes the labor process as the interaction of man with nature (tools and objects of labor). Content of labor is a set of actions performed by the employee and their ratio, the composition of specific labor functions. There are the following labor functions of the employee: energy; technological; control and regulatory; managerial; informational. Using manual techniques, man carried out a metabolism with nature using a mediating function; machine technology allowed man to exchange substances with nature using a regulatory function; the modern scientific and technological revolution gives him the opportunity to control the internal mechanism of phenomena and objects of nature with the help of a controlling function (Sokolova G.N., 2002).

^ The richness of labor - this is the saturation of his mental activity, the expression of the complexity, the variety of performed labor functions, the intellectual and psychological characteristics of labor.

The main factor influencing the change in the structure of labor functions is scientific and technological progress. Under his influence, the content and content of work change.

^ Working conditions Is a set of socio-economic, technical-organizational, socio-hygienic and socio-psychological conditions that affect human health and performance, his attitude to work, the degree of job satisfaction, production efficiency, living standards and personal development.

^ Job satisfaction - This is the estimated attitude of a person or a group of people to their own labor activity, its various aspects, the most important indicator of the adaptation of an employee at a given enterprise.

Exist whole line quite specific values ​​of job satisfaction, reflecting its role, functions, consequences in socio-economic life, in organization and management.

1. As a result of studying the evaluative attitudes of people to well-being in everyday life, the socio-economic system, and the social climate, it has been established that work and career are of the greatest importance for them, along with such values ​​as health, personal life, full-fledged leisure, often occupying first position. In a word, job satisfaction is, first of all, social satisfaction, the most important indicator of the quality of life of individuals and groups, the population, the nation. Questions "how are we living?" and "how do we work?" are largely the same for some people in their youth, for others - in adulthood.

2. Job satisfaction has a functional and production significance. It affects the quantitative and qualitative results of work, the urgency and accuracy of assignments, commitment to other people. The attitude towards work can be based on the self-assessment of the employee of his business qualities and indicators. At the same time, self-satisfaction and self-dissatisfaction, depending on the specific case, can positively and negatively affect the work.

3. The employer's concern for people's satisfaction with their work determines some essential types of managerial behavior, labor relations in general. The employer is often skeptical about the production and economic effect of any measures to humanize labor and considers their financing irrational. Funds for these purposes are usually spent under pressure from trade unions, working masses or legal authorities.

4. Satisfactory, from the point of view of the employee, the nature and conditions of work - this is the most important factor in the authority of the leader. For workers, the administration is the best, which is able to make their work better.

5. Job satisfaction is often an indicator of staff turnover and the need for appropriate action to prevent it.

6. Depending on satisfaction with work, the requirements and claims of employees increase or decrease, including in relation to remuneration for work (satisfaction can reduce criticism in relation to wages).

7. Job satisfaction is a universal criterion for explaining, interpreting a variety of actions of individual workers and work groups. It determines the style, method, manner of communication between the administration and the workforce. In other words, the behavior of satisfied and dissatisfied people differs, and the management of satisfied and dissatisfied people also differs.

^ Labor adaptation and social control

in the work collective

Labor adaptation is a social process of mastering a new work situation by a person, in which, unlike the biological one, both the personality and the work environment have an active influence on each other and are adaptive-adaptive systems. When entering a job, a person is actively involved in the system of professional and socio-psychological relations of the labor collective, assimilates new social and labor roles, values, norms, coordinates his individual position with the goals and objectives of the labor collective, thereby subordinating his behavior to the prescriptions of this enterprise ...

Allocate primary and secondary labor adaptation. The primary one takes place at the initial entry of the employee into the working environment, the secondary one - when changing the workplace, profession, position, etc.

Labor adaptation has a complex structure and is a unity of professional, socio-psychological, social-organizational and cultural-everyday adaptation.

1. Professional adaptation is expressed in the mastery of professional skills, the formation of the necessary professional qualities, the acquisition professional excellence etc.

2. Socio-psychological adaptation consists in the development of a person's socio-psychological characteristics of a labor organization, entering into the existing system of relationships, positive interaction with members of the organization.

3. Social and organizational adaptation means the development of a new subject organizational structure organization, work schedule, work and rest regime, features of the management system.

4. Psychophysiological adaptation is the process of mastering the conditions and rhythm of work, sanitary and hygienic comfort, psychophysiological workloads, etc.

5. Cultural and household adaptation is the participation of new members of the labor collective in activities traditional for the given enterprise outside of working hours.

In the process of adaptation, the employee goes through three main stages: 1) familiarization with the labor situation; 2) adaptation to the working situation; 3) integration with the work situation.

Indicators of the degree of adaptation of the employee to the working environment are: efficiency and quality of work; assimilation of social and labor information; labor activity; job satisfaction, etc.

The process of labor adaptation can be influenced by both objective and subjective factors.

The objective factors of labor adaptation include conditions that do not depend on the employee: the level of work organization; labor automation; working conditions; the scale of the workforce; its location, etc.

Subjective (personal) factors include: socio-demographic characteristics of the employee (gender, age, education, qualifications, work experience, social status); socio-psychological characteristics (level of aspirations, hard work, self-control, sociability, etc.); sociological (degree professional interest, the degree of material and moral interest in the efficiency and quality of labor, the presence of an attitude towards professional development, etc.)

One of the conditions conducive to labor adaptation is the professional selection of personnel. Its purpose is to determine the suitability of a person to perform a certain job.

Professional selection involves a description of the profession, drawing up a job profile, as well as a personality map that reflects the natural data of the individual, his inclinations, social, psychological and physiological characteristics.

Another condition for full-fledged labor adaptation is the availability of opportunities for professional growth of the employee, his service career. The presence of the prospect of advancement in the professional and career ladder contributes to the earliest primary labor adaptation of young specialists.

In the process of production adaptation, the personal potential of the employee plays an important role (Figure 3.1.2). This is a set of certain traits and qualities of an employee that form a certain type of behavior: self-confidence, sociability, the ability to assert itself, poise, etc. that is, personal potential characterizes the internal physical and spiritual energy of a person, his activity position, aimed at creative self-expression and self-realization.

The researchers note that the following traits are inherent in advanced workers: energy, the ability to manage their emotions, the willingness to openly express their opinions, the ability to change their point of view under the influence of arguments, but not strength.

Social control plays an important role in regulating the life of the work collective. Social control is called a special institution of society, designed to prevent and correct those social deviations that can disorganize public life.

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• Introduction
• Conclusion

Introduction

Most scientists in the field the economy labor consider that its subject is labor as an expedient activity of people arising in the process and in relation to production See: Economy labor and social and labor relations / Ed. by G. G. Melikyan, R.P. Kolosova. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1996. In foreign countries, experts believe that labor economics is a study of the functioning and results of the market in the world of labor, and in a narrow concept - the behavior of employers and workers in response to general incentives in the form of wages, profits and non-monetary factors in the field of labor relations. : Ehrenberg R., J. Smith R.S. Modern labor economics. Theory and public policy. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1996.

Based on the content of these formulations, the development of the subject of labor economics will be carried out in the following directions:

disclosure of the content and regulation of social and labor relations in the field of labor resources, the labor market and employment, providing for the creation of conditions for the effective functioning of labor resources;

economic directions in the field of increasing the efficiency of labor activity (factors, conditions, reserves, indicators) in codification form, taking into account the transition period to market relations;

motivational and stimulating directions of prerequisites for effective, fruitful work of labor resources in the conditions of market relations;

directions related to quantitative aspects, principles of labor process management, namely productivity, composition and number of employees and their payment.

In Russia, achievements in the field of labor economics in most cases are associated with the activities of the Labor Research Institute of the Ministry of Labor and social protection RF, which has published a large number of guidelines on a very wide range of issues.

Sociology labor - part of general sociology, the subject of which is a diverse set of social and labor relations and social processes in the world of work. Studies of the sociology of labor serve to identify social reserves for increasing the efficiency of labor activity, along with ensuring conditions for the development of workers, meeting their needs, and forming positive intracollective relations.

1. The essence and functions of labor, its social aspects. Subject area of ​​sociology of labor

Work - This expedient activity of people, directed on the creation material and cultural values . Labor is the basis and an indispensable condition for the life of people. By influencing the natural environment, changing and adapting it to their needs, people not only ensure their existence, but also create conditions for the development and progress of society.

The labor process is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The main forms of its manifestation are the costs of human energy, the interaction of the employee with the means of production (objects and means of labor) and the production interaction of workers with each other both horizontally (the ratio of participation in a single labor process) and vertically (the relationship between the manager and the subordinate) ... The role of labor in the development of a person and society is manifested in the fact that in the process of labor not only material and spiritual values ​​are created, designed to meet the needs of people, but also the workers themselves develop, who acquire skills, reveal their abilities, replenish and enrich knowledge. The creative nature of labor finds its expression in the emergence of new ideas, progressive technologies, more perfect and highly productive tools of labor, new types of products, materials, energy, which, in turn, lead to the development of needs.

Thus, in the process of labor activity, not only goods are produced, services are provided, cultural values and so on, but new needs appear with the requirements of their subsequent satisfaction (Fig. 1.1).

The sociological aspect of the study is to consider labor as a system public relations, in determining its impact on society.

Rice. 1.1 The role of labor in the development of man and society

In the process of labor, people enter into certain social relationships, interacting with each other. Social interactions in the world of work - this is a form of social ties, realized in the exchange of activities and mutual action. The objective basis for the interaction of people is the commonality or divergence of their interests, close or distant goals, views. The tools and objects of labor, material and spiritual benefits act as intermediaries of human interaction in the sphere of labor, its intermediate links. The constant interaction of individual individuals or communities in the process of labor activity in certain social conditions forms specific social relations.

Social relationship - it is the relationship between members of social communities and these communities about their social status, lifestyle and way of life, ultimately about the conditions for the formation and development of personality, social communities. They are manifested in the position of individual groups of workers in the labor process, communication links between them, i.e. in the mutual exchange of information to influence the behavior and performance of others, as well as to assess their own position, which affects the formation of interests and behavior of these groups.

These relations are inextricably linked with labor relations and are initially determined by them. For example, workers get used to the labor organization, adapt due to objective needs and thus enter into labor relations, regardless of who will work nearby, who is the leader, what is his style of activity. However, then each employee manifests himself in his own way in relationships with each other, with the leader, in relation to work, to the order of distribution of work, etc. Consequently, on the basis of objective relations, relations of a socio-psychological nature begin to take shape, characterized by a certain emotional mood, the nature of communication between people and relationships in the labor organization, and the atmosphere in it.

Thus, social and labor relations make it possible to determine the social significance, role, place, social status of an individual and a group. They are the link between the worker and the foreman, the leader and a group of subordinates, certain groups of workers and their individual members. Not a single group of workers, not a single member of a labor organization can exist outside of such relations, outside of mutual obligations relative to each other, outside of interactions (Figure 1.2).

As you can see, in practice there is a variety of social and labor relations. They, as well as various social phenomena and processes in the conditions of the existing market, are studied by the sociology of labor. Therefore, the sociology of labor is a study of the functioning and social aspects of the market in the world of work. If we try to narrow down this concept, then we can say that with O cyology labor - This behavior employers and hired workers in answer on the action economic and social incentives To labor . It is this kind of incentives that, on the one hand, induce individual choice, and on the other, limit it. In sociological theory, the emphasis is on incentives that regulate labor behavior, which are not impersonal in nature and relate to workers, large groups of people.

Rice. 1.2 Social and labor relations in the world of work

Subject sociology labor are the structure and mechanism of social and labor relations, as well as social processes and phenomena in the world of work.

Target sociology labor - This is a study of social processes and the development of recommendations for their regulation and management, forecasting and planning aimed at creating optimal conditions for the functioning of society, a team, a group, an individual in the world of work and achieving, on this basis, the most complete realization and optimal combination of their interests.

Tasks sociology labor consist of:

study and optimization of the social structure of society, labor organization (team);

analysis of the labor market as a regulator of optimal and rational mobility of labor resources;

finding ways to optimally realize the labor potential of a modern worker;

the optimal combination of moral and material incentives and the improvement of attitudes towards work in market conditions;

strengthening social control and combating various kinds of deviations from generally accepted moral principles in the field of labor;

studying the causes and developing a system of measures to prevent and resolve labor conflicts;

creating a system of social guarantees that protect workers in society, labor organization, etc.

In other words, the tasks of the sociology of labor are reduced to the development of methods and techniques for using social factors in the interests of solving the most important socio-economic problems of society and the individual, which include the creation of a system of social guarantees, maintaining and consolidating the social protection of citizens in order to accelerate the social reorientation of the economy.

To collect and analyze information in the sociology of labor, sociological methods are widely used, which are manifested in:

the achieved knowledge about the subject of research (understanding the essence of labor and relations in the world of work);

process methods of gathering facts;

way of making a conclusion, i.e. formulate conclusions about causal relationships between phenomena.

It should be noted that research carried out within the framework of the sociology of labor provides the necessary and sufficiently reliable information for the formation of social policy, the development of scientifically based programs for the socio-economic development of labor organizations (collectives), for solving social problems and contradictions that constantly accompany labor activity and workers. ... Thus, the sociology of labor is called upon, on the one hand, to expand knowledge about the reality of reality, on the other, to promote the establishment of new connections and processes occurring in the world of work.

2. The structure and reproduction of the population and labor resources

The state and development of a society is largely determined by the number and composition of its population. Under population is understood scoop NS ness luden, living on the certain territory - district, city, R e gione, country .

Labor resources - This able-bodied part population, possessed Yu shchaya physical and intellectual abilities To labor de I body, capable produce material benefits or render at with meadows, those. labor resources include, on the one hand, those people who are employed in the economy, and on the other, not employed, but able to work. Thus, the workforce consists of real and potential employees.

The required physical and intellectual abilities depend on the age. In the early and mature period of a person's life, they are formed and multiplied, and by old age they are lost. Age is a kind of criterion that makes it possible to allocate labor resources proper from the entire population.

Before considering the basic concepts different directions study of labor resources, it is advisable to look at the composition and structure of the population and the change in its size.

Underreproduction population is understood process continuous renewal generations of people in the result interactions we give birth O sti and mortality . Distinguishthreetypereproductionpopulation:

expanded reproduction is characterized by an excess of the number of births over the number of deaths;

simple reproduction - in this case there is no increase, since the number of births is equal to the number of deaths;

narrowed - the death rate exceeds the birth rate, there is an absolute reduction in the population.

Population reproduction has not only demographic, but also economic and social aspects. It determines the formation of labor resources, the development of territories, the state of the productive forces, the development of social infrastructure, etc.

The population and labor resources have quantitative and qualitative characteristics that are necessary for the analysis and assessment of demographic processes and the development of a strategy in the field of human resources management. To characterize population reproduction, indicators of fertility, mortality and natural growth are used.

Fertility and mortality calculated per 1000 population (per mil) and measured using coefficient systems and tables. The difference between the number of births and deaths with a positive result is called natural growth population.

and

where K R and K S are the birth and death rates, respectively;

R - the number of births per year;

С - the number of deaths per year;

H S - the average annual population.

The average annual number is determined at the middle of the year as the arithmetic mean of the population data at the beginning and end of the year, or by adding half of its increase to the initial population size.

From table. 1 shows that the number of the resident population of Russia is decreasing with the unchanged structure of the urban and rural population. The decline in the population is caused, on the one hand, by a decrease in the relative number of births, and on the other, by an increase in the relative number of deaths, which has predetermined natural decline population by 5-6 ppm per year. The relative number of marriages and divorces during the period under review did not undergo significant changes.

Table 1. Number,compoundandindicatorsnaturalmovementpopulationOf Russia

The size, composition of the population in all countries of the world is determined using censuses. The last census in our country took place in 1989. Its basic data are published and serve as the basis for obtaining demographic data in the subsequent period. The next census is scheduled for 1999. Population censuses provide the most accurate data on its size.

Population forecasting allows. identify expected changes in population size; assess the demographic situation in individual regions and in the country as a whole; determine the number of labor resources, the development of their educational and professional qualifications; trace the influence of other socio-economic and environmental factors on the reproduction process. In order to determine the prospective population size, when compiling a short-term forecast, the method of retrospective extrapolation is used, for longer periods - the method of moving by age.

Table 2. NumberpermanentpopulationOf Russia( at the beginning of the year, thousand people)

The population forecast is made taking into account long-term trends in fertility and mortality, as well as the age and sex composition of the population. Since the mid-60s, the birth rate in the country has not provided simple reproduction of the population: there are fewer children than their parents. By the beginning of the 70s, the two-child family became dominant, then the number of families with one child gradually increased. For almost three decades, natural population growth has increased due to the many generations of women of childbearing age, but in the 90s the proportion of these generations decreased. In the next decade, the birth rate will be slightly higher than at present. However, this will not be enough for the day of the resumption of natural population growth.

3. The structure of the formation of labor resources

Age boundaries and socio-demographic composition of the labor force are determined by the system of state legislative acts. In Russia, the working age is considered: for men 16-59 years old inclusive and for women 16-54 years old. Working age limits in different countries are not the same. In a number of countries, the lower limit of the working age is set at 14-15 years (in some countries - 18 years), and the upper limit - in many 65 years for all, or 65 years for men and 60-62 years for women.

Table 3

Averagedurationlifeandageexiton theretirement(years old)

In Russia, it is not the first year that the question of the need to raise the age threshold has been raised, after reaching which an age pension is established from 60 to 65 years for men, from 55 to 60 years for women. This process will take place gradually, in stages - at first up to 62-63 years for men and up to 57-58 years for women. There are supporters and opponents of this decision. For example, one of the arguments put forward by opponents of raising the retirement age is the reference to the dire economic situation of the working population as a whole.

Since 1993, the Russian Federation has made a transition to an international qualification system for the composition of the population See: The main methodological guidelines for the classification of statistics on labor force composition, economic activity and employment status. / Economy and life. - 1993. - No. 20.. In accordance with this classification in fig. 2.1 shows a diagram of the composition of labor resources.

Rice. 2.1 Labor force and economically active population

Economically active population - part of the population that provides the supply of labor for the production of goods and services. The economically active population includes employed and unemployed, measured in relation to the surveyed period. In order to determine the economic activity of the population, its level is considered:

,

where U EA is the level of economic activity of the population;

d EA is the share of the economically active population;

CHN - the total population.

As you can see from the table. 2.4, the trend of maintaining the economically active population and the share of employment of the population remains unchanged. At the same time, the number of unemployed is growing, which makes it possible to characterize the overall picture as negative.

Economically inactive population - is a population that is not part of the labor force, including persons younger age set to measure the economically active population. The size of the economically inactive population is measured in relation to the surveyed period and includes the following categories:

pupils and students, listeners and cadets attending daytime education institutions (including daytime postgraduate and doctoral studies);

persons receiving old-age pensions and on preferential terms, as well as receiving pensions due to the loss of a breadwinner when he reaches retirement age;

persons receiving disability pensions (1, 2, 3 groups);

persons engaged in housekeeping, caring for children, sick relatives, etc .;

desperate to find a job, i.e. persons who have stopped looking for work, having exhausted all the possibilities of obtaining it, but who can and are ready to work;

other persons who do not need to work, regardless of the source of income.

Table 4

NumberandcompoundeconomicallyactivepopulationOf Russia

The name of indicators	Thousand. Human	Percentage of economically active population
Economically active population: total 75665 male 38880 women 36785 total 72071 male 37063 women 35008 unemployed: total * 3594 male 1817 women 1777	75012 38702 36298 70852 36560 34292	73962 39077 34885 68484 36132 32352	72872 38899 33973 66441 35413 31028	72788 100 38839 100 33949 100 66000 98,3 35112 95,3 30888 95,2
Source: Russia this. - in figures: Brief statistical collection / Goskomstat Ros- M. 1996 .-- p. 33.

* At the end of the year.

Structurelaborresources multifaceted. It includes various components that characterize certain aspects of the labor force. Let's consider its components.

Rice. 2.2 Labor force structure

Labor force structure on sex is important for the formation of an effective structure of employment in the areas of employment in the professional-sectoral and territorial sections and is determined by identifying the ratio of men and women employed in social production, household and personal economy, in study with a break from production, etc. It differs according to the territory of the country and spheres of employment.

First of all, we note that the proportion of men in the labor force of Russia is greater than that of women. The ratio is as follows: men - 62.5%, women - 51.2% Market labor in the countries of the commonwealth in figures and diagrams. - M., 1994 .-- S. 8-9. ... This is due to the fact that the working age for men is 5 years higher. However, this ratio is changing due to the increase in mortality among men of working age.

Level education labor resources - their most important quality characteristic. He is determined by the average number of years of study, the number of pupils and students, the proportion of specialists with higher education and other indicators of society. The level of education is characterized by such indicators as the percentage of literacy, the average number of years of schooling, the distribution of the population by groups depending on the education received.

Table 5

Leveleducationpopulation

As can be seen from the table, the number of people with higher, incomplete higher and secondary specialized education increased from 322 people. in 1989 to 370 in 1994, or 15%. The average level of education of the working population in Russia has increased from 8.1 years in 1970 to 11.0 years at the present time, which is significantly lower than in the United States, where it is now about 14 years Russia today is a real chance. - M .: Observer, 1994 .-- P. 106.

Important information about the quality of intellectual potential is provided by the focus of professional training in the higher education system. Now its structure in our country and in the West differs quite significantly.

Table 6

Numbergraduatesthe highestschoolsonfocuslearning,inpercentTothe bottom line

The data in the table indicate that in our country, in comparison with developed countries, training in engineering specialties prevails. But in the field of the humanities and social sciences, we are seriously lagging behind other countries.

Quantitative changes in the number of labor resources are characterized by such indicators as absolute growth, growth rates and growth rates of labor resources.

Absolute growth defined as the difference between the number of labor resources at the beginning and end of the period under consideration; This can usually be a year or longer.

Pace growth is considered as the ratio of the absolute value of the number of labor resources at the end of the given periods to their value at the beginning of the period. If the rate is taken over a number of years, then the average annual rate is determined as the geometric mean by the following formula:

,

where T RS _ - average annual growth rate;

n is the number of years;

R n - number at the end of the period;

R O - the number at the beginning of the period.

Pace gain calculated by the formula:

where T PS is the average annual growth rate.

4. Organizational framework wages

Based on the principles of organization and functions of wages in the conditions of building market relations, it is created organizational system wages directly at the lower levels - at the enterprise. Reorganization of the organization of wages The organization of wages means its construction, ensuring the relationship between the amount of labor and the amount of its payment, as well as the totality constituent elements(rationing, tariff system, premiums, surcharges and allowances). in accordance with the requirements of the market provides for the solution of the following tasks:

increasing the interest of each employee in identifying and using the reserves of his labor efficiency while excluding the possibility of receiving unearned money;

elimination of cases of equalization in wages, achieving a direct dependence of wages on the results of labor, both individual and collective;

optimization of the ratios in the remuneration of workers of various categories and professional qualification groups, taking into account the complexity of the work performed, working conditions that take into account the scarcity of professions, as well as the influence of various groups working to achieve final results, and the competitiveness of production.

Since in the lower levels of management there is a specificity in the organization of remuneration, its organizational prerequisites should be as shown in Fig. 4.3.

social aspect labor resource

Rice. 4.3 Organizational basis of remuneration at the enterprise

When organizing wages at an enterprise, the interests of employers and employees are affected. Undoubtedly, during the transition to market relations, the parties should have equal rights in resolving issues of wages. Collective agreements between the administration of the enterprise (or the representative of the owner) and the trade union representing the interests of workers become a legal, valid and the only effective form of regulation of labor relations, including in matters of wages.

In market conditions, and even more so in a transitional period, the directions and nature of state regulation of distribution relations are changing, new forms of management appear that exclude rigid administration schemes, new requirements are imposed on regulatory processes at the enterprise level. Government intervention is necessary to establish, interpret and enforce the conditions and principles of income distribution. The regulatory influence of the state should be aimed at creating conditions for earning funds and social guarantees in order to increase the efficiency of the use of labor force, implement and harmonize the interests of subjects of distribution relations operating on the basis of various forms of ownership and management.

The basis of state regulation of distributive relations should be: legislation and agreements on labor, the tax system, the establishment of a relationship between the dynamics of individual incomes and inflation. Without the participation of the state, it is impossible to guarantee a person an income that provides him with a decent life, regardless of the results of the economic activity of the enterprise. The functions of the state, in addition, should include raising the incomes of the poor strata of the population to create conditions for the normal reproduction of the labor force, ensuring the optimal distribution of labor resources, easing social tension, etc. By becoming a participant in the reproduction of labor, the state largely assumes the supply of labor and strives to ensure that it meets the demand of entrepreneurs.

To regulate the above issues, an effective system of multilevel collective agreements is needed, the basis for which we have created in the legislative field, but much remains to be done to implement, refine, concretize, clarify various provisions of this system. The RF Law "On Collective Agreements and Agreements" provides for the conclusion of general, industry, special agreements and collective agreements. By the decree of the Council of Ministers - the Government of the Russian Federation of July 14, 1993, the regulation on the Russian tripartite commission for the regulation of social and labor relations was approved, which provides for:

the establishment of general principles for the coordinated implementation of socio-economic policy, taking into account the interests of employees and employers;

development of a system of social partnership;

assistance in the settlement of collective labor disputes (conflicts).

The implementation of these legislative acts laid the foundation for the development of a system of social partnership in the field of labor relations, but the mechanism of their action has not yet been sufficiently worked out.

Describing the practical steps in the field of wage regulation in our country, it should be noted that the Uniform Tariff Rate (ETC) was developed and introduced to differentiate the levels of remuneration of various categories of workers, which makes it possible to ensure equal pay for work of equal complexity, regardless of the scope of its application for workers in production and non-production sectors of the economy, financed from budgetary funds.

A measure of state regulation of wages, which ensures social protection of low-income, low-paid workers, is the establishment of the minimum wage on an objective basis.

Introduction of the Unified Wage Scale for Remuneration of Workers budgetary sphere comes down to a periodic revision of the tariff rate of the first category, i.e. the minimum tariff rate, at the level of organizations and institutions in this area. For enterprises that do not belong to the budget, the value of this rate should be provided for in sectoral agreements, collective agreements and depend on the profitability of the industry, the enterprise. It should be noted that there is a pronounced differentiation in the levels of tariff rates of the first category by industry, which leads to negative consequences in the country's economy. There is a growing need to streamline work on the conclusion of sectoral tariff agreements, reflecting the conditions of remuneration of workers in them.

Returning to the issue of the problems of establishing the minimum wage based on social standards, it should be noted that the latter are the main element of the normative approach in assessing the needs of the population. This is, first of all, the criterion for the efficient distribution of consumption resources, social guarantees in the field of income distribution, an integral attribute of the population income indexation system. They are standards, without which it is impossible to assess the existing standard of living. It is necessary to strive to comprehend them in the formation of social policy. The disadvantages of social standards include:

lack of a unified methodological approach when calculating standards. Developers of social standards most often act in isolation from each other, which leads to inconsistency and duplication in work. The same social standards developed in different departments have different meanings,

weak organization of approbation of standards and analysis of the methodology for their calculation (only the final results are discussed), lack of clarity in the issue of approving standards;

imperfection of consumption standards as the basis for calculating social standards (they are practically not differentiated by regions, socio-demographic groups of the population, do not cover the entire range of consumer goods and services; they are most often focused on abstract rather than real needs).

The sequence of work on the organization of wages at the enterprise is shown in Fig. 4.4, which shows the solutions to problems, combined into three large blocks: the choice of the method of forming the basic wages; choice of forms of remuneration; selection of control systems.

When organizing wages at an enterprise, it is important to choose the method of forming the basic wage on the basis of the Unified wage scale, or a tariff-free wage system. The priority belongs to ETC, when using it, a more objective differentiation of wages of workers of different qualifications is achieved. However, due to the constantly changing economic situation, enterprises often have to change tariff rates, which leads to high labor costs. The tariff-free system of labor remuneration makes it possible to put wages in direct dependence on the actual results of the enterprise's work. Payroll is less labor intensive, but this only applies to small businesses.

Rice. 4.4 The sequence of work but the organization of wages in the enterprise

The criterion of the economic efficiency of the organization of wages is the outstripping growth of self-supporting income over the wages fund. In cases where such a lead is not ensured, a thorough analysis of the reasons and the development of additional activities aimed either at increasing profits or at reducing labor costs.

In modern conditions, it is impossible to properly organize wages at an enterprise without its main element - labor rationing, which makes it possible to establish a correspondence between the volume of labor costs and the amount of its payment in specific organizational and technical conditions. Work to improve labor rationing should be aimed at improving the quality of standards and, above all, at ensuring equal intensity of standards for all types of labor and for all groups of workers. Equal intensity of norms in different production areas is achieved either by establishing equal or similar in numerical value coefficients of tension for individual elements of the labor process or types of work, or by taking into account a certain level of labor intensity in the norms. The equal intensity of norms presupposes the same intensity of labor in different areas of production. In this regard, the first value can be set taking into account pace work and time employment:

I= K THK Z,

where I is an indicator of the intensity of labor, the proportion of units;

K T - coefficient of the pace of work, fraction of units;

К З - coefficient of employment time, fraction of units.

In practice, to assess the intensity of labor, only one of its indicators is often used - the pace of work. In this case, all set expenditures of working time are adjusted by the rate of work coefficient.

The coefficient of the pace of work characterizes the ratio of the actual pace of work to the physically optimal, and the coefficient of employment is the ratio of the actual time of employment per shift to the conditional level of reference, equal to a certain percentage of the duration of the shift. If the intensity of the corpse at a given workplace differs from the standard, then measures should be taken to reduce or increase it, in particular, to change the labor standard.

Improvement of the standardization of workers' labor is carried out on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of its condition in workshops, sections and other structural divisions, by type of work, profession, etc. In this case, one should rely on the data of the analysis of the level of compliance with the norms, photographs of the working day, time measurements.

For pieceworkers, the main indicator on the basis of which the level of remuneration is regulated is the percentage of fulfillment of output standards. A higher value of the indicator makes it possible to ensure higher wages at the same tariff rates, as well as to increase bonus payments if the level of compliance with the norms serves as an indicator of bonus payments. Therefore, one of the main areas of analysis and the establishment of equally stressed norms is to determine the level of compliance with norms: in the main and auxiliary production, by structural divisions, by types of work, professions, by categories of work, at work with normal conditions and work with heavy and dangerous conditions labor.

Improving the work rate setting for specialists and employees, as well as certain categories of workers, should be carried out on the basis of analyzing the degree of their workload and rational distribution of duties, improving the management structure and introducing modern technical means... It is necessary to carry out work to reduce and streamline redundant management links, to reduce the number of support, service and management personnel. Each specialist should define a work schedule that ensures his full daily workload throughout the day. The provisions of the regulations must be specific, reflect the specifics of the work of a specialist at a given workplace, in a given position and the corresponding qualification category... As a result of the work on defining the new structure of the enterprise and its management systems, job titles of employees in accordance with the functions they actually perform, the number of managers, specialists and employees required for drawing up the staffing table is established.

Conclusion

Labor resources are the most important and active part of society's resources. This is the able-bodied part of the population with the physical and intellectual abilities for work, which can produce material goods or provide services. To characterize labor resources, their division by age, gender, education, etc. is used. The starting point for the reproduction of labor resources is their formation, which is determined by the natural reproduction of the population. The natural movement of the population is determined by the difference in fertility and mortality rates.

The educational composition of the population is of great social and economic importance. It is characterized by the percentage of literate people, the average number of years of schooling, etc. Population forecasting is very important. It allows you to identify expected changes in the population, assess the demographic situation, and determine the number of labor resources.

In a market economy, wages are an element of the employee's income, a form of economic realization of the ownership right to the labor resource belonging to him. The main element wages is the wage rate, which is influenced by factors: changes in demand and supply in the market for goods and services, in the production of which we use this labor; the usefulness of the resource for the entrepreneur; price elasticity of demand for labor; interchangeability of resources; change to consumer goods and services. The organization of wages is understood as its construction, ensuring the relationship between the amount of labor and the amount of its payment, as well as a set of constituent elements (rationing, tariff system, bonuses, additional payments and allowances). A very important element of the organization of wages is the tariff system, which is a combination of various regulatory materials, with the help of which the level of wages of workers is established, depending on a group of factors.

Labor productivity is an indicator of the economic efficiency of workers' labor activity . It is determined by the ratio of the number of products or services produced to the cost of labor, i.e. production per unit of labor input. The development of society and the level of well-being of all its members depend on the level and dynamics of labor productivity. Moreover, the level of labor productivity determines both the mode of production and even the socio-political system itself.

There is also the concept of labor efficiency. It is broader than productivity and includes, in addition to economic (labor productivity itself), psychophysiological and social aspects. The psychophysiological efficiency of labor is determined by the impact of the labor process on the human body. From this point of view, only such work can be recognized as effective, which, along with a certain productivity, provides harmless, favorable sanitary and hygienic conditions and safety; sufficient content of labor and compliance with the boundaries of its division; the possibilities of the all-round development of physical, mental powers and abilities of a person in the process of labor; prevents the negative impact of the working environment on the employee. Hence follows the notion social efficiency labor, which includes the requirement for the harmonious development of the personality of each employee, improving his qualifications and expanding the production profile, creating a positive social climate in business teams, strengthening socio-political activity, improving the entire way of life.

If these requirements are not met, then the rate of growth of labor productivity will inevitably decrease. Thus, unfavorable sanitary and hygienic and unhealthy working conditions cause loss of working time due to the morbidity of providing additional vacations, reduction of the most active period of a person's labor activity. Too fractional division of labor limits the possibilities of expanding the production profile of a person and the growth of his qualifications. Negative social relationships in work collectives can also significantly reduce labor productivity, all other things being equal for its organization.

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