Introduction

1. History of origin and schools of marketing

2. The essence and functions of marketing

3. Modern marketing concepts

4. Development of marketing in Russia

conclusions

Bibliographic list

Introduction

Marketing is a 20th century phenomenon. It owes its origin to economics. Marketing has evolved as a form of applied economics.

Today's world is a world of dynamics and speed. To survive in it, it is necessary to change with it and constantly acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities. As consumers, it is knowledge of marketing that allows us to behave more intelligently. Marketing is one of the foundational disciplines for market professionals such as retailers, advertisers, marketing researchers, new and branded product managers, and the like. They need to know how to describe the market and break it down into segments; how to assess the needs, demands and preferences of consumers within the target market; how to design and test a product with consumer properties required for this market; how through the price to convey to the consumer the idea of ​​the value of the goods; how to choose skilled intermediaries to make the product widely available and well presented; how to advertise and promote a product so that consumers know it and want to buy it.

The main goal of the socio-economic reforms carried out in modern Russia is to build an open market economy in the country. For the successful development of such an economy, it is necessary that the needs and demands of specific groups of consumers become the main reference point for the production and sale of goods. Effective work in the domestic and foreign markets requires knowledge and consideration of objective market laws, the ability to organize regular receipt and operational use of market information, the ability to increase the competitiveness of their products, etc. All these are elements of marketing - one of the most effective concepts of the market economy. It is on the basis of the results of marketing activities that most commercial operations in the world market are carried out. The growing importance of marketing on a global scale is evidenced, in particular, by the results of special studies, according to which more than 75% of commercial failures in the world market occur for reasons associated with errors in marketing activities, and only less than a quarter of them are due to other reasons. Each product certainly requires promotion on the market, which means the need for high-quality and original advertising, various actions that contribute to the promotion of the product. In addition, it is desirable for an enterprise to have as wide a retail network as possible or a network of intermediary organizations, unless, of course, it is engaged in a very large and expensive production. Such a network must have a high level of service, since today's customer is accustomed to high-quality service and a wide range of additional services... And only by fulfilling all these requirements, the company can count on the fact that it will be able to take a firm place in the heart of the buyer. Do not forget about the effectiveness of market behavior and development of the company. The most important thing in knowing and satisfying the needs of the buyer is to study his opinion about the firm's products, competing products, problems and prospects for the life and work of consumers. Only by possessing this knowledge can the needs of consumers be satisfied to the fullest extent. And this is exactly what the firm should do within the distribution system - where it comes into close contact with the buyer.

The purpose of the course work is to study the theoretical foundations of marketing.

In this term paper the following tasks are considered:

the history of the origin and school of marketing;

essence and functions of marketing;

modern marketing concepts;

history of marketing development in Russia.

1. History of origin and schools of marketing

There are many positions on when exactly marketing originated. It all depends on the accepted point of the report, on the quality of the exchange activity, "buying and selling" goods, which is recognized as a sufficient argument for the statement: marketing was born!

One of the radical points of view is that its first elements, such as oral advertising, coordination of forms of exchange, inevitably emerged as soon as humanity began to free itself from the closed nature of the natural economy and forms of trade appeared.

There are literary sources that attribute the emergence of the beginnings of marketing to more specific events, for example, the opening in Japan in the middle of the 18th century of the predecessor of the department store, whose owner Mitsui was the first to introduce the principle of ordering the most hot goods, began to use advertising stands and quality assurance of goods.

The position that draws attention to the fact that already from the beginning of the 20th century at US universities at Harvard, Illinois, Michigan is beginning to give courses of lectures on marketing problems is not unfounded.

Finally, it is difficult to argue with those who associate the practical implementation of marketing with the activity of J. Ford, who raised the concept of the so-called mass marketing as a banner.

Marketing theory used the achievements of many pre-existing economic doctrines, including mercantilism (17th century), according to which the welfare of the people is created not by production, but by foreign trade, due to which capital accumulation occurs within the country.

The theory of marketing itself, as many experts believe, originated in the United States in the second half of the 19th century. This is not surprising: in a country that has not experienced the destructive consequences of wars on its territory for more than two centuries, the maturation of markets and the creation of conditions for the full-scale demand for marketing was going on most intensively. The economic crises of that time forced American scientists to talk about the "chronic problem of production" and the inconsistency of the system of circulation of goods and services that existed at that time with the increased demands for organizing the sale of products.

There are three main stages in the formation and development of marketing.

The first major stage in the evolution of marketing is usually denoted by the boundaries from the beginning of the 20th century to the mid-1930s. Marketing developed especially rapidly in the United States after the Great Depression of 1929-1933. At this time, there was an active search for anti-crisis regulation tools, both at the state level and at the level of individual and well-known firms: General Electric, General Foods, McDonald's, at Ford enterprises, etc., and then marketing as an independent type of activity spread to enterprises in Europe and Japan.

At the same time, marketing was understood either as a theory of the movement of goods and services between organizations, enterprises and individuals, or as a complex of functions of an enterprise for the sale of products. Only the Great Depression, and even then not immediately, dissuaded the commanders of the economy in their initial setting about the priority of production, which was recommended to be served with separate and marketing tools. At this time, two concepts appeared sequentially: improvement of production and improvement of goods.

The beginning of the second stage in the development of marketing dates back to the mid-1930s, and ends in the mid-1980s. This is due to the transition of economically developed countries from the industrial to the post-industrial period. The latter is characterized by the fact that production ceases to be mass, large-scale production, and is more and more focused on individualized consumer needs, markets are becoming more and more differentiated, opportunities to reduce costs at enterprises are limited, the number of small enterprises is growing, the role of scientific and technical information is significantly increasing, etc.

In these conditions, it became clear that the profit of the enterprise depends not only and not so much on reducing costs. own production, and to a large extent on what attention is paid to the research of the market and competitors, the quality of the product and the organization of its successful promotion to the market. Therefore, the essence of the second stage is the formation of a complex of marketing actions with a focus first on the sale, then on the consumer (the concept of intensifying commercial efforts and the general concept of marketing, marketing mix).

The third qualitative stage in marketing development began around the mid-1980s. and lasts to the present. Modern marketing is implemented in the concepts of strategic, socially-oriented (socially-ethical), individual marketing, relationship marketing, marketing of large social communities- meso - and mega marketing.

The consumer ceases to be the only center of the universe in marketing. There is a reorientation towards a combination of taking into account the interests of producers, consumers and society as a whole. The goal is to ensure the desired satisfaction of target groups of customers in more effective (than competitors') ways while maintaining or strengthening the prospective well-being of the consumer and society as a whole. The means to an end is a balance of three factors: the firm's profits, customer needs, and the interests of society.

Our knowledge of market activities should be based on the main principles of modern marketing. As an integral system of the enterprise's activity on the market, it will increasingly influence the development of entrepreneurial philosophy and methodology.

First, marketing creates a new way of thinking and managing an enterprise (firm). It forms as a system of thinking, i.e. a set of mental attitudes aimed at optimal adaptation of specific goals and the real possibilities of achieving them, at an active search for a systemic solution to emerging problems.

Secondly, marketing also creates a new way of operating the enterprise in the market. An integral methodology of the market activity of an enterprise (firm) is formed, revealing its principles, methods, means, functions and organization.

Until 1950, none of the scientists even put forward the idea of ​​the presence of various schools in marketing. The marketing thought was "monolithic". There were no different theories of marketing, and there were no conflicting approaches to teaching it. It was in the 50s that such schools and approaches began to take shape. First, the traditional and expansive interpretations of the subject began to differ. Secondly, the management approach finally stood out, which began to differ primarily in the active use of the so-called marketing complex. Proponents of this approach argued that by deliberately manipulating the elements of the marketing complex - the product, price, distribution channel and sales promotion, one can achieve the intended results, i.e., by assigning different values ​​to the variables, one can achieve the desired constant.

Gradually, several more or less independent directions took shape in marketing, called schools. American experts believe that today at least six different trends, six schools of marketing should be distinguished.

The emergence of one of these schools - the school of macromarketing - is closely related to attempts to assess the role of business in society. The negative attitude of social forces towards such phenomena of the American economy as the military-industrial complex, the large industrial "brotherhood" with its antisocial philosophy, gave rise to an increased interest of marketing specialists in ensuring the interests of society as a whole. For the first time, the ultimate criterion for assessing the market activity of a firm - profit maximization, was questioned. It was the specialists of this school, considering the long-term and short-term "results" of the market operations of various firms, who came to the conclusion that the former were prioritized over the latter, which led to the conclusion about the need to put public interests at the fore entrepreneurial activity.

The School of Consumerism emerged as research on the problems of the market environment grew. And although in marketing the "discoverer" of the problems of social insecurity of consumers was Ralph Nader, who wrote the book "Danger at Any Speed", in economics J. Schumpeter, J. Keynes and F. Modigliani two decades earlier. This school emphasizes in marketing the need to provide truthful advertising, rejection of too aggressive sales tactics, guarantees of the safety of manufactured products and the complete provision of the necessary information to consumers based on the fact that without this the average consumer is not able to independently make a competent, the only right choice what he really needs. Proponents of this approach unequivocally come to the conclusion about the need for government intervention in market relations in order to protect the interests of consumers.

The emergence of the school of a systematic approach in marketing thought is associated with the desire to use methods of quantitative analysis of market phenomena in marketing. In the works of Lancaster, who used the economic theory of relative utility, and Becker, who built his systems approach on the basis of the limited resource of time, this aspiration gains recognition and popularity for the first time. In the future, representatives of the school develop marketing theory mainly in the direction of simulation, using the interdependence between supply and demand. Later, in the second half of the 70s - the first half of the 80s, school representatives are trying to bring their models closer to the consumer. The models are based on the family budget or the typical behavior of the buyer in various situations.

None of the theories of marketing in the entire history of its development have enjoyed, perhaps, the same popularity among specialists as the theory of customer behavior. A number of researchers have achieved great success in this area, thereby causing the separation of this current of marketing thought into a separate school. Among them are J. Howard, J. Sheth, P. Bliss, R. Blackwell, D. Collet and others. behavioral principles underlying marketing activities. The main issues of scientific research of supporters of this trend in marketing thought are the loyalty of buyers to trademarks or brand names, factors influencing the formation of consumer loyalties and decision-making about the purchase of goods, the reasons for changes and national differences in the behavior of buyers, as well as the processing of information about the behavior of buyers.

Unlike the previous school, the behavioral school focuses on the principles and nature of behavior not of individual consumers, but of entire organizations. As a rule, certain types of behavior of organizations in the market are associated by supporters of this trend of marketing thought with distribution channels of goods. The distribution system in each given country, according to the school representatives, is practically not subject to change, therefore, it is necessary for organizations looking for new sales markets for their products to adapt to one or another distribution system. In addition, representatives of this school are also interested in the behavior of organizations in terms of intermediary functions, i.e. become the object of research themselves intermediary organizations in different markets, in other words, personalized distribution channels for goods.

Marketing planning has been counting its history almost from the very beginning of the existence of the subject. However, the focus of a separate trend in marketing thought strategic management Due to the dynamic changes taking place in the market, the company is located relatively recently - this is, perhaps, the youngest, but increasingly popular school. Particularly popular is the strategic planning of the firm's adaptation to changing conditions, as corporate planning is separated from the planning of the activities of the strategic link or subdivision in the business.

2. The essence and functions of marketing

The term "marketing" originated in the practice of enterprises and in the economic literature at the end of the 19th century in the United States of America. Translated from English "market" means the market, and "ing" - activity in the market. Marketing is one of the fundamental activities in the modern market.

The market is understood as economic relations arising in connection with the exchange of goods and services, as a result of which demand, supply and price are formed.

Demand is a need supported by purchasing power. However, demand is not a reliable indicator, as it changes. Changes in choice are influenced by both price changes and income levels. A person chooses a product, the combination of properties of which provides him with the greatest satisfaction for a given price, taking into account his specific needs and resources.

Offers - the desire and ability of manufacturers (sellers) to provide goods for sale on the market at every possible price at any given time. The ability to provide goods is associated with the use of limited resources, so this ability is not large enough to satisfy all the needs of all people, because the total needs, as you know, are unlimited.

Price is a flexible tool and at the same time a rather powerful lever for managing the economy, although their real possibilities of influencing the economy in general and the standard of living in particular are much less than the hopes people place on prices and on the price mechanism. Price is a historical category that arose and formed in the process of the emergence and development of exchange.

Marketing as a process of promoting goods and services through exchange has taken shape since the inception of commodity production. The further development of exchange entailed the isolation of trade from production and the separation of the merchants.

Marketing really presupposes the existence of the market in its full structural volume, serves its development and is inseparable from the complex of problems of demand, supply and prices. He, one way or another, has as its initial object of attention the production and commercial activities of the enterprise and numerous intermediaries on the way of promoting goods to the market, to the final consumer. At the same time, which is very important, it is aimed at effectively meeting the specific needs of target consumer groups (with the benefit of manufacturers, intermediaries and, of course, consumers).

Marketing is a very multifaceted phenomenon. This is a market philosophy, strategy and tactics of thinking and actions of the subjects of market relations: not only producers and intermediaries in commercial activities but also consumers, as well as suppliers, practically economists, scientists, entire organizations, up to government bodies. Marketing can be defined as a scientific and applied discipline, as a type of professional activity, as a management system, as a way of thinking, a style of behavior, an approach to solving problems, a set of specific functions, etc. A simple analysis and consideration of the characteristics and requirements of the market situation will be the first stage of marketing, but, ultimately, it cannot but go to the problems of forecasting and active demand generation. Marketing is dynamic, changing depending on the scope of its application, duration of action, parameters of the surrounding market environment and, of course, on the interests of target consumer groups. Marketing cannot be a set of recipes, a mosaic of activity skills, it is productive only if it is complex and, moreover, systematic.

By now, there are already many options for defining the concept of "marketing". Foreign and domestic marketers agree that attempts to formulate one or even several definitions of marketing are obviously not constructive, since they can limit the scope of further study of the marketing category.

Over the long period of application of marketing, many theoretical authors define it in different ways. For example, the American scientist and economist Philip Kotler, a graduate and adherent of the ideas of the Chicago School of Economics, gives the following definition: "Marketing is a type of human activity aimed at meeting needs and demands through exchange. This definition is present in the work of P.S. Zavyalov and VE Demidova: "Marketing is a system of organizing and managing all aspects of a firm's business activity - from the very first draft of the design and technology of a new product to its delivery to the buyer and subsequent service."

marketing marketing planning russia

This definition has the same disadvantage as that of F. Kotler. In both cases, the specialization of types of design, economic, production, sales and financial activities firms.

Marketing is a kind human activity to ensure compliance between production and consumption, followed by bringing the produced goods and services to consumers in order to achieve the set goals. This definition emphasizes the very essence of marketing: to produce only what can be realized, i.e. production must match consumption. In this case, the manufacturer (seller) in each specific period of time pursues a certain (different) goal of his activities.

There are many other important definitions of marketing, but the above definitions are enough to understand its essence (F. Kotler counted about 2000 definitions of marketing).

Marketing is essentially viewed from four perspectives:

as the ideology of modern business;

as a marketing research system;

as a product sales management system;

as a set of measures to generate demand and stimulate sales.

Marketing, in one way or another, affects the interests of everyone, be it a buyer, manufacturer, seller or ordinary citizen. But these people may have conflicting goals. Marketing objectives can be grouped in the following areas:

the purpose of commercial activity is to obtain a certain profit for a certain period.

the actual marketing goals are associated with attracting the interest of consumers to this type of product and service.

goals in the distribution of products and services are associated with the possibility of optimal distribution of products and services over time periods along the entire chain of the logical system from production to their sale.

goals in the field of sales of products and services are associated with the most efficient execution of orders, advertising, sales promotion, reduction of non-production costs through the use of specialized vehicles.

Marketing functions are a set of activities related to market research, assortment development, formation of distribution channels to the market, advertising and sales promotion, as well as management and control. Each of these functions is important, but only in close relationship with each other can they successfully implement the principles of marketing. Ultimately, they can be divided into four groups, shown in the figure.

Figure - Marketing functions

Marketing analytic features include:

) Consumer research.

) Study of the brand and product structure of the market.

) Analysis of the internal environment of the organization.

Market research is carried out according to such criteria as its geographical location, capacity, specification, number of competitors, the state of supply and demand for a product that the company intends to produce (or even produces) and offer for sale. In any market, there are many consumers who may be interested in a product or service of an enterprise (company). And here the main thing is to determine your group among them, i.e. segment the market. Each company has its own methods of marketing research in this area. But the general study is: first, the structure of consumers - by number, if they are individual buyers, and by size, if they are firms, by age and sex, educational qualification, social status and secondly, consumer requests - the volume of purchases, the reaction to the appearance of new products and to changes in prices.

Then you need to study the commodity structure of the market, to determine the existing assortment and to identify whether there is a product similar to the one that the company intends to offer, as well as what are the standards, norms, requirements for the quality of goods in force on the market.

At the same time, competing companies are studied: product supply and demand for their products, sales system, forecast for the future in terms of product competition.

As a result of the implementation of the marketing function of this group, the niche of the enterprise in a specific market is determined.

Production marketing functions include:

) Production of new goods; development of new technologies. Here we are talking about making decisions regarding the development and production of such goods that will be accepted by the market, that is, consumers are in demand.

It is necessary to carry out a clear segmentation of consumers. This allows you to purposefully organize the production of competitive goods in the required volume and in compliance with the optimal shipping plan. The production of goods of market novelty allows the enterprise to be a monopolist in the market for an extended period of time, which contributes to obtaining higher profits.

) Material and technical supply. At this stage, the procurement of material and technical resources is carried out. The developed system has a significant impact on the timing production process, reduces overhead costs, which reduces the cost of production, and this is very important for establishing the optimal price for the product.

) Quality control finished products, and its competitiveness. The general concept of "competitiveness" is revealed through such indicators as the quality of the product (compliance with certain standards) and its usefulness for consumers, on the one hand, and the total costs of the consumer (the price of the product and the costs of its operation during its service life), on the other hand.

The result of the implementation of all these marketing functions should be the release of competitive products of the required assortment.

Distribution and sales functions cover everything that happens to the product after its production, i.e. it is about promoting it to the market. Market impact, which is one of the fundamental principles of marketing, aims to promote successful implementation goods. This requires organizing your own distribution channel. goods, which means the totality of physical and legal entities assuming ownership of goods (services) at the stage of their promotion from producer to consumer. They are classified as direct and indirect.

Through direct channels, goods (services) are promoted without the participation of intermediaries, that is, directly from the sales department to the consumer. In this case, the company itself carries out a marketing program for sales, maintains contact with the client, therefore, trade margins and remunerations due to trade enterprises and intermediaries are excluded.

Through indirect channels, goods (services) are promoted through trade (stalls, shops) or an intermediary. The first case involves wholesale and retail trade. This method of sales is optimal if the company does not occupy a dominant position in the market, and the trader has sufficient experience and opportunities in the field of trade, and has influence on the market. The second option involves the sale of products through intermediaries, sales representatives and brokers.

Particular attention is paid to transportation - the physical movement of a product from the place of production to the consumer. Moreover, it is necessary to move not only the product, but also the resources for its production from the places of their receipt to the enterprise. Transportation ensures that the goods are useful in terms of location, time and shape. Experts in the field of economics argue that these three categories of utility are very important in the production of a product that has economic value. The product must be in the place where it is needed and when it is needed, and also have the required shape.

Storage system must meet three requirements: safety, reliability and economy. Rooms where food is stored must have special equipment.

The commodity policy involves carrying out certain actions to effectively form an assortment that meets the standards that are accepted on the market, with minimal production costs. It should be developed based on a thorough knowledge of the market and on the optimal consideration of the capabilities of the company itself. This information is obtained as a result of performing the analytical function of marketing.

The managerial functions of marketing presuppose, first of all, the organization of the planning of the economic activity of the enterprise and the management of production. In the process of this activity, the general strategy of the enterprise is determined, and tactical (operational) tasks are formulated.

With operational planning programs of action and budgets for the near future are drawn up, taking into account the current goals of the enterprise. They are a reference point for all of its divisions and provide for planning:

assortment of products - determining the need for goods and groups of potential consumers, assessing competitiveness, updating the assortment and modifying products, developing packaging;

sales and distribution - selection of sales channels, assessment of transportation and storage needs, branded trade, turnover, inventory sizes, after-sales service;

financial indicators - marketing costs, price (demand, costs, competitors), income from marketing activities;

staffing - placement of management personnel and specialists, training and retraining of personnel, attraction of consultants, study of the experience of other enterprises.

3. Modern marketing concepts

Marketing management is based on a number of conceptual approaches. Marketing concepts are the starting points that characterize the active orientation of the market activity of an enterprise at various stages of its development.

The modern concept of marketing is that all activities of an enterprise (scientific and technical, production, sales, etc.) are based on knowledge of consumer demand and its changes in the future. Moreover, one of the tasks of marketing is to identify unmet customer needs in order to orient production towards meeting those needs. Marketing means developing, producing and marketing what there is really consumer demand for. When implementing the concept of marketing, the emphasis is on economic decisions shifted from the production links of the enterprise to the links that feel the pulse of the market. The marketing service is a think tank, a source of information and recommendations not only for the market, but also for the production, scientific, technical and financial policy of the enterprise. Here, on the basis of a thorough analysis of the state and dynamics of demand and the business environment, the question of the need, prospects, profitability of the production of a particular product is resolved.

The concept of improving production is based on the fact that they will be sympathetic to products that are widespread and affordable. Consequently, the organization must focus on improving production, increasing its economic efficiency, reducing the price of products and distribution systems. The leading means of achieving the goal were to increase the scale of production and reduce the cost of production. Henry Ford, for example, sought to perfect the production of the Model "T" so that the cost of the car would be lowered and it would be available to the maximum number of consumers. Ford joked that he could offer customers a car of any color, as long as it was black. In practice, this concept still thrives in the field of budgetary, social services, shifting to a place where marketing was previously not at all - in the field of non-profit relations. Negative features and consequences of using this concept are indifference to the needs of consumers, depersonalization of consumers, goods, firms.

The concept of product improvement is based on the opinion that some consumers are interested in products that meet the highest quality and have the best performance. The main object of attention was the product, according to the principle: the main thing is a mousetrap (and not the problem of getting rid of mice). Marketing efforts focused on improving the quality of goods, with the modernization of manufactured goods being declared the leading means of achieving the goal. The sphere of existence of marketing shifted somewhat to a place where it was no longer a purely production, but an entirely technocratic approach that dominated. The negative features and consequences of the implementation of such a strategy can be considered marketing myopia, overlooking the problems and needs of the client, design possibilities, packaging, and prices. For example, Coca-Cola, by focusing entirely on its soft drinks, overlooked the rise in popularity of coffee shops and bars that sell fresh juices. those markets that ultimately encroach on the "soda" market. The managers of these organizations too often look in the mirror instead of looking out the window. Many company managers believe that product orientation provides continuous technology innovation, because it is technological excellence that lies at the heart of business success.

The concept of intensification of business efforts argues that consumers will not buy enough of the firm's products if it does not make significant sales and promotion efforts. The most worthy end goal of a firm and its marketing is to make a profit through increased sales. The main focus is on the selling process. The main content of marketing is taking care of the seller's needs in converting his product into cash. Leading means to an end are sales efforts and sales incentives, “hard” sales to get people to buy immediately, on the spot. Most often, this concept is applied to the so-called passive demand goods, those that the buyer hardly thinks about buying (for example, an encyclopedia or insurance). According to this concept, consumers must be persuaded to make a purchase, and therefore each company must have at its disposal an arsenal of tools for marketing and promoting goods and stimulating purchases.

The concept of intensifying commercial efforts is also practiced in the non-commercial sphere. A political party, for example, vigorously “sells” its candidate to voters as the professional who is the best in coping with existing problems. Many companies resort to the concept of intensifying business efforts during periods of overproduction. Their goal is to sell what they have, not produce what is required in the market. Naturally, marketing based on an aggressive selling strategy carries a lot of risk. It focuses solely on the act of selling itself, rather than building long-term, profitable customer relationships. It assumes that buyers who agree to purchase a product will be happy with it. Most studies show that a customer will not buy again an item they are not satisfied with. To make matters worse, a satisfied customer shares an average of three acquaintances with a product they liked, while a dissatisfied customer shares his disappointment with an average of ten.

The concept of pure marketing requires a consumer orientation: to produce only what can be realized. A company's achievement of its goals depends on identifying the needs and demands of target markets, as well as on better customer satisfaction than competing companies. Oddly enough, but this approach has only recently begun to be used in entrepreneurial practice.

Many thriving and well-known companies operate on the concept of pure marketing. For example, such as Procter & Gamble, Marriott, Nordstrom, McDonald's.

McDonald's Corporation, a hamburger-based food service chain, is a true marketing pro, with 18,000 locations in 90 countries, with a total of $ 23 billion in annual sales every three hours Somewhere in the world, McDonald's is opening a new restaurant. The reason for this is a clear focus on marketing: McDonald's knows how to serve customers and how to respond to changing consumer needs. sounds like QSC & V. - quality, service, cleanliness and value. Visitors enter a spotlessly clean room and are greeted by a friendly service staff, they quickly get tasty food, which they eat right there or take away with them in a pretty package. McDonald's premises do not have jukeboxes or payphones, so there are no teenagers hanging out there. There are also no cigarette vending machines and newspaper counters. McDonald's are family-style restaurants and are especially popular with children. In addition to these efforts, each McDonald's restaurant takes part in various social events.

The concept of general marketing, which turns into the concept of marketing mix, the achievement of the ultimate goal - making a profit - is directly linked to the main condition: effective satisfaction of consumers' needs. The main content of marketing activities is to take care of satisfying the needs of the consumer through the product and a number of factors associated with the creation, supply and consumption of this product. Means of achieving the goal - integrated marketing efforts (marketing mix). This type of marketing still dominates in such areas where there is work with mass-market goods produced by large companies.

The concept of strategic marketing focuses marketing efforts on a long-term perspective and, in essence, is a constant and systematic analysis of market needs, leading to the development of effective products intended for specific groups of buyers and possessing special properties that distinguish them from competing products and thus create sustainable competitiveness for the manufacturer. advantage.

The concept of socially ethical marketing provides for the satisfaction of healthy and reasonable needs, protection of the environment, increasing the role of public interests, maintaining a balance of interests along the entire technological chain from the use of natural resources to the consumption of final products. The campaign first identifies the needs and interests of the target markets, and then provides consumers with the highest customer value in ways that support (or even improve) the well-being of the client and society. The concept of socially ethical marketing is the most advanced of all the previous ones.

This concept is based on three fundamental ideas:

satisfying the healthy and reasonable needs of consumers;

achieving the main goal of manufacturers, taking into account the interests of society as a whole;

ensuring environmental protection.

As an example, The Coca-Cola Company is a corporation that makes soft drinks that consumers love and has won everyone's trust. However, some consumer groups and members of the environmental society have expressed concern that the company's drinks are of low nutritional value, can damage teeth, contain caffeine, and the cans and glass bottles in which these drinks are sold pose an environmental problem. ...

This kind of criticism led the company to embrace the concept of socially ethical marketing. This concept encourages marketers to strike a balance between three marketing goals: campaign revenue, consumer needs, and public interest. Previously, most companies made marketing decisions based mainly on the company's immediate profits. Gradually, however, the campaigns began to realize the importance of long-term customer satisfaction, and thus moved on to the concept of marketing. Today, more and more campaigns think about the public interest when making marketing decisions.

The concept of holistic (holistic) marketing is based on the planning, development and implementation of marketing programs, processes and activities, taking into account their breadth and interdependence.

Holistic marketing recognizes that everything matters in the marketing business and, often, an extended, integrated approach is needed.

The concept of holistic marketing includes four categories of marketing: internal, integrated, socially responsible and relationship marketing. Holistic marketing delivers results, not the illusion of understanding and control.

Thus, holistic marketing is an approach that attempts to recognize and balance the different competencies and complexities of marketing activities.

On the communication spectrum, holistic marketing is at the highest levels. Holistic marketing does not limit the content of communications, either to individual details and characteristics of a product or service, or even to any set of ideas. The entire world in which the business lives, including the personalities of managers and employees, becomes the content of communications. Holistic marketing communicates this world to customers in its complexity, richness and diversity. On the other hand, in holistic marketing, we turn our communications not to individual human needs or even to some generalized values, but to the single personality of the client in its complexity, wealth and individuality. We do not try to look for points of control over the consumer, we do not seek to find his "button", but we create conditions for cooperation and co-creation with him.

Holistic marketing is primarily a special, holistic way of thinking, and not a set of specific recipes and technologies. Any business can take advantage of its powerful and so far little explored potential, but for this you need to learn to act without trying to understand and control everything around. It's not easy, but don't be intimidated.

It is important to emphasize that marketing specialists choose the most appropriate approach for the organization, based on the specifics of the proposed product, market characteristics, consumers, etc. ...

4. Development of marketing in Russia

The period from 1880 to October 1917 can be considered the first stage in the development of marketing in Russia. Since at that time there was a rapid development of the industrial potential of Russia on the basis of entrepreneurship. During this period, elements of marketing were widely used in the practice of Russian entrepreneurship (they used print and wall advertising).

There was no coherent marketing system in Russia. Certain problems of marketing are considered in the framework of other economic disciplines that were taught in commercial schools.

But in 1917, the development of the theory and practice of marketing in Russia was almost completely interrupted, since for five years there was a shortage of almost all goods in the country, a significant part of industrial capacities was destroyed. This was due to the First World War, two revolutions in 1917, and the civil war. During these years a rigid distribution system of "war communism" existed in the country.

With the onset of the NEP era, new stage marketing development in Russia. The content of the NEP is the replacement of food appropriation with a tax in kind in the countryside, the use of the market and various forms of ownership, the attraction of foreign capital in the form of concessions, the implementation of a monetary reform (1922-1924). In industry, trusts were created - associations of homogeneous or interconnected enterprises that received complete economic and financial independence, up to the right to issue long-term bonded loans. The trusts themselves decided what to produce and where to sell their products. The enterprises that were part of the trust were removed from the state supply and switched to the purchase of resources on the market. The law provided that "the state treasury is not responsible for the debts of trusts." The sale of finished products, the purchase of raw materials, materials, equipment was carried out on a full-fledged market, through wholesale channels. A wide network of commodity exchanges, fairs, trade enterprises... A private sector emerged in industry and commerce: some state enterprises were denationalized, others were leased; private individuals were allowed to create their own industrial enterprises.

The Conjuncture Institute, the first institution in Soviet Russia to study marketing, appeared in Moscow. N. D. Kondratyev creates the theory of "Business cycles", the first treatise on marketing. The scientific school created by Kondratyev opposed the illusion of permissiveness in the economy, gave a detailed criticism of voluntarism in planning and the nascent administrative-command system. The first attempts were made by the staff of the institute to calculate price indices.

Since 1929, there has been a long break in the development of marketing in Soviet Russia. A rigid command-distribution system is being introduced in the country, an accompanying general shortage of goods appears. There is no place for marketing in these conditions. The period during which even the word marketing was forgotten lasted until the late 1950s.

With the beginning of the Khrushchev Thaw, practical marketing in Russia did not revive, but a new aspect nevertheless appeared. A new stage in the development of Russian marketing began in the late 60s - early 70s and is associated with the so-called "relaxation of international tension." During this period, the Soviet economy needed active development international economic relations for the sale of their products (primarily raw materials and energy consumers) and the purchase of consumer goods and food. The ignorance of the fundamentals of marketing by foreign trade workers of Soviet Russia led to unfortunate failures in foreign trade. This prompted the country's top leadership to start training domestic specialists in marketing, to conduct their own research in this area. But it should be noted that they began to train specialists only in international marketing. Domestic marketing specialists began to be trained first abroad, then in Russia.

Nevertheless, within the USSR, there was essentially no need for marketing, since under the conditions of a directive planned economy, the postulate of a balance between production and consumption was declared. Therefore, the only areas where quite timid attempts were made to conduct market research were foreign trade.

In developed market countries, the need for marketing usually arose as industry after industry approached the "marketing point" - a situation when the supply of goods and services for the first time began to exceed the already formed demand, i.e. as the market reaches a "satiated" state.

Our society approached the need for marketing from the other side - from the side of empty wallets of people who have passed the poverty line and debtor enterprises put on the card index; this is a situation when the rate of decline in effective demand is significantly higher than the rate of decline in production volumes (in price terms).

With the beginning of the reforms M.S. Gorbachev in 1985-1986, a new stage in the development of Russian marketing began. First of all, activities in the field of international marketing have intensified. In 1987, as part of the All-Union Association "Soyuzpatent" of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry (CCI) of the USSR, a consulting center was created to provide Soviet enterprises with qualified marketing services. The all-Union association "Soyuzexpertiza" begins to check the consumer qualities of export and import goods on commercial terms.

Intermediary firms and commercial companies with the participation of share capital Soviet organizations that provide marketing services for the export of various, standard engineering products (cars, electric motors, tractors, etc.).

The Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR in 1988 recognized the need to create and develop in ministries and departments, in associations, in enterprises and organizations specialized services on marketing, promptly respond to consumer demand, radically improve the relevant training, retraining and advanced training of personnel.

For the Russian economy, the beginning of the 90s. became a turning point, since this period is closely associated with the abandonment of the old administrative-command forms of management and the transition to new, market forms. In this regard, domestic enterprises faced problems, the solution of which largely determines the efficiency of both their direct activities and the entire economy of the country.

The movement of Russia towards a market economy and the entry of commodity producers into international markets required a thorough study of foreign experience and the use of its elements most acceptable for our country.

The role of marketing in the Russian economy increases with the development of scientific and technological progress. Despite the fact that the domestic market is still undeveloped and has such negative features as a low level of infrastructure, low quality products and high prices, the absence of a developed competitive space, there are undoubtedly certain shifts in this area. The general level of development of Russian industry should also be taken into account. Under these conditions, it is not possible to blindly copy foreign experience and simply transfer it to Russian soil. Marketing activity in our country has its own characteristic features.

In the domestic market, domestic enterprises (firms) often build a marketing strategy based on the goods already available to the enterprise. And in this case, no special costs are required to "push" the product to the consumer, associated with complex advertising activities, personal discounts, stimulation of artificial obsolescence of the products used. Advertising is most often worn exclusively informational character, since pushing up demand can lead to the opposite effect (here it is necessary to take into account Russian mentality). However, the perceptions of some business leaders about the opportunity to achieve sales growth and maximize profits are only illusions, and they will soon disappear.

High prices and the need to sell low-quality goods ultimately completely weaken the enterprises: any incentive to improve the manufactured products and replace outdated technology with more advanced and efficient ones is lost. Enterprises receive distorted assessments of the nature and properties of their own products, and are misled about the real state of customer needs. As a consequence, the gap immediately widens behind the level achieved by the leading companies in the midst of fierce competitive pressures. This, in turn, forces enterprises to refuse to enter world markets and leads to a huge increase in the cost of acquiring the latest technologies abroad.

A qualitatively new stage in the understanding of marketing activities is associated with the transition of our country to market relations. Many people are interested in marketing today, especially practitioners. Various kinds of commercial schools and courses are being created where marketing is studied. A number of universities have begun training marketing specialists for sectors of the national economy. The Marketing Association is formed.

The term "marketing" is based on the word "market", which means "market". Therefore, marketing is often understood as a philosophy of management, economic management in market conditions, which proclaims the orientation of production to meet the needs of specific consumers. Marketing according to its broad understanding is a social and management process through which individuals and groups of people, through the creation of products and their exchange, get what they need. This process is based on the following key concepts: need, desire, demand, product, exchange, deal, market. A need is a need, a need for something that requires satisfaction. When a person is unable to satisfy some need, he or she replaces or reduces the level of his requests. The concept of needs underlies the theories of motivation (Freud, Maslow, etc.), including those determining consumer behavior in the market. It is often said that the main task of marketing is to find a need and satisfy it.

Desire is a need that has taken a specific form in accordance with the cultural level and personality of the individual. Sometimes called a specific need. For example, the general need for food is transformed into a more private need for fruit, which, in turn, resulted in a specific need, desire, to buy apples. Moreover, in different regions and countries, general needs are transformed into a wide variety of desires, determined by cultural, historical, geographical and other factors. Residents of different countries satisfy the same need for food by consuming various food products. Consumers living in the same country and experiencing the same need can satisfy it by purchasing different goods.

Demand is a desire, a specific need, supported by purchasing power. Given the resource possibilities, people satisfy their needs and desires by purchasing products that bring them the greatest benefit and satisfaction.

A product is anything that can be offered on the market for purchase, use or consumption, in order to meet specific needs. A product is anything that can satisfy any need (physical objects, services, people, organizations, activities, ideas). In marketing literature, the English term "product" is often translated as a commodity. However, it must be remembered that a product is a physically tangible product, the category of which does not include, for example, services, ideas, organizations. Considering that the term “product” is widely used in Russian literature in these publications where the meaning is not distorted, the terms “product” and “product” are used as synonyms.

Exchange is the act of receiving a desired product from someone by offering him something in return. For the exchange, it is necessary that the following conditions are met: there must be at least two parties; each side must have something that could be of value to the other; each party must want to exchange with the other; each side should be free to choose - to enter into an exchange or not; each party must be able to communicate and deliver their product. Compliance with these conditions makes the exchange possible, and whether it takes place or not depends on whether the parties have come to an agreement and whether they are ready to conclude a deal.

A transaction is a trading operation between two parties, which includes at least two subjects of interest and an agreement on the conditions, terms and place of its implementation. There are two types of transactions: a money transaction where products are exchanged for money and a barter transaction. The transaction presupposes the fulfillment of the following conditions: the presence of at least two products of interest for mutual exchange; agreed conditions, time and place of its commission.

The market in the marketing sense is a set of existing or potential sellers and buyers of certain products, this is the place where transactions are made. It is on the market that the product produced and the labor expended on it prove their social significance are gaining acceptance from consumers. In modern society, the market does not necessarily have a physical location. Modern means of communication are widely used to demonstrate goods, advertise them, and receive orders, without physical contact with customers. In marketing, the market also refers to the totality of consumers of a particular product; they say - the market for metal, grain, etc. Market segmentation is often carried out on the basis of this principle.

Thus, needs translate into specific desires, which, taking into account monetary opportunities, are transformed into market demand for specific products; an exchange is carried out between the producer and the consumer, formalized in the form of a specific transaction. It follows that marketing directs the economy to meet the many ever-changing needs of millions of consumers.

In other words, marketing is such a philosophy of management, the direction of its implementation, when solving consumer problems by effectively meeting their needs, leads to the success of the organization and benefits society. (Here and below, the term "organization" is used as a generalized term characterizing all forms of group organization of purposeful activity of people (individual enterprises, firms, government agencies, hospitals, etc.)).

At the level of individual business entities, marketing is defined as an integral system designed to plan the assortment and volume of products, determine prices, distribute products between selected markets and stimulate their sales, so that the variety of goods achieved at the same time leads to the satisfaction of the interests of both producers and consumers. ... This definition has a fairly broad meaning, since it also covers activities not commercial organizations... Thus, marketing is the activity of an organization in the interests of its customers.

In a narrower, entrepreneurial sense, for commercial organizations, whose management has proclaimed profit as the main goal of their activities, and this is far from always the case, marketing can be understood as a system for managing the production and marketing activities of an organization aimed at obtaining an acceptable amount of profit through accounting and actively influencing market conditions.

From the above, it follows that the variety of marketing applications determines its many definitions.

It seems that the following definition of marketing can be offered as a fairly general one. Marketing is a type of human activity to meet the demand for tangible and intangible, social values ​​through mutually beneficial exchange. Marketing is the process of planning and executing the concept, pricing, promotion and implementation of ideas, goods and services through exchanges that serve the purpose of individuals and organizations (as defined by the American Marketing Association (AMA)).

Marketing is considered in the same way as the management activity of an enterprise (organization), aimed at identifying, preventing and satisfying the needs of consumers in the most rational way.

"Marketing is foreseeing, managing and meeting the demand for goods, services, organizations, people, territories and ideas through exchange" (Evans and Berman's definition). "Marketing is a type of human activity aimed at meeting needs and demands through exchange" (Kotler's definition). Thus, marketing is both a system of thinking and a system of actions. Let's explain the content of the marketing concept by considering its principles. The following basic principles of marketing can be distinguished:

• 1. Careful consideration of the needs, state and dynamics of demand and market conditions when making decisions. Adherence to this principle presupposes a good knowledge of the market situation regarding the existing and projected demand value, activities in the market of competitors, behavior in the market of consumers and their attitude to the products of this organization and its competitors. At the same time, consumers often do not know very well what they want. They only want to solve their problems as best as possible. Therefore, one of the main goals of marketing is to understand what consumers want.
• 2. Creation of conditions for maximum adaptation of production to market requirements, to the structure of demand based not on immediate benefits, but from a long-term perspective. The modern concept of marketing is that all activities of an enterprise (scientific and technical, production, sales, etc.) are based on knowledge of consumer demand and its changes in the future. Moreover, one of the tasks of marketing is to identify unmet customer needs in order to orient production towards meeting those needs. Marketing means developing, producing and marketing what there is really consumer demand for. The marketing system makes the production of goods functionally dependent on requests and requires the production of goods in the assortment and volume required by the consumer. When implementing the marketing concept, the focus of making economic decisions is shifted from the production units of the enterprise to the units that feel the pulse of the market. The marketing service is a think tank, a source of information and recommendations not only for the market, but also for the production, scientific, technical and financial policy of the enterprise. Here, on the basis of a thorough analysis of the state and dynamics of demand and the business environment, the question of the need, prospects, profitability of the production of a particular product is resolved.
• 3. Informing potential consumers about the organization's products and influencing consumers using all available means and methods of promotion in order to persuade them to purchase this particular product.

The greatest misconception of managers focused only on the development and production of new products is the assertion, using a figurative comparison, that if an original, very effective mousetrap was invented in a laboratory, then the market itself will pave the way for this laboratory. Designing and manufacturing effective new products is certainly one of the top priorities for most organizations. However, an equally important task is their successful promotion to the market.

Theoretical basis and marketing concepts

Course of lectures on the discipline "Marketing"

for students of economic specialties

Topic 1. Theoretical foundations and concepts of marketing

1. Socio-economic content, specificity and evolution of marketing.

2. Goals, objectives, functions and principles of marketing.

3. The main elements of the marketing mix.

4. Basic marketing concepts.

The purpose of the lecture: to study the basic concepts of marketing, the essence of marketing activities, the prerequisites for its development and the mechanism of implementation.

Key concepts: marketing, need, need, exchange, request, market.

The essence of marketing lies in the fact that the firm should produce only what will certainly find a sale from a client or a specific market segment. Marketing is based on the initial idea: to produce what the buyer requires and that can satisfy his needs, demands and demands, and at the price that he is willing to pay.

Marketing -

The process of marketing activities consists in analyzing the market opportunities of the enterprise, developing measures for the selection of target markets and the marketing mix and marketing support systems.

element: product, price, distribution, promotion, each of which has its own characteristics and ensures the market success of the company.

2. What is the difference between the sales concept and the concept of targeted marketing.

Describe the elements of your marketing mix.

Topic 2. Marketing research

1. The concept of the marketing information system, its components.

2. The essence, principles, directions of marketing research.

3. Rules and procedures for marketing research.

4. Methods and tools for collecting data in marketing research.

The purpose of the lecture: to study the essence, methods and tools of marketing research, stages of research on marketing problems.

Marketing research is an activity that uses information to connect the marketer with consumers, buyers and the public. The information is used in this case to identify and identify marketing opportunities and problems, to develop, improve and evaluate marketing actions; to track the results of marketing activities; as well as to improve understanding of the marketing management process.

Marketing research is the collection, processing and analysis of data in order to reduce the uncertainty associated with making marketing decisions. The market, competitors, prices, consumers, and the internal potential of an enterprise are subject to research. Information support serve desk and field research, as well as various sources of information (internal and external, own and paid, etc.).

The rules for conducting marketing research are fixed by the International Chamber of Commerce and the European Society for the Study public opinion and marketing research in the International Code of Practice for Marketing Research since 1974.

The marketing research procedure consists of the following stages:

1. Development of the research concept.

2. Obtaining and analyzing empirical data.

3. Formulation of the main conclusions and registration of research results.

Marketing research methods consist of qualitative and quantitative. Information gathering methods include interviewing, observation, experiment, and focus groups. Marketing research tools include questionnaires, mechanical devices, and technical means.

1. What are the main areas of marketing research.

3. What qualitative research methods are used in marketing?

1. Concept and components of the marketing environment.

2. Microenvironment and its components.

3. Research of the internal environment of the enterprise.

4. Media environment and types of contact audiences.

The purpose of the lecture: to study the components of the marketing environment, factors of the microenvironment, macroenvironment and media environment, to determine the degree of its influence on the development of the company's marketing activities.

Key concepts: marketing environment, microenvironment, macroenvironment, media environment, controlled and uncontrolled factors.

The marketing environment consists of a macro and a micro environment. Macroenvironment - these are the factors that surround the firm and affect its functioning. The macroenvironment consists of six main factors: demographic, economic, natural, scientific and technical, political and socio-cultural.

All factors of the macroenvironment are interrelated and it is important to analyze them in a comprehensive manner. At the same time, not all factors of the marketing macroenvironment affect the activities of enterprises, firms and companies in the same way. The organization itself must determine which factors of the macroenvironment have a strong influence on its activities, and which factors pose a potential threat to the prospects of its development.

The marketing microenvironment is those marketing forces that are directly related to the firm's operations. The factors of the marketing microenvironment can be divided into two: direct and intermediate groups. The main constituents of the intermediate microenvironment are buyers, competitors, intermediaries and suppliers.

Marketing media environment - factors of the marketing environment that can influence the relationship between the company and society. These include contact audiences, media mass media.

In marketing theory, there are also concepts of controlled and uncontrollable factors. Controllable factors include those controlled by the firm and its marketing staff.

Thus, a firm in the market operates under the influence of various factors of the macro- and microenvironment, which largely determine the nature of the strategy and tactics, forms and methods of its activities.

test questions:

1. Describe the factors of the macroenvironment.

2. Name the factors of the microenvironment.

3. What uncontrollable factors of the marketing environment affect the activities of firms and companies?

Topic 4. Consumer behavior in commodity markets

1. Concept and classification of needs and types of consumers.

2. Peculiarities of consumer purchasing behavior.

3. Modeling the purchasing behavior of consumer organizations.

The purpose of the lecture: to study the essence of consumer behavior, the main approaches to its study and the characteristics of the behavior of various types of consumers.

Key concepts: consumer behavior, needs, culture, purchasing decision-making process, end consumers, consumer organizations.

There are several theories of consumer behavior: behaviorism, theories of motivation by A. Maslow, O. Allen, Z. Freud, D. Schwartz, and others.

Needs can be classified on a variety of grounds: by object: material and spiritual; by subject: personal and public; by the level of abstractness: abstract and concrete; in relation to the production process: economic and non-economic; by relevance: primary, secondary, distant.

The marketing mix factors are powerful incentives to influence purchasing decisions, but not enough for the consumer to make the final choice. In addition, it is influenced by psychological, socio-cultural and situational factors.

TO psychological factors include motivation, personality type, perceptions, values, beliefs, attitudes and lifestyle.

Socio-cultural factors include personal influence, reference groups, family, social classes, culture and subculture.

By the early 1980s, the most important factor influencing consumer behavior is the situational approach, which includes purpose, place and time of purchase, time effect, physical environment and prior experience.

The study of all the factors affecting consumer behavior, purchase motives, product perception help marketers to model the purchasing decision-making process. In this case, the following steps are considered: awareness of the problem, search for information, assessment of alternatives, decision to purchase, behavior after making a purchase.

supplier.

The purchasing decision-making process in consumer organizations is more rational than the behavior of end users. This is due to the subordination of the buying process to the needs of a particular production. Nevertheless, it is not completely rational, since the decision is made by people - specific specialists who have certain psychological characteristics.

1. How do primary and secondary motives affect the buying process?

2. What factors influence consumer behavior?

3. How are consumer rights protected in the Republic of Kazakhstan?

Topic 5. Market segmentation

1. Classification and methods of analysis of commodity markets.

3. Basic principles of segmenting the consumer and industrial markets.

4. The process of product positioning in the market.

The purpose of the lecture: to study the essence and methods of segmentation, signs and criteria for segmentation of various types of markets.

Key concepts: segmentation, segment, principles and criteria of segmentation, positioning, market capacity, market share.

In-depth market research suggests the need to consider it as a differentiated structure depending on consumer groups and consumer properties of the product, which is determined by the concept of market segmentation. Segmentation is carried out in order to maximize the satisfaction of consumers' demands in various goods, as well as rationalize the costs of the enterprise for the development of goods, their release and sale.

The process of dividing consumers (markets) into groups based on differences in needs, characteristics and behavior is called market segmentation.

A market segment is a group of consumers of goods or firms that have relatively similar characteristics and respond in the same way to certain incentives and marketing elements.

A prerequisite for segmentation is the heterogeneity of customer expectations and customer states. There are criteria and principles (signs) of segmentation.

The segmentation criterion is a way of assessing the validity of the choice of a market segment, and the segmentation principle is a way of distinguishing a given segment in the market. Segmenting criteria are: segment materiality; segment availability; measurability; compatibility of the segment with the market of the main competitors; profitability; the efficiency of the company in this segment; controllability.

The principles of segmenting the consumer goods market: demographic (age, gender, migration flows, population, nationality, etc.), geographic (region, district, etc.), behavioral (value system, reasons for shopping, status user, intensity of consumption, degree of commitment, degree of readiness of the buyer to perceive the product, attitude to the product), psychographic (lifestyle, personality type, social status, experience gained).

The market segmentation process consists of several stages:

1.forming signs of segmentation;

3. interpretation of the received segments;

4. selection of target market segments;

5. positioning of goods.

After determining the target market segment, the company must decide on the positioning of the product, that is, on ensuring the competitive position of the product in the market. Product positioning is a logical continuation of finding target segments, optimal placement of goods in the market space, giving the product unique properties and competitive advantages.

A firm's market share is the estimated volume of sales of a firm's product in a given market. Otherwise, the coefficient of control of a certain market share in various marketing efforts. Market share reflects the position of an enterprise in the market and serves as a key factor in achieving a leading position and determining the degree of market control.

Test questions:

1.What is the purpose of market segmentation?

2. How can you characterize the target market in the period of marketing orientation towards mass production?

3. Expand the essence of building a typology of consumers?

Topic 6. Product in the marketing system

1. The concept of a product in economic theory and marketing.

3. Concept life cycle goods.

The product is the main element of the marketing mix and the success of the company in the market depends on how correctly the product policy is implemented. A product acts in marketing as a set of consumer properties - certain quality characteristics and values ​​that can satisfy the needs of their owner. The use value of a product is expressed, in turn, in properties associated with the environment of the product. A product as an element of a marketing mix is ​​presented as follows: a product by design, a product in real performance, a product with reinforcement. By design, a product is a set of functional characteristics that can satisfy the needs of the consumer. A product in real performance is a product surrounded by a marketing complex. A reinforced product is expressed in the organization of effective service throughout the entire life cycle of the product.

In marketing, the following classification of goods is adopted: traditional, services, non-traditional. Traditional goods include consumer and industrial goods.

Along with traditional goods, there are services that have a number of characteristics: intangibility, non-preservation, inseparability from the production process. These signs influence the creation of a service marketing mix. Non-traditional goods include people, places, ideas, territories, since the principles and marketing mix are also applicable to these categories of goods, taking into account their specifics.

The life cycle characterizes the dynamics of sales volumes and profits from the moment a product enters the market until it leaves the market. The life cycle can be successful (traditional), consisting of four stages: implementation, growth, maturity, decline. Other interpretations of the phases are possible, when rapid growth, initial maturity, stagnation, exit from the market are added, but these substages characterize the separation of the main four stages and do not fundamentally affect the classical concept.

At each stage, the company, as a rule, makes a certain set of decisions about the marketing mix, focusing mainly on product policy and assortment management. In the process of lifecycle management, product positioning takes place for each next flow of buyers, each next segment and market.

From a marketing point of view, a product can be new both in relation to the market and for the firm itself, as well as for the industry. In the first case (the strategy “old product - new market») Innovation does not directly concern a product, therefore, by a new product, we mean either a completely new product that has no analogues, or an updated existing product. A product that has no analogues , thanks to the invention), or without changing the properties and characteristics of the product itself (by improving the external design, packaging, color scheme, etc.).

The model of the process of creating a new product consists of nine stages: defining development directions, generating ideas, selecting an idea, developing and testing a concept, developing a marketing strategy, economic analysis, prototyping, trial marketing, and commercialization.

Test questions:

1. What is the essence of the concept of a product in marketing?

2. How can you characterize the life cycle of a product?

3. What is the new product development model?

Topic 7. Product policy in marketing

3. Marking and packaging of goods.

4. Concept and methods for determining the competitiveness of a product.

The purpose of the lecture: to determine the essence, goals and objectives of developing a product policy, labeling and packaging of goods, developing and managing brands.

When developing a product policy, the main problems are: innovation (creating new products or updating existing ones); ensuring the quality and competitiveness of goods; creation and optimization of the product range; questions about trademarks; creation of effective packaging (for the relevant types of products); product life cycle analysis and management; positioning of goods on the market.

An assortment of goods is a collection of goods formed in various ways: for a specific area of ​​application, for sale in a specific price range, for sale in specific distribution channels, for a specific category of consumers. By differentiating one product, you can create an assortment group. The sum of the assortment groups is called the item number.

The assortment can be formed in the following ways: creating a product line, differentiating goods for specific market segments, diversifying and developing a product range. Assortment management is expressed in its optimization by influencing the main characteristics of the assortment - breadth, depth, richness and harmony. Latitude is the sum of its constituent assortment groups. Saturation of the assortment - total amount all manufactured (sold) goods. Assortment depth - the degree of differentiation of each product or each type of product. Harmony characterizes the degree of homogeneity of the assortment in relation to the preferences of the end consumer, reseller, and the nature of the production process. Assortment optimization is a continuous process of product policy implementation. The optimal assortment usually contains goods that are on different stages life cycle.

Test questions:

1. What is the essence of the commodity policy?

2. How can you characterize the assortment?

3. What is assortment optimization?

Topic 8. Pricing policy in marketing

1. The concept of price, its functions, types of prices and their characteristics.

2. Factors affecting pricing.

3. Analysis of the pricing process.

4. Pricing policy.

The purpose of the lecture: to study the concept of price, its functions in the marketing complex, to analyze the pricing process.

Key concepts: price, pricing, economic value, pricing policy, strategy.

The key issue in marketing is the achievement of maximum consumption (purchases) by buyers at the optimal price and given costs of manufacturing and selling goods, allowing them to receive long-term profit in the required quantity. But to achieve this goal, marketing must determine the totality of the advantages of the product, selected as an object of the firm's activity as a result of studying consumers (market), select the technology for its manufacture and sale, which ensures the given costs. The totality of the advantages of a product ensures its sale and is estimated in monetary terms in the form of a price sufficient to cover the costs of development, release and delivery of the product to the final or intermediate consumer, as well as to obtain the intended profit.

defined differently and sometimes significantly different from the marketing approach.

The buyer's perception of the economic value of a product depends on the marketing ability to provide such a combination of quality, usefulness of the product, its price and advertising organization, which would give the product the greatest attractiveness in the eyes of the consumer at a given price that provides sufficient profit for the company. After all, it is no secret that in the conditions of the Kazakhstan market, the price plays a decisive role when choosing a product, along with quality indicators (durability, economy, convenience of consumption, reliability, safety, design, speed, etc.), pre-sale and after-sales service.

As a rule, the following price functions are distinguished: accounting, redistributive, stimulating, regulating, and the function of balancing supply and demand.

The methods of pricing include: costly methods, value and competitive.

Usually, the price calculation consists of a number of successive stages. determination of the goal and objectives of pricing; determining the demand for goods and services; estimation of production costs; analysis of prices and quality of competitors' products; choice of pricing method; determination of the initial price; setting the final price.

Pricing policy defines the general principles that a firm is going to adhere to in setting prices for its goods and services. Based on the pricing policy of the company, pricing strategies are developed. A pricing strategy defines a set of practical factors and methods, procedures and measures by which the adopted principles are implemented in practice.

Test questions:

1. What determines the place and role of pricing in the marketing system?

3. What methods of determining the prices of goods are there?

Topic 9. Sales policy in marketing

1. Channels of distribution: concept, meaning, function.

3. Wholesale trade, its essence and significance.

The purpose of the lecture: to study the essence of distribution of goods and distribution of goods, methods of distribution of goods.

Key concepts: distribution, sales, commodity movement, distribution channel, marketing intermediaries, wholesale trade, retail trade.

Product implementation is part of a company's marketing mix designed for a specific target market. Implementation of the sales strategy of any enterprise involves the solution of two main issues: the choice of the sales channel; managing the physical promotion of the product through the channel.

activities of the enterprise in a market economy.

A distribution channel is a collection of marketing intermediaries, as well as the relationship between them about the physical promotion of a product and the transfer of legal ownership of this product from manufacturer to consumer.

The importance of sales channels in the distribution system is determined by the utility (temporary, territorial and actual utility) that they create for the consumer, as well as the functions they perform.

The main functions of distribution channels: carrying out research work; organization and sales promotion; auxiliary functions (sorting, standardization, financing, insurance, etc.); information functions (providing information to participants in sales channels); acceptance of risk (taking responsibility for the functioning of the channel).

These functions are implemented through the activities of the main subjects (participants) of sales channels - marketing intermediaries.

Marketing intermediaries are organizations and individuals that facilitate the movement of a product from point of production to point of consumption.

Depending on the involvement of intermediaries, distribution channels can be of three types: direct, indirect and mixed.

Direct channels associated with the movement of goods and services without the participation of intermediaries (producer-consumer).

Indirect channels associated with the movement of goods and services, first from the manufacturer to an unfamiliar participant - the intermediary, and then from him - to the consumer (producer - intermediary - consumer).

It is advisable to use commodity distribution with a high market concentration in one area (direct sales), and a spread of consumers in another and a small demand for products of one nomenclature position (indirect).

Distribution channel level

The length of the channel is determined by the number of intermediate levels it contains. Most often found ... The greater number of levels from the manufacturer's point of view limits the ability to control the distribution channel.

Depending on the intensity of distribution, that is, on how saturated the market is with a given product, sales can be intense, selective and exclusive.

As noted above, a correctly chosen distribution channel can improve the efficiency of product distribution.

distribution systems, you can offer a better service or product at a lower price, thereby attracting additional customers.

The product distribution system consists of the following main elements: order processing; warehousing; maintaining inventory; transportation.

The main methods of distribution of goods are wholesale and retail trade. At the same time, wholesalers and retailers are important players in the distribution channel.

Wholesale trade covers all activities related to the sale of goods in bulk to those who purchase them for the purpose of resale or professional use.

Retail covers all types of activities for the sale of goods or services directly to the population for personal consumption.

Test questions:

1. What is the importance of sales as one of the elements of the marketing mix?

2. Name the functions of the distribution channels.

3. What are the main methods of distribution of goods do you know?

1. Model of the marketing communication process, its elements and stages.

3. Concept, functions, areas of application, methods of public relations.

4. Sales promotion: concept, features, types.

The purpose of the lecture: to study the methods of marketing communications, to determine the place of marketing communication policy in the marketing mix.

Key concepts: marketing communications, advertising, public relations, sales promotion, personal sales, promotion.

Modern marketing requires not only the production of quality goods and the establishment of an acceptable and affordable price for target consumers. Companies should also pass information on to their customers, i.e., engage in promotion.

Promotion of a product is understood as a set of various activities aimed at bringing information about the merits of a product to potential consumers and stimulating their desire for it. The role of promotion is to establish communications with individuals, groups of people and organizations using direct (for example, advertising) and indirect (for example, store interior, bank) means in order to ensure the sale of the organization's goods.

The main components of a marketing communications system are advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and personal selling.

According to the American Marketing Association, advertising is "any" form of impersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods and services, paid for by a precisely established customer and serves to attract the attention of potential consumers to the advertised object, using the most effective techniques and methods, taking into account the specific situation. ...

Sales promotions are activities that are designed to increase sales in the short term and directly.

Sales promotion methods can be applied in three main areas: to stimulate the trade (intermediaries); to stimulate the employees of the company involved in sales; to stimulate buyers.

The methods of incentivizing intermediaries are: providing free consignments of goods; provision of special discounts; joint advertising; trade contests and awards; cash bonuses, gifts, additional vacations, contests; Free samples, premiums, price discounts, coupons, free trial and product verification. product presentation, money back guarantee, sale of goods on credit, use of packaging, contests and games.

Public Relations (PR) is any communication carried out with the aim of creating prestige and ensuring goodwill on the part of everyone on whom the success of the company depends: its own employees, clientele, authorities, the public, and the general population. PR is a broad term that refers to the overall image of a firm or the impression it produces. This is a systematically planned activity aimed at the opinion and attitude of persons of interest to the company, its stability and product marketing. The main task of all efforts in this area is to establish an atmosphere of trust and understanding.

Personal selling as one of the components of the marketing communications complex is designed to ensure the formation of favorable ideas about the product and induce potential buyers to buy it. It provides for direct (individual) contact of the manufacturer's representatives with the end consumer. At many stages of the buying process (especially at the stage of forming consumer preferences and beliefs), personal selling is the most effective means of influencing the consumer.

Test questions:

1. Describe the main elements of marketing communications.

2. What are the main means of advertising distribution?

3. What methods of stimulating consumers do you know?

Inspirational advertising gains special importance during the growth stage, when a firm is faced with the task of generating selective demand. This advertising gradually, consistently forms consumer preference, accompanying the perception of the image of the company and its products.

Currently, there is a wide variety of advertising media. The most acceptable for practical purposes of implementing the marketing concept may be the following classification:

Advertising activity can be carried out independently by the company or by order of advertising agencies. There are two main types of advertising agencies: advertising agencies full cycle and incomplete cycle. The activities of the agencies have certain specifics.

Topic 12. Marketing planning and control

1. Role, advantages, levels of development of marketing plans

2. Classification of marketing plans.

3. Methods and stages of marketing planning.

5. Marketing control.

The purpose of the lecture: to study and assimilate the role of marketing planning, types and types of plans, methods and stages of planning.

Key concepts: planning, forecasting, marketing budget, marketing control.

One of the main goals of marketing is to establish the greatest possible planning and proportionality in the activities of the company. The main task is to reduce the degree of uncertainty and risk in the activities of the enterprise and to ensure the concentration of resources on the selected strategic directions of the enterprise development. Achieving this goal is impossible without comprehensive and thoughtful planning.

Marketing plays an important role in shaping the development strategy of an enterprise, however, one should not forget about the analysis of the enterprise's own resources, its capabilities and shortcomings. In the current situation, enterprises practically do not have an analytical service that would be responsible for the regular self-analysis of the enterprise's activities.

The significantly changed external environment in connection with the transition of the republic to market relations demanded that domestic enterprises must use a flexible strategy. Therefore, those enterprises that were able to accommodate the changes and develop flexibility, have succeeded noticeably. Having overcome the complexity of the adaptation period and having identified the ability to develop in the context of a general economic downturn, they are currently pursuing a growth strategy. Thus, strategic planning makes it possible to successfully implement such promising areas of activity of management personnel as the development and application of new organizational structures, the adaptation of well-known management principles for the development of various strategies of market behavior.

Marketing planning objectives should be characterized by:

1. specificity and measurability;

2. reachability;

3. orientation in time;

4. selectivity;

5. participation of employees in their production.

In marketing practice, various

The "fixed percentage" method - deduction of a certain share from the previous or estimated sales volume;

The “match to competitors” method is built on the basis of taking into account the practice and level of marketing costs of competing enterprises, adjusted for the ratio of forces and market share;

Maximum spending method - constant increase in marketing costs;

The method of linking goals and objectives is the calculation of marketing costs, taking into account the constant revision of the goals.

None of the above methods are universal and perfect.

To achieve the goals of marketing and, therefore, the enterprise, marketing activities must be controlled in an effective way. There are three main :

2. Control of profitability.

3. Strategic control.

Changes in the macro- and microenvironment of the firm require changes in the firm's marketing objectives, strategy and implementation programs. This type of control is called strategic control. For this purpose, a marketing audit is used.

The purpose of a marketing audit is to clarify from a marketing standpoint to what extent an enterprise is effectively operating in the market. In the final part of the study, short and long-term recommendations for improving the marketing activities of the company are developed.

1. What are the basic principles of planning in marketing.

2. What influence on planning can have the factors of the external environment in which the enterprise operates?

3. Justify the importance of feedbacks in the marketing control system.

Topic 13. Strategic planning in marketing

1. The meaning and essence of strategic planning.

3. Models used to develop marketing strategies.

4. Stages of developing a strategic plan for the enterprise.

Strategic marketing planning is understood as the process of developing specific strategies that contribute to the achievement of the goals of the enterprise on the basis of maintaining strategic alignment between them, its potentials and chances in the field of marketing.

1. Conducting a situational analysis.

3. Definition of a marketing strategy.

4. Improving the implementation program.

5. Development of a marketing budget.

6. Exercise control.

changes.

To achieve the goals set, a marketing strategy is used, which is closely related to the overall strategy of the enterprise. Marketing strategy is a principled medium and long-term decisions that provide guidelines and direct individual marketing activities to achieve the set goals.

The main basic directions of the company's marketing strategy are:

Diversification strategy - mastering the production of new goods, as well as expanding its activities to completely new and not related to the main activities of the region;

The internationalization strategy is the development of new and foreign markets.

Within the framework of overall strategy more specific private strategies are being developed.

There are four main approaches to planning a marketing strategy: I. Ansoff's product / market opportunity matrix, the Boston Consulting Group matrix, the impact of market strategy on profit (PIMS) and Porter's overall strategic model. Within the framework of all these approaches, the organization evaluates and uses all its capabilities, products and areas of activity. Based on these assessments, the efforts and resources of the enterprise are allocated, and appropriate marketing strategies are developed.

Topic 14. International Marketing

2. The environment of international marketing.

3. Development of international marketing strategies.

4. International marketing mix.

Key concepts: international marketing, export, import, international trade, global marketing, branding.

Participation of the country, as well as enterprises and organizations in international market caused by various reasons, in particular, due to: the need to purchase goods that are not produced by domestic producers; strong competition in the domestic market and business opportunities abroad; availability of unused production facilities of domestic producers; the possibility of access to certain know-how abroad; instability of purchasing power and the exchange rate of the national currency; striving to conquer a new "niche" abroad.

The listed reasons may be the starting point for the appearance of motives that determine the purpose, the main tasks of international marketing:

Ensuring effective international activities;

Creation or expansion of a sales network;

Improving the reliability of business in the face of volatile exchange rates;

Stimulation, encouragement and promotion of foreign investment;

Reduced tax related costs.

Subtypes of international marketing.

Marketing national (internal);

International Marketing;

Marketing is global.

transportation, sales on the market, service, advertising.

In international trade, each commodity exporter faces the difficult task of rational formation of a product range. Goods for export should take into account the geographical, psychological, historical, social, economic positions of foreign buyers as much as possible. Each type of product included in a wide and varied mass of goods must be communicated to potential foreign buyers by information. In practice, a corresponding means of information about a product was formed - marking, that is, drawing on products, packaging, tags, conventional drawings, symbolic, digital, alphabetic signs.

The trademark has acquired particular importance in international trade, the main commercial purpose of which is to testify to the high quality of the offered product, to arouse the confidence of a foreign buyer. Through the trademark, the manufacturer seeks to gain a high reputation in the international market, showing high responsibility for the entire contract. For a foreign buyer, a trademark is a purchase motive, a kind of guarantee of product quality.

1. List the prerequisites for the emergence of international marketing.

2. Name the subtypes of international marketing.

3. What are the main forms of entering the international market.

Topic 15. Marketing of services and non-commercial activities

1. Concept, main characteristics, classification of services.

2. The specifics of developing a complex of marketing services.

3. Marketing in the field of non-profit activities.

4. Marketing of organizations, its elements.

The purpose of the lecture: to form a holistic understanding of the features of marketing services and non-commercial activities.

Key concepts: service marketing, service marketing mix, non-profit organization, marketing of non-profit organizations.

One of the directions of development of the modern economy over the past three decades is the rapidly expanding service sector. Experts argue that marketing adaptation in services requires the use of three more "Ps" of marketing: people (people), physical evidence (physical evidence), the way the service is offered (process).

Service marketing includes not only external and internal marketing, but also interactive marketing. Outside marketing determines the work of a company in preparing, pricing, distributing and offering services to consumers. Internal marketing defines the training and motivation of employees of the company, contributing to the improvement of the quality of customer service. Interactive marketing determines the ability of staff to serve a customer.

A service is any activity or benefit that one party offers to the other that is intangible and does not lead to the acquisition of anything. Services have four main qualities that distinguish them from goods: intangibility of services, inability to store services, inseparability of production from consumption, variability

for the development and composition of the marketing complex of services.

do not seek to obtain financial profits. However, marketing approaches are especially important for nonprofits.

The features of non-commercial marketing include the following:

Nonprofit marketing is associated with organizations, territories and ideas, as well as goods and services;

More complex marketing goals, since success or failure cannot be measured in purely financial terms;

The benefits of nonprofit marketing are often unrelated to consumer payments for services and products;

Non-profit organizations may be expected or required to serve economically disadvantaged market segments.

Nonprofit organizations usually have two categories of clients - consumers and those who finance the activities of such organizations - authorities or sponsors. The goals of non-commercial marketing should determine the number of clients who need to be served, the volume of services provided, their quality, as well as the amount of budgetary or sponsored funding.

Marketing organizations. It is not uncommon for organizations to engage in marketing to “sell” themselves. Organization marketing is activities undertaken with the aim of creating, maintaining or changing attitudes or behavior. target audiences in relation to specific organizations.

celebrity marketing and political candidate marketing.

Place marketing. People who are looking for new apartments or choosing vacation spots are familiar with the marketing of places. Place marketing is activities undertaken to create, maintain, or change attitudes and behaviors related to specific places.

Home marketing includes development and active offering of homes for sale or rent.

Marketing of investments in land property includes development, sale of land plots. Land traders in different countries are developing sophisticated marketing programs to interest potential investors in the proposed sites.

Vacation marketing aims to attract vacationers and tourists to resorts, specific cities, regions of the country. It is handled by travel agencies, airlines, hotels, government agencies. But in a number of places, on the contrary, they are trying to carry out demarketing.

character. This area is called community marketing.

Community marketing is the development, implementation and control of the implementation of programs, the purpose of which is to achieve the perception of a public idea. To achieve a proper response from the target group, they resort to market segmentation. They study consumers, develop programs and communications. They develop methods of facilitating assimilation and stimuli, use the methods of the theory of exchange.

Test questions:

1. What is included in the concept of "services", the qualitative differences between services and goods?

2. What signs of classification of services do you know?

There are more than a hundred different concepts of marketing, the most concise and complete of which are:

The concept of marketing is a type of human activity aimed at meeting needs and demands through exchange (F. Kotler).

Marketing is about anticipating, managing and meeting the demand for goods and services, organizations, people, territories and ideas through exchange (Evans and Berman).

The concept of marketing is a system of management, regulation and market research (IK Belyaevsky).

Marketing according to its broad understanding is a social and managerial process through which individuals and groups of people, through the creation of products and their exchange, get what they need (E.P. Golubkov).

Marketing is the process of planning and executing an idea, pricing, promoting and realizing ideas, goods and services through exchanges that serve the purpose of individuals and organizations (American Marketing Association (AMA)).

Marketing is to understand the client, see the goal, achieve it, always remembering that in the end the wallet should get fat (Sergey Vasiliev).

Marketing is simply a civilized form of warfare, where most battles are won with words, ideas and trained thinking (Albert W. Emery).

Marketing is a market philosophy, strategy and tactics of thinking and actions of subjects of market relations: not only manufacturers and intermediaries in commercial activities, but also consumers, as well as suppliers, practical economists, scientists, entire organizations, up to government bodies (A.P. Pankrukhin).

Mamrkemting (from the English marketing - sale, trade on the market) is an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, promoting and providing a product or service to customers and managing relationships with them with the benefit of the organization. In a broad sense, marketing tasks are to identify and meet human and social needs.

Many people mistakenly equate the concept of marketing with advertising and sales. It is explainable. With the transition to market relations, we are constantly literally strewed with television and street advertising, newspaper ads, mailing lists, etc. - they try to sell us something all the time.

Many people are surprised to learn that the most important element of marketing is not sales at all. Sales, according to F. Kotler, is only the tip of the marketing iceberg. Sales is one of many marketing functions, often not the most essential. This does not mean that sales and promotion efforts are losing their value. The point is that they become part of a larger marketing mix, i.e. a set of marketing tools that need to be harmoniously linked with each other in order to maximize the impact on the market. Marketing tasks include identifying consumer needs, developing suitable products and setting the appropriate price for them, establishing a system for their distribution and effective incentives. If the marketing service of an enterprise or a firm has done a good job, then there will be demand for goods. P. Drucker, a renowned marketing theorist, puts it this way: The goal of marketing is to make sales efforts unnecessary. Its goal is to get to know and understand the client so well that the product or service will exactly fit the client and sell itself. F. Kotler gives the following definition of marketing: Marketing is a type of human activity aimed at meeting needs and demands through exchange. Therefore, the functions of marketing are associated with the concepts: needs, requirements, requests, goods, exchange, transaction and market. Therefore, it will not be superfluous to remember the meaning of these concepts.

The premise underlying the marketing pyramid is the idea of ​​human needs.

Need- a feeling of a lack of something felt by a person. People's needs are diverse and complex. Here are the basic physiological needs for food, clothing, warmth and safety; and social needs for spiritual closeness, influence and affection; and personal needs for knowledge and self-expression. These needs are not created, but are the initial components of human nature. If the need is not met, the person feels deprived and unhappy. And the more this or that need means to him, the deeper he experiences. An unsatisfied person will do one of two things: either he will look for an object that can satisfy the need, or he will try to drown it out.

The second premise of marketing is the idea of ​​human needs.

Want- a need that has taken on a specific form in accordance with the cultural level and personality of the individual. A hungry resident of the tropics needs the fruits of tropical trees, a city dweller - a pie with meat, etc. Needs are expressed in objects capable of satisfying need in the way that is inherent in the cultural structure of a given society. With the progressive development of society, the needs of its members also grow. People are faced with more and more objects that arouse their curiosity, interest and desire. Manufacturers, for their part, take targeted actions to stimulate the desire to own goods. They try to form a connection between what they release and the needs of the people. The product is promoted as a means of satisfying one or a number of specific needs. The marketing agent does not create need, it already exists.

The needs of people are practically limitless, but the resources to satisfy them are limited. So that a person will choose those goods that will give him the greatest satisfaction within the framework of his financial capabilities.

Demand is a need supported by purchasing power. A person chooses a product, the combination of properties of which provides him with the greatest satisfaction for a given price, taking into account his specific needs and resources.

Human needs, wants and demands suggest the existence of goods to satisfy them.

Product (Product)- everything that can satisfy a need or need and is offered to the market in order to attract attention, purchase, use or consumption. All goods capable of satisfying this need are called assortment of choice. The more fully the product corresponds to the wishes of the consumer, the more success the manufacturer will achieve.

The moral is that manufacturers must find the customers to whom they want to sell, find out their needs, and then create a product that satisfies those needs as fully as possible. The concept of a commodity is not limited to physical objects. Anything that is capable of providing a service can be called a product, i.e. satisfy the need. In addition to products and services, these can include individuals, places, organizations, activities and ideas.

Marketing takes place when people decide to satisfy their needs and wants through an exchange.

Exchange (Exchange)- the act of receiving from someone the desired object with an offer of something in return. Of all the ways to satisfy needs, exchange has the greatest advantage. Under him, people do not have to encroach on the rights of others, do not have to depend on someone else's charity. They do not have to produce any basic necessities on their own, regardless of whether they know how to do it or not. You can focus on making things that they have mastered the production of, and then swap them out for the right items made by others. As a result, the total production of goods in society increases. Exchange is the main concept of marketing as a scientific discipline. But the exchange, its implementation, depends on the agreement between the parties on its terms. If an agreement is reached, we can conclude that as a result of the exchange, all its participants benefit (or at least do not suffer damage), since each of them was free to either reject or accept the offer.

Thus, in order to make a voluntary exchange, five conditions must be met:

• 1. There must be at least two sides.
• 2. Each party must have something of value to the other.
• 3. Each party must be completely free to accept or reject the other party's proposal.
• 4. Each party must be confident that it is appropriate or undesirable to deal with the other party.

These five conditions only create a potential exchange opportunity. And whether it will take place depends on the agreement between the parties on its terms.

If exchange is the main concept of marketing as a scientific discipline, then the main unit of measurement in the field of marketing is the transaction.

Transaction is a commercial exchange of values ​​between two parties. It presupposes the presence of at least two value-significant objects and the agreement of the conditions, time and place of its fulfillment.

As a rule, the terms of transactions are supported and protected by customs, traditions, legislation, the implementation of which is ensured by the relevant public institutions and state structures. If there are no customs and traditions necessary to maintain a certain type of transactions, then the market mechanism will not work in the sphere of these transactions. Legislation and the institutions that support it, government structures can form appropriate customs and traditions if they meet the needs of the participants in transactions.

A transaction should be distinguished from a transfer. Transfer is one of the forms of exchange and concerns gifts, subsidies, charitable events. The one who gives the gift is counting on one or another benefit (kindness to himself, getting rid of feelings of guilt, etc.) or wants to put the other party in a position of obligation. People and organizations accepting donor assistance should understand the reciprocity motives underlying donor behavior and strive to provide the benefits they seek for themselves. If the interests of donors are forgotten or do not show gratitude to them, then the assistance will soon be terminated.

The concept of a transaction is associated with the concept of a market.

Market is a collection of existing and potential buyers of the product. There are three different ways people can meet their needs. The first way is self-sufficiency, when everyone can independently get everything they need for themselves. The effectiveness of such activities is very low. The second way is a decentralized exchange, where each person views everyone else as potential buyers. It is very difficult and ineffective in terms of exchange. The third way is centralized exchange. A new face appears on the scene - a merchant. He is an intermediary between manufacturers and buyers. The manufacturer supplies specific goods, and the merchant exchanges them for whatever is needed. Thus, in order to acquire goods offered by others, the buyer deals with one merchant, and not with many individuals. The appearance of a merchant drastically reduces the total number of transactions required to carry out an exchange in some given volumes. The merchant and the centralized market increase the trade and operational efficiency of the economy.

As the number of persons and transactions increases, the number of merchants and markets increases. In a developed society, the market is not a specific place where buyers and sellers meet and transact. The transaction can be completed without entering into direct contact with the buyer. For example, a firm advertises a product on television, collects orders from customers by phone, and mails out the product. In the modern economy, markets are formed for various goods, services and other objects of value. For example, the labor market consists of people willing to offer their workforce in exchange for wages... To facilitate the functioning of the labor market, various intermediary organizations and employment consulting firms are emerging and multiplying around it. The money market is another important market that provides an opportunity to borrow, lend, save money and guarantee its preservation. With its help, resources are redistributed from less efficient operating enterprises and entrepreneurs to operate more efficiently.

The exchange process takes work. Anyone who wants to sell needs to look for buyers, identify their needs, create appropriate products, promote them to the market, store, transport, negotiate prices. Marketing activities are based on product research and development, communication, distribution, pricing, and service deployment.

Marketers distinguish two types of markets: the seller's market and the buyer's market. The seller's market is a market in which sellers have more power and where buyers have to be the most active market actors. This is a market for a shortage of goods and services, which is most typical for the command and control of the economy. A buyer's market is a market in which buyers have more power and where sellers have to be the most active market actors.

Market segment is a large, well-defined group of buyers within the market with similar needs and characteristics, in contrast to other groups in the target market.

Suppliers- subjects of the marketing system, whose function is to provide partner organizations and other companies with the necessary material resources.

Competitors- legal or individuals, competing, that is, acting as a rival in relation to other entrepreneurial structures or entrepreneurs at all stages of organizing and carrying out entrepreneurial activities.

Distributors- legal entities or individuals who help manufacturing organizations to promote, deliver to consumers and sell their products.

Consumers- legal entities, individual individuals or their potential groups that are ready to purchase goods or services on the market and have the right to choose a product, a seller, and present their conditions in the process of buying and selling.

Assortment, range- the composition of the products sold by the company by groups, types, types, grades, sizes and brands. It differs in breadth (number of product groups) and depth (number of models, types of brands in each group).

Brand- a sign, symbol, words or their combination that helps consumers to distinguish goods or services of one company from another. A brand is perceived as a well-known trade mark or a company that occupies a special place in the minds and psychology of consumer segments from the crowd of similar ones.

Competitive benefits- factors that determine the superiority of the company over competitors, measured economic performance such as: additional profit, higher profitability, market share, sales volume.

Macroenvironment- factors influencing the microenvironment of the company. These include: demographic, economic, natural, scientific and technical, political and cultural.

Microenvironment- factors closely related to the company and affecting its ability to serve target customers. It includes: the company itself, resellers, suppliers, competitors, target customers and contact audiences.

Marketing tasks stem from goals and represent a set of sequential actions that a firm must perform in order to achieve the intended results.

The main objectives of marketing:

• 1. Research, analysis and assessment of the needs of real and potential consumers of the firm's products in areas of interest to the firm.
• 2. Marketing support for the development of new products and services of the company.
• 3. Analysis, assessment and forecasting of the state and development of the markets in which the firm operates or will operate, including the study of competitors' activities.
• 4. Formation of the assortment policy of the company.
• 5. Development of the pricing policy of the company.
• 6. Participation in the formation of strategy and tactics of market behavior of the company, including the development of pricing policy.
• 7. Sales of products and services of the company.
• 8. Marketing communications.
• 9. Service maintenance.
• 10. Research of competitors' activities.

There are also tactical marketing objectives that change depending on various factors, such as demand. Demand can be: negative, absent, hidden, falling, irregular, full-fledged, excessive, irrational.

• 1. Negative demand is caused by a negative attitude of buyers towards a product or service. The challenge for marketing under these conditions is to analyze why the market is hostile to the product, and whether the marketing program can change the negative attitude to the product by reworking it, lowering prices and more active incentives.
• 2. Lack of demand. Target consumers may not be interested in the product or are indifferent to it. The challenge for marketing is to find ways to align the inherent benefits of a product with the natural needs and interests of a person.
• 3. Latent demand is when many consumers cannot satisfy their desires with the help of goods and services offered on the market (harmless cigarettes, more fuel-efficient cars). The task of marketing is to assess the size of the potential market and create efficient goods and services capable of meeting demand.
• 4. Falling demand. The task of marketing is to analyze the reasons for the decline in demand and determine whether it is possible to stimulate sales again by finding new target markets, changing the characteristics of the product, etc.
• 5. Irregular demand (fluctuations on a seasonal, daily and even hourly basis): - rush hours for transport, overloading museums on weekends. The challenge for marketing is to find ways to smooth out fluctuations in the distribution of demand over time through flexible prices, incentives, and other incentives.
• 6. Full demand. This demand usually occurs when the organization is satisfied with its trade turnover... The challenge for marketing is to maintain the current level of demand, despite changing consumer preferences and increasing competition.
• 7. Excessive demand is when the level of demand is higher than the ability to satisfy it. The task of marketing, referred to in this case as "demarketing", is to find ways to temporarily or permanently reduce demand, not eliminate it.
• 8. Irrational demand, i. E. demand for unhealthy goods and services; cigarettes, alcoholic beverages, drugs, etc. Marketing's job is to convince these hobbyists to give up such habits.

The main marketing functions are:

• 1. Analytical function.
• 2. Production function.
• 3. Sales function (sales function).
• 4. Function of management, communication and control.

The analytical function includes the following subfunctions: market, product, consumer research; analysis of the internal and external environment of the enterprise. The production function consists of the following subfunctions: organization of production of new goods and new technologies, organization of material and technical support of production, management of quality and competitiveness of finished products. The sales function is the organization of the sales and distribution system, the formation of demand and sales promotion and the organization of service. The function of management, communication and control is associated with the creation of organizational structures of management, planning, communication and organization of control.

The term "marketing" translated from English "market" (market) means activities in the field of market, sales. Historically, the elements of marketing originate in ancient times. Thus, the institution of heralds is the progenitor of modern mass media. Monasteries' fairs on holidays have evolved over time into modern fairs. international exhibitions... Brands left by artisans on clay pots are a primitive form of trademarks, brands of world-famous companies.

Marketing as a business philosophy dates back to 1650. The Japanese firm Mitsui opened a store that used marketing incentives. In the USA, already in 1902, marketing was read in leading universities. In 1926, the American Marketing Association was formed and still exists today. Marketing became more active in practice starting in the 1950s. Among foreign experts who have made the most significant contribution to the development of marketing as a science, the following authors can be distinguished - B. Berman, G. Bolt, M. Brun, A. Weissman, D. Gardner, D. Garrett, P. Drucker, E. Dinhel , F. Kotler, J. Lambin, T. Levitt, S. Marjaro, J. Evans.

In Russia, the concept of promoting and selling goods was not relevant until the transition to a market economy, since in the conditions of total shortage it was not necessary. Therefore, marketing in Russia begins in 1990. Previously, it concerned only foreign economic activity... In 1995, the Russian Marketing Association was founded (President A. Bravermann). In general, there are three stages in the development of marketing in Russia:

1. 
   Mid 70s - the appearance of publications of the first Russian marketers: G. Abramishvili, N. Gerchikova, A. Goryachev, B. Solviev, Y. Trusov. These works described the possibilities of using marketing mainly in foreign economic activity and were actively discussed at the meetings of the marketing section at the USSR Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
2. 
   Mid 80s - early 90s - the appearance of works by the Golubkovs, N. Moiseeva, A. Porshnev and others. They specialized mainly in general marketing problems of the external and emerging internal markets.
3. 
   Since the mid-90s - the appearance of works devoted to the development of individual domestic submarkets (commodity, financial, labor), as well as publications in the field of marketing of non-profit organizations and social marketing. (E. Utkin, N. Vasilieva, F. Novikov, etc.)

Currently, more than 2000 definitions of marketing have been put forward, each of which considers one or another side of marketing, or makes an attempt to characterize it comprehensively.

In a broad sense, marketing can be defined as the process of planning and managing the development of goods and services, pricing, promotion of goods to customers and sales, so that the variety of goods achieved in this way leads to the satisfaction of the needs of both individuals and organizations.

Philip Kotler (a well-known American marketer) gives a more concise definition of marketing, revealing its main purpose: "Marketing is a type of human activity aimed at satisfying needs and wants through exchange."

Summarizing various interpretations, you can define marketing as a combination of science, art effective work and intuitive foresight of the future course of events in the market.

Unfortunately, in Russia, the understanding of marketing at the theoretical and practical level is still reduced to the concept of operational marketing, that is, marketing is considered only as an integral part of applied economic theory and a management tool. Also, in practice, there is an identification of marketing with sales. Meanwhile, the task of marketing is to make sales efforts unnecessary, that is, to know and understand the client so well that the product or service fully satisfies it and sells itself.

Thus, the essence of marketing is as follows: you should only produce what, of course, will find a sale, and not try to impose on the buyer a product that is not previously agreed with the market.

1. 
   ^ Evolution of marketing concepts.

There are 6 main approaches to organizing marketing activities (table 1). They represent different periods in the history of marketing development:

1. 
   Production improvement concept (production) - 1860-1920 - claims that the prosperity of a company in the market is associated with low prices for its own goods, and therefore it must constantly improve production in order to reduce costs and maintain low prices. The use of this concept is advisable when the demand for a product exceeds supply and when the cost of the product is too high. The production concept was applied by Henry Ford and was widely used in the USSR during the monopolization of industries.
2. 
   Product improvement concept (commodity) - 1920-1930 - claims that the consumer prefers goods of only high quality and the company tries to produce such. Here it is important not to cross the line beyond which the improvement of your own product overshadows the actual needs of customers (for example, to improve flypaper, and a chemical aerosol will be the solution to the problem).
3. 
   The concept of intensifying commercial efforts (marketing) - 1930-1950 - claims that the buyer is most sensitive to the seller's sales efforts and incentives. It is used by firms that produce passive demand goods (gifts, insurance, photo services), as well as in those conditions when supply exceeds demand.
4. 
   Traditional Marketing Concept - 1950 - 1980 - claims that the main goal is to provide the desired customer satisfaction. That is, before starting production, firms study the needs of the market and only then begin to organize it. Firms profit by maximizing customer satisfaction.

Table 1. Evolution of marketing concepts.

№	Years	Concept	Leading idea	the main objective
1	1860-1920	Manufacturing vein	I produce what I can	Improving production, increasing sales, maximizing profits
2	1920-1930	Commodity	Production of quality goods	Improvement of consumer properties of goods
3	1930-1950	Sales	Development of a sales network, sales channels	Intensification of sales of goods through marketing efforts to promote and sell goods
4	1950-1980	Traditional marketing	I produce what the consumer needs	Meeting the needs and demands of target markets
5	1980-1995	Socio-ethical marketing	I produce what the consumer needs, taking into account the requirements of society	Meeting the needs and demands of target markets while conserving resources, protecting the environment
6	1995 to present	Interaction marketing	I produce what satisfies consumers and business partners	Meeting the needs of consumers, the interests of partners and the state in the process of their commercial and non-commercial interaction

1. 
   Social and Ethical Marketing Concept - 1980-1995 - claims that the manufacturer's task is to satisfy the buyer while maintaining and strengthening the well-being of society as a whole. This concept is generated by such alarming facts as environmental degradation, lack of natural resources and other negative consequences of the development of the world economy.
2. 
   The concept of interaction marketing - 1995-present - states that the main goal is to meet the needs of consumers, the interests of partners and the state in the process of their commercial and non-commercial interaction. Interaction Marketing - Reinforcement Product; a person acts as an important strategic resource.

1. 
   ^ Principles, goals, functions and marketing mix. Types of marketing based on demand.

Marketing principles are derived from the essence of marketing. There are many points of view regarding the number of principles to be distinguished. So, F. Kotler identifies three basic principles of marketing:

1. 
   Focus on achieving the final practical result of production and sales activities (increasing or maintaining market share, increasing sales and profits).
2. 
   The focus of the enterprise is not on the momentary, but on the long-term result of marketing work.
3. 
   Adjustment of goods and services to the requirements of potential buyers with a simultaneous impact on demand.

Other authors refer to the following principles as marketing principles:

• 
  produce only what the consumer needs;
• 
  to enter the market not with the supply of goods, but with the means of solving consumer problems;
• 
  organize production only after researching needs;
• 
  to concentrate efforts on achieving the final result;
• 
  apply the tactics and strategy of active adaptation of the production of goods to the requirements of the market;
• 
  remember the primacy of the market in relation to the plans of the company;

It is very important to clearly define the goals, since they are the guidelines for making key decisions by the management. A goal is a programmed result for the sake of which an enterprise's activities are carried out. Objectives must meet the following fundamental requirements:

• 
  building on a hierarchical basis (goal tree);
• 
  quantitative certainty;
• 
  achievability, that is, goals should not exceed opportunities;
• 
  orientation in time (long-term - 5 years, medium-term - from 1 year to 5 years, short-term - up to 1 year);
• 
  consistency to each other.

The goals of marketing as a market concept of enterprise management are a reflection of the long-term and short-term goals of the firm.

The ultimate goal of marketing was clearly formulated by the famous American scientist P. Drucker: "The goal of marketing is to know and understand the buyer so well that the product or service suits him and sells by itself."

Marketing goals are very diverse, but in general they can be classified into two groups:

1. 
   economic (quantitative) - which are formed through certain digital indicators of activity and through percentages. This can be profit maximization in the long run; increase in sales; increase in market share, etc.
2. 
   social (quality) - these include care for the protection of the environment; ensuring employment of the population; creating a product for low-income consumers; creation of an environmentally friendly product, etc.

The clearer goals are set in terms of quantity, quality and time, the clearer they become and the more useful they will be. All goals should be aimed at achieving a fuller satisfaction of human needs with the rational use of all available resources and ensuring harmony with the environment.

Marketing functions are interrelated and mutually supportive actions and measures in the marketing system that allow for the management of commodity exchange processes.

The marketing system operates continuously and therefore the marketing functions are cyclical (renewable and repeatable). Marketing functions can be classified as follows:

1. 
   General functions:

• 
  planning;
• 
  organization;
• 
  coordination;
• 
  accounting and control.

1. 
   Specific functions:

• 
  analytical function - the study of the market, the consumer, participants in market relations, the commodity structure of the market, analysis of the internal environment;
• 
  market segmentation;
• 
  selection of the target market;
• 
  analysis of the production and distribution capabilities of the organization (identification of the strengths and weaknesses organizations);
• 
  development of a marketing strategy and program;
• 
  development of a product policy;
• 
  development of pricing policy;
• 
  sales policy development;
• 
  development of a communication policy.

A marketing mix is ​​a set of controllable marketing variables that a firm uses to reach a target market. These are the following elements:

• 
  commodity, commodity policy;
• 
  price, pricing policy;
• 
  distribution of goods (sales, sales);
• 
  product promotion (sales promotion, the use of marketing communications).

Depending on the nature and state of demand, various types of marketing are used (Table 2).
Table 2. Types of marketing depending on demand.

P / p No.	The nature of the market demand	The purpose of marketing and its tools	Marketing type
1	Negative demand is when the majority of potential buyers in a given market reject a product, regardless of its quality (some types of clothing are out of fashion; employers have alcoholics, former prisoners).	Change the attitude towards the product by improving it, adjusting the price and promoting more efficiently.	Conversion
2	Emerging (latent) demand - many consumers experience latent needs that cannot be met with the products and services available on the market (harmless cigarettes, safe neighborhoods, more fuel efficient cars).	Assess the volume of potential demand and offer the market the desired product	Developing
3	Falling demand - for any product, sooner or later, demand begins to fall	Review the entire system of the marketing mix, identify the weak link and revive it.	Remarketing
4	Fluctuating (irregular) demand - public transport, museum visitors (weekdays and weekends).	Synchronization of supply and demand through the introduction of flexible prices and appropriate incentive methods	Synchro marketing
5	Full demand - demand matches supply	Maintaining the achieved level of demand due to the maximum inclusion of all four components of the marketing mix	Support howling
6	Excessive demand - demand significantly exceeds supply	Finding ways to temporarily or permanently reduce demand to block unwanted events (customer backlash and speculation)	Demarketing
7	Irrational demand - for goods that are harmful to human health and the well-being of society (alcoholic beverages, tobacco products, drugs, firearms, some medicines).	Convince consumers to abandon the use of harmful goods and services (or reduce it) through a sharp increase in prices, limited availability, anti-advertising	Opposing
8	Lack of demand - consumers are not interested in the product or are indifferent to it. This can happen if a product is unknown in terms of its consumer properties, if consumers consider the goods to have completely lost their consumer value.	Activation of measures of socio-psychological impact on the consumer through a noticeable reduction in prices and advertising	Stimulating

1. 
   ^ Marketing environment of the organization.

The marketing environment of a firm is a set of active actors and forces operating outside the firm and influencing the ability of the marketing management to establish and maintain successful cooperation relationships with target customers. The marketing environment is composed of a micro and macro environment.

The microenvironment is the forces that are directly related to the firm itself and its business opportunities.

Macroenvironment is the forces that affect the microenvironment of the firm (Fig. 1)

Microenvironmental factors include:

1. 
   Firm itself - When developing marketing plans, marketing managers should consider the interests of other groups within the firm itself, such as senior management, financial service, design team, logistics service, production and accounting. It is important to form the optimal structure of the enterprise, to establish effective and rational cooperation between individual departments, which should have a marketing orientation.
2. 
   Suppliers are business firms and individuals who provide materials and resources to the firm and its competitors.
3. 
   Marketing intermediaries are firms that help a company promote, market, and distribute its products. These include the following 4 groups:

• 
  resellers - provide the firm with the convenience of place, time and procedures for the sale of goods;
• 
  firms-specialists in the organization of commodity circulation - help to create stocks, quickly promote them from the place of production to the place of consumption;
• 
  marketing service agencies - marketing research firms, advertising agencies, consulting firms;
• 
  financial institutions - banks, credit and insurance companies.

1. 
   Clientele - There are 5 types of clientele markets:

• 
  consumer market (consumer market) - individuals who purchase goods for personal consumption;
• 
  producer market (market for industrial goods) - organizations that purchase goods and services for use in the production process;
• 
  reseller market - organizations that purchase goods and services for their subsequent resale at a profit for themselves;
• 
  market of government institutions - state organizations purchasing goods and services for subsequent use in the field utilities, or to transfer these goods and services to those who need them;
• 
  international market - all the above-mentioned markets abroad.

1. 
   Competitors - Their complex multi-stage influence in marketing is considered at four levels:

• 
  needs (desires) - competitors - human needs compete, for example, clothes, shoes, vehicles (preference);
• 
  generic competitors - generic vehicles compete, for example, car, motorcycle, bicycle (preference);
• 
  product-specific competitors - types of bicycles compete, for example, road, racing, folding (preference);
• 
  competing brands - brands of folding bicycles compete, for example, “Aist”, “Salut”, “Tair” (preference).

1. 
   Contact audiences are any formal or informal audience that takes an interest in the firm's activities and influences its ability to achieve its goals. Contact audiences can either assist or counteract the marketing efforts of the firm. They are subdivided into the following groups:

• 
  supporters - sympathize with the company and support it in all endeavors (investors, sponsors);
• 
  sought-after - the firm needs their interest, seeks benevolent interest, but does not always find it (mass media);
• 
  undesirable - oppose the firm, the firm tries not to attract their attention (the clientele of competitors, various groups of social influence).

Any firm operates surrounded by contact audiences of seven types:

1. 
   financial circles (banks, investment companies, stock exchanges, shareholders);
2. 
   Mass media (newspapers, magazines, radio stations, television);
3. 
   government agencies (the company's management must take into account everything that happens in public sphere, respond to the problems of product safety, truth in advertising, etc.);
4. 
   civic action groups (consumer organizations, environmental societies, representatives of national minorities, etc.);
5. 
   local contact audiences (local residents) - company representatives should regularly hold meetings with the population and take part in solving pressing problems, for example, annually allocate a certain amount for the development of the area where the company is located;
6. 
   the general public (informal groups that influence the spontaneous formation of public opinion about the activities of the company);
7. 
   internal contact audiences (workers and employees of the enterprise).

Macro environment factors include the following:

1. 
   demographic environment - the market consists of consumers and therefore their demographic characteristics affect the activities of any company (age-related changes, migration processes, educational level, etc.);
2. 
   economic environment - in addition to the people themselves, purchasing power is also important for the markets. The general level of purchasing power depends on the level of current income, prices, savings and availability of credit;
3. 
   natural and ecological environment - marketers should take into account the following trends - an increase in the deficit of all raw materials, which means their rise in price and the need to replace; rising energy prices; increased pollution of the environment, which stimulates the development of the market for waste disposal and product cleaning products; environmental protection;
4. 
   cultural environment - in every society, people adhere to certain views and values, the main ones of which have a high degree of stability. The cultural environment influences the purchasing behavior of the population and the marketing responses of manufacturers;
5. 
   technical and technological environment - sooner or later, old technology is replaced by more progressive ones. Each firm must keep a close eye on major scientific and technological trends, among which the increasing speed at which technological change is taking place is of particular importance;
6. 
   political and legal environment - these factors determine the role, strength and focus of the state in the field of business, and therefore marketing; can stimulate or block the development of entrepreneurial structures through a legislative or regulatory framework.